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In 1821, Mexico won independence from Spain. The new country included the areas we now know as Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. The Mexican government encouraged people to emigrate to these areas and settle. American settlers moved to these territories bringing their culture and laws with them. Many of the new settlers refused to follow Mexico's laws. This led to great unrest. The settlers continued to rebel. The president of Mexico, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna sent the army to enforce the law. The army was brutal in its efforts at Goliad and the Alamo, killing all of the men stationed at the San Antonio Mission. "Remember the Alamo!" became the battle cry during the remainder of the fight for independence. In 1836 Texas declared it's independence from Mexico. Mexico refused to acknowledge the Republic of Texas as free and independent. As Texas tried to establish a government, fighting continued on the border with Mexico. After 10 years of conflict, Texas requested to become part of the United States.

The decision to annex Texas, or add territory to a country, was met with great controversy in the U.S. Texas wanted to be a state that legalized slavery, but many Americans opposed the institution. Nevertheless, Texas was admitted to the country as the 28th state in 1845. When Texas became a state, the spark of war was lit. President Santa Anna of Mexico claimed Texas was still part of Mexico and the US had no right to annex it. In early 1846 US President James K. Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to occupy the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande to defend Americans in Texas and invade Mexico if necessary. ON April 25, 1846, the armies of the US and Mexico stood face to face across the Rio Grande. Fighting erupted between the Mexican and American forces and war was officially declared against Mexico on May 13, 1846. This was the first time Americans had an army on foreign soil. It was also the first time the US had a professionally trained army. US troops were sent to California and New Mexico to defeat Mexican forces stationed there and gain control of the territories. After securing important towns in California and New Mexico, American troops marched to Mexico and captured Mexico's capital city on September 14, 1847. The Mexican-American war officially ended the next day.

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1810 - 1821 The Mexican War of Independence

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1810 - 1821 The Mexican War of Independence

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California Under Mexican Rule

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1833- Mexican Government passed a law secularizing the missions of California

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1833- Mexican Government passed a law secularizing the missions of California

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The goals of the mission system was not to make money. They wanted to support and convert the local populations of Native Americans. During the transition from the Spanish government to Mexican independence, the mission lands were taken away from the church. This process of secularization placed the lands in the hands of wealthy private citizens. Just a few families gained control of large swaths of land. These families, known as Californios had a different goal. Rather than religious conversion they wanted their lands to make them as much money as possible. Their large ranches, known as ranchos became home to large cattle herds. The goal of these ranchos was to generate money from the production of goods. These goods came from the cattle themselves, such as their meat, hides and tallow. Tallow is made by melting down the animal's fat. It was used to make goods like candles and soaps. The cowboys who herded the cattle were known as "vaqueros in Mexican California.

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1821-1824 Californios obtain land grants and ranchos/rancherias

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1821-1824 Californios obtain land grants and ranchos/rancherias

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In an effort to populate California, the new Mexican government gave out land grants. Land grants are plots of land given to people for them to live and work on. Following the secularization of the mission system the intention was to give land grants to Native Americans families. These land grants were called Ranchos. Despite these land grants, Native Americans rarely received the land they were supposed to. Instead hundreds of large land grants were given to wealthy Spanish families or Californios. The Native Americans were forced to work for little to no pay under harsh conditions. Some Native Americans managed to claim the land grants promised to them and established villages called Rancherias. These land grants represented the return of ancestral lands to the people who had lived there for generations.

Life on a California rancho was similar to life on a mission. The Californios lived as masters of the rancho using the Native Americans as free labor.

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1820- Peralta Family granted 40,0000 acres of East Bay.

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1820- Peralta Family granted 40,0000 acres of East Bay.

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The Peralta Family was on of the wealthy California families that received a large land grant following secularization of the missions. Luis Peralta helped to establish the Village of San Jose. He also helped to establish the Mission Santa Clara and the San Francisco Presidio. He served as the comisionado which is like a governor of San Jose until Mexico gained it's independence from Spain. In exchange for his service, Peralta was given 40,000 acres of land in 1820. Their large grant included what is now known as Oakland, Piedmont, Berkeley and San Leandro. Like other Californios the Peralta family focused on trading hides and tallow. Their location along the water gave them a great advantage in moving and selling those products. They also benefited from the labor of Native Americans. The Peraltas would not have been able to successfully run such a large rancho without them.

