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Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Australian Aboriginal Peoples. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Aboriginal

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). History of Australia. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/History

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1. Transcription using the IPA symbols
2. Introduction (Infographic of speakers)
3. History of English
- Australia
- New Zealand
4. Phonemic variation
5. Lexical variation
6. Grammar / Syntactic variation
7. Reflection & Conclusion
8. References

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New Zealand was first discovered by the Polynesian explorers in the 10th century. Thus, their first ever language developed into Māori.

In 1642, the Dutch, under Abel Tasman were the first to reach the islands and their arrival was the reason the name New Zealand exist.

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The first contact of English language started from the visit of Captain James Cook and his crew in 1769 to claim the area for the British Crown.

With early immigrants from from a variety of nations, English was not the only language used in New Zealand. The majority of the early settlers, however, spoke English. The Treaty of Waitangi, agreed in 1840, established British colonial administration and allowed for more organized migration directly from the United Kingdom, which rose rapidly in the years following. Hence, by 1842, there were 10,000, then by the mid-19th century, there were greater English speakers in New Zealand than Maori speakers.

Because of colonization, immigration, trade, and culture, New Zealand English has long been associated to British English. The new regional context and social traits, however, have transformed New Zealand English caused by social, historical, and cultural restrictions.

Another source of impact was Maori English, the language that was used by the Polynesian settlers. It was created when the first immigrants arrived in New Zealand and were unable to name certain objects using terms from their native tongue. Before the introduction of the Europeans, the Maori language was used.

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- Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples inhabited the majority of the Australian continent for at least 50,000 years.
- Each group spoke one or more of hundreds of distinct languages while their lifestyles and cultural customs varied depending on where they lived.

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Boissoneault, L. (2018, August 24). Captain Cook’s 1768 Voyage to the South Pacific Included a Secret Mission. Smithsonian Magazine; Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/captain-cooks-1768-voyage-south-pacific-included-secret-mission-180970119/

YAN Hong-cai, & SONG Yin-qiu. (2019). On the Lexical Features of New Zealand English. Journal of Literature and Art Studies, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5836/2019.04.005

Download Limit Exceeded. (n.d.). Citeseerx.ist.psu.edu. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.694.9411&rep=rep1&type=pdf

New Zealand Origins. (2022). Ualberta.ca. https://sites.ualberta.ca/~johnnewm/NZEnglish/origins.html

Bauer, L. (1994). ENGLISH IN NEW ZEALAND. The Cambridge History of the English Language, 382–429. https://doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521264785.009

Ostermeyer, J. (2015). The Development of New Zealand English. In Grin.com. https://www.grin.com/document/54414

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Lexical Variation discusses about the distinctions of words that speaker from different varieties use for common items or concepts without changing the definitions of words or ideas.

It refers to word differences, such as how language is used in various areas and by different socioeconomic groupings.

All languages evolve over time and differ based on region and social context.

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Preserved vocabulary and idiomatic expressions

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Preserved vocabulary and idiomatic expressions

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Jumbuck: sheep.

Fair Dinkum: verifying the accuracy of a sentence.

Dog's breakfast: a complete mess.

Face, off one's: intoxicated.

Liquid laugh: puke

Good oil: good idea

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New Zealanders' slang phrases and their meanings

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New Zealanders' slang phrases and their meanings

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Chilly bin: cooler/esky

Togs: swimsuit

Buggered/knackered: really exhausted

Tramping: hiking

Jumper: sweater/pull over

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Different words that have the same definition

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Different words that have the same definition

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In linguistics, the definition of a phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one word (or one element) from another.

Another definition is that a phoneme is a distinct sound in a language and it also has a specific function in the English language.

In total, there are about 44 phonemes in the English language that also cover consonants, long or short vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs.

But as a phoneme may have more than one variant, then it will be called an allophone, which holds the role of a single sound.

Phonemes are based on either spoken language or recorded with special symbols, such as those in the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).

Meanwhile, the definition of phonemic is related to the phoneme and can also refer to or denotes speech sounds that belong to different phonemes rather than being allophonic variants of the same phoneme.

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The speaker is a female and she is 26 years old.

She was born in Brisbane, Australia; makes her native language is English and of course the English learning method that she uses is naturalistic.

As her English residence is in Australia this means that the length of her English residence is 26 years.

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Please call Stella. Ask her to bring these things with her from the store: Six spoons of fresh snow peas, five thick slabs of blue cheese, and maybe a snack for her brother Bob. We also need a small plastic snake and a big toy frog for the kids. She can scoop these…

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The speaker is a male and he was born in Wellington, New Zealand.

He is 44 years old and his native language is English but he also speaks other languages such as Hebrew and French.

Even though his English residence is in New Zealand, the length of his English residence is only 21 years but his learning method of the language is still naturalistic which is the same as the previous speaker.

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english41 Elicitation Paragraph:

Please call Stella. Ask her to bring these things with her from the store: Six spoons of fresh snow peas, five thick slabs of blue cheese, and maybe a snack for her brother Bob. We also need a small plastic snake and a big toy frog for the kids. She can scoop these things into three red bags, and we will go meet her Wednesday at the train station.

Key:
blue = potential areas for this generalization
red = actual areas for this generalization

Phonetic Transcription:

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english41 Elicitation Paragraph: Please call Stella. Ask her to bring these things with her from the store: Six spoons of fresh snow peas, five thick slabs of blue cheese, and maybe a snack for her brother Bob. We also need a small plastic snake and a big toy frog for the kids.

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Please call Stella. Ask her to bring these things with her from the store: Six spoons of fresh snow peas, five thick slabs of blue cheese, and maybe a snack for her brother Bob. We also need a small plastic snake and a big toy frog for the kids. She can scoop these things into three red bags, and we will go meet her Wednesday at the train station.

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1. A typical word formation pattern in Australia, with –o inserted to the shorter form.

Example:

Ambo: an ambulance driver

Gyno: gynaecologist

Salvo: salvation army officer

Dermo: dermatologist

Arvo: afternoon

2. -ie (or -y) suffix is incorporated into the word construction pattern to serve as an informal marker.

Example:

Bikie: a member of a motorcyclist gang

Sunnies: sunglasses

Billy: a cylindrical vessel for boiling water

Cossie: a swimming suit

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The New Zealand language is a blend of English, Maori terms and phrases, Australian slang, and a few other words.

The Maori language has five vowel sounds: 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', and 'u'. 'h', 'k', 'm', 'n', 'p', 'r', 't', and 'w' are the eight consonants in Maori that are similar to those in English. The consonants 'wh' and 'ng' are also different. The 'wh' sound is pronounced similarly to our 'f' by many Maori. The 'ng' sound is comparable to our own 'ng' sound in words like 'sing', except that words in Maori can begin with 'ng'.

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Kia Ora (key-or-a): Hello

Haere Mai (high-reh-my): welcome.

Haere Ra (high-reh-rah): goodbye

Whanau (far-no): Family

Mana: Respect

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Both Australian and New Zealand Englishes have non-rhotic accents, which are also similar to other Southern Hemisphere accents, such as South African English. For explanation, non-rhotic accents are indicated by dropping the [r] sounds with words that end with "R." But recent research suggests that in the song-writers' and hip-hop musicians’ music, there is evidence found of the non-pre-vocalic /r/ (Coddington 2004; Gibson forthcoming). However, in their speech, there is less evidence of the non-pre-vocalic /r/ (Coddington 2004).

As can be seen from both transcriptions (Australia and New Zealand), the word for her, is dropping the /ɹ/ making the word sound like /hɜ/ instead of /hɜɹ/. Both speakers are dropping the /ɹ/ because, in their accent, they are more familiar with pronouncing it without the [r] even if the R is included in the spelling.

The next words are for and brother. In the same situation as the above, both speakers are dropping the /ɹ/ sound, making it pronounced as /fɘ/ and /bɹʌðə/.

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The th-fronting involves the pronunciation of the dental fricatives /θ, ð/ as labiodental fricatives /f. v/. Elizabeth Wood (2003) stated that recently the th-fronting in New Zealand English is slowly developing. But during the early writing in New Zealand, there were no alternative pronunciations of the word th, which was originally pronounced as /θ, ð/. Turner (1966) stated that the substitution of [f] for [θ] cannot be found in Australia or New Zealand but is instead present in Cockney speech.

Based on the IPA transcriptions, words like these, thick, and three are all pronounced at the beginning of the word with either /θ/ or /ð/. This shows that both speakers are leaning on and naturally speak with dental fricatives in their casual speech. But as this recorded audio cannot listen to how they usually talk in their daily lives as there is a script for it, we cannot identify whether any of them are going back and forth between the dental fricatives /θ, ð/ and labiodental fricatives /f, v/. Apparently, there are no specific reasons why they could possibly go back and forth between these two fricatives, as it can naturally happen without realizing it.

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For the background definition, Lexico Dictionaries (2016) defines it as a letter used in Old English to represent a vowel intermediate between a and e, and from the 16th century onwards, used in Latin or Latinized Greek words, to represent an original diphthong ae or ai. For most Australians, they use /æ/ as in words like plant, branch, sample, and chance. But unlike in South Australia, there are some that use /aː/ for the previous words list because it has a different timeline and kind of settlement than the rest of the country.

Referring to the IPA transcriptions, the words for slabs, snacks, and, and plastic are all using the same vowel, which is /æ/ that makes it sound more natural for them to pronounce. So instead of pronouncing it with /aː/, which it is pronounced a little longer compared to /æ/, this may sound unnatural and forced to them.

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The systematic study of a language is known as grammar. It can be viewed as a set of rules and examples concerned with the syntax and word structures of a language, which are typically intended to aid in the learning of that language.

Grammatical variation in linguistics refers to changes in grammatical usage among speakers of a given language. In other words, even if two people are discussing the same subject, they may use different grammatical structures.

This shows how all languages develop throughout time and differ depending on the area and social group.

By comparing how English is spoken in different places and across different social groups, we can find the differences in the structure of phrases or sentences.

For instance, we can notice the distinction by using past-tense forms of the verb "to be." Some speakers in the United Kingdom use 'was' throughout, while others use 'were' solely.

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Duignan, B. (2009, February 10). phoneme. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/phoneme

Holmes, J. (2021, October 6). What is phonemic variation? Cement Answers. https://cementanswers.com/what-is-phonemic-variation/

Australian/New Zealand English. (n.d.). Present Day English Wiki. Retrieved May 11, 2022, from https://helpresentdayenglish.fandom.com/wiki/Australian/New_Zealand_English

Eriksson, M. (2018, November 12). What Are The Differences Between An Aussie And Kiwi Accent? Babbel Magazine. https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/new-zealand-vs-australian-accent#:~:text=Although%20Australians%20and%20Kiwis%20might,prominent%20with%20%5Bu%5D%20sounds.

Wikipedia Contributors. (2021, October 12). Variation in Australian English. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variation_in_Australian_English#Phonology

Wikipedia Contributors. (2022, April 26). New Zealand English phonology. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology

Starks, D., & Reffell, H. (2005, April 22). Pronouncing your Rs in New Zealand English? A Study of Pasifika and Maori Students 1. https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/publications/nzej-backissues/2005-donna-starks-and-hayley-reffell.pdf

Duncan. (2022, February 9). Th-fronting. Teflpedia.com. https://teflpedia.com/Th-fronting

Wood, E. (2003). TH-fronting: the Substitution of f/v for θ/ð in New Zealand English. https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/Publications/nzej-backissues/2003-elizabeth-wood.pdf

Æ | Meaning & Definition for UK English. (2016). Lexico Dictionaries | English. https://www.lexico.com/definition/%C3%A6

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Variation in Native Englishes For use with Chapter. (2015). Slidetodoc.com. https://slidetodoc.com/variation-in-native-englishes-for-use-with-chapter/

Meanings and origins of Australian words and idioms. (2013). School of Literature, Languages and Linguistics. https://slll.cass.anu.edu.au/centres/andc/meanings-origins/c

Babbel.com, & Lesson Nine GmbH. (2017). 21 Essential Australian Expressions. Babbel Magazine. https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/21-essential-australian-expressions

Edu, L. (2020, November 26). 10 Common Phrases Used in New Zealand - Leverage Edu. Leverage Edu; Leverage Edu. https://leverageedu.com/blog/common-phrases-used-in-new-zealand/

50 Australian Slang Words, Terms and Phrases [Aussie Slang]. (2020, April 15). Language Learning with Preply Blog. https://preply.com/en/blog/50-popular-australian-slang-words-and-phrases/

New. (2022). Learn New Zealand slang on your kiwi holiday tour. Discovernewzealand.com. https://www.discovernewzealand.com/blog/new-zealand-slang-id-305

Tales from Nomads. (2017, September 17). New Zealand language, Maori Words, NZ Slang & Phrases. Nomads - Discover Different. https://nomadsworld.com/new-zealand-language/

Australian/New Zealand English. (2022). Present Day English Wiki. https://helpresentdayenglish.fandom.com/wiki/Australian/New_Zealand_English
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A negation is a grammatical construction that contradicts or negates all or part of a sentence's meaning.

This varies in New Zealand English as it does in Australian English. For example, in the statement 'He don't want to come to the party,' the speaker used don't instead of doesn't.

It is not a standard form of English, according to Hundt et al (2004), who commented on this variant with examples of "ain't" in New Zealand English usage.

Double negation can be seen in both New Zealand and Australian English. For instance, in common speech, 'You never said anything about that.'

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An interrogative is a word that asks a question that cannot be answered simply with yes or no.

This variation is commonly used in Australian English when interlocutors pose yes-no questions with increasing intonation. 'You're gonna be home soon, aren't you?'

Despite the tag's similar structure but different intonation in Scottish and Canadian English, the usage of eh (/e/) as a tag is popular in New Zealand and is sometimes thought to come from the use of Maori ne. For example, "It was cloudy this morning, eh?"

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Modal Verbs | MUST CAN WOULD SHOULD MIGHT WILL COULD SHALL MAY

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When used according to the general standards, the modal verbs shall and will can be considered modal verbs.

The modal verb usually expresses a wish or resolution to perform an action. 'Will you carry my books?' for example. whilst shall is occasionally used in the second and third person to indicate a command, promise, or threat 'You shall go,' for example.

Both Australian and New Zealand English are extremely similar in that they avoid using will and instead use shall in their sentences. for example "Will I call the driver?"

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Nordquist, R. (2020, January 7). What is sentence negation in English? ThoughtCo. Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://www.thoughtco.com/sentence-negation-1691949

Home. Gramaren.ru. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://gramaren.ru/grammar/mv/the-modal-verbs-shall-will-and-would

Some grammatical features of New Zealand English1. (n.d.). Retrieved May 11, 2022, from https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/publications/nzej-backissues/2007-laurie-bauer.pdf

Nordquist, R. (2019, August 16). What are interrogative words in English? ThoughtCo. Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://www.thoughtco.com/interrogative-words-term-1691182

Testagorda, M. (2012, July 12). New Zealand English. SlideShare a Scribd company. Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://www.slideshare.net/mctestagorda/new-zealand-english-13618215

Newmanenglishlang (2012, June 10). Australian English. SlideShare a Scribd company. Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://www.slideshare.net/newmanenglishlang/australian-english-13265579

"NEW ZEALAND ENGLISH" Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. . Retrieved April 25, 2022 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/new-zealand-english

"AUSTRALASIAN ENGLISH ." Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. . Encyclopedia.com. 26 Apr. 2022 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.

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Australian English is not entirely native to the land

Today, Australia is considered made up of descendants of settlers from other parts of the world

Australia and the United Kingdom are interlinked nations

When the British colonization started in 1788, there are various people brought to Australia by the ships including around 700-800 convicts.

They were sent to Australia simply because of the growing amount of prisoners in Britain.

In the 18th century, people did not travel that much due to economic backgrounds, and communicating became quite a challenge

They managed to communicate through dialect leveling which various distinct variations of languages strip away the features that make them distinct.

The pronunciation of the words would be said differently in a way that fits all the dialects or accents.

This process really helps people who speak language with different dialects or accents.

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Where Did The Australian Accent Come From?

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Nayli Zulaikha binti Nazri
2021475096

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Written Reflection (NAYLI ZULAIKHA 2021475096)

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Zawanah binti Zakaria
2021603192

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INDIVIDUAL REFLECTION (ZAWANAH BT ZAKARIA)

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Nik Nur Nilam Sufiah binti Abdullah
2021846752

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EIC 453- Assessment 1 e-Portfolio_ Individual reflection (Nik Nur Nilam Sufiah Abdullah)