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The rancho economy centered around the raising and herding of cattle. The cattle hides and tallow made from animal fat were primary products. More hides and tallow were produced than the people of California could possibly use. To make as much money as possible, the owners of the ranchos, the Californios, needed to find other places to sell their products. During Spanish rule, California was expected to only produce goods for Spain. The mission system provided food and goods for soldiers and citizens in California. When Mexico gained it's independence and control over California, it opened the territory for international trade. This allowed the Californios to focus the activity of the ranchos on one type of economy. The hide and tallow economy produced materials that were used in production around the globe. Most of the hides produced in California made their way to the Eastern United States. There workers turned the leather into a variety of products such as belts, saddles and shoes. Boston was one of the main destinations for California hides. To supply international markets with enough hides and make a profit, Californios forced Native Americans to work for little to no pay. Providing their workers with little more than food and a roof over their heads made the hide and tallow trade a profitable business.

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How Did the Rise of the Rancho Economy Impact the Native Americans of California?

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How Did the Rise of the Rancho Economy Impact the Native Americans of California?

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Under the Mission system, Native Americans suffered harsh working conditions. They faced severe punishment for not conforming to Catho9lic and European traditions. Forced to abandon their hunter gatherer lifestyle, the Native Americans became farmers and ranchers. Some fled the missions. Others became accustomed to the new way of life. After secularization of the missions, the rancho economy became the main source of income in California. Native Americans that worked on the ranchos endured many of the same hardships that they did on the missions. They were usually blocked from owning land by a lack of understanding of how to secure land grants. Rather than money, the Californios provided the Native Americans with only food and shelter. Many Spanish speaking Native Americans worked as vaqueros. They herded cattle and made hides and tallow from cattle after they were slaughtered. Women usually contributed to the rancho economy by cooking and sewing. As the rancho economy developed, Native Americans in California began to combine their traditions with European culture and religion. Some maintained their culture through language. They also practiced traditional skills like pottery. Many adopted the clothing of the Mexican settlers and spoke Spanish. They replaced their hunter gatherer traditions with the farmer and herder lifestyle.

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1833-Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo becomes director of colonization in northern California.

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1833-Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo becomes director of colonization in northern California.

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Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo came from one of the earliest Spanish families in California. His father worked alongside Junipero Serra. He ensured that irrigation projects were completed to support early settlement of the area. His education and connections allowed Vallejo to move up the ranks. Proving his leadership and military abilities Vallejo was appointed the military leader of the San Francisco Presidio. When secularization of the mission system occured, he was sent to Mission San Francisco Solano as comisionado. Here his job was to oversee the transition ofthe mission from church ownership to government and private ownership. In 1833 Vallejo became the director of colonization in northern California. He was the sole individual allowed to award land grants in northern California. Vallejo was imprisoned during the Bear Flag Revolt and help prisoner for two months, later being released. He later returned to work in government and remained in California as it became a territory of the United States.

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The constitution defined Mexico as the United States of Mexico. It defined the boundaries of each state had a government with 3 branches like ours: executive, legislative and judicial

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In the early 1800's, reaching California was a difficult task. The journey was dangerous and often took many months to complete. Many explorers made the overland journey to explore the vast wilderness of California and make a better life for themselves and their families.

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 1826 Jedidiah Smith leads expedition west of the Great Salt Lake

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 1826 Jedidiah Smith leads expedition west of the Great Salt Lake

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Jedidiah Smith was a mountain man, trapper, and explorer. He traveled to California hoping to find an easy route to an area he believed to be rich in beaver pelts and other furs. In August 1826 he led 17 men on a journey to explore the region south and west of the Great Salt Lake. Smith and his men traveled the entire length of Utah, along the Virgin River until it joined the Colorado River, and then south through the Mojave Desert. When the group arrived at Mission San Gabriel, near Los Angeles, the explorers became the first Americans to come to California by an overland route. The Mexican officials thought Smith was a spy from the United States so they ordered him to leave. On his way back, Smith traveled through the San Joaquin Valley, where he and his group gathered more than 1,500 beaver pelts before crossing the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Later, Smith returned to California. This time he traveled far up the coast into present day Oregon and Washington, opening the way for other Americans to follow the same route.

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James Beckwourth was an ambitious explorer who headed West to become a mountain man, trapper, explorer and trader. He was born into slavery in Virginia in 1798. As a child, Beckwourth moved with his father to St. Louis, Missouri, and was granted his freedom. He attended school and became a blacksmith's apprentice. In 1822, Beckwourth left his apprenticeship and traveled west on a fur trapping expedition led by explorer William Henry Ashley. Beckwourth traveled throughout the Rocky Mountains for many years as a fur trapper. For a time, he lived among the Crow Native American tribe and claimed he was chosen as on of their chiefs. Later, he explored the Sierra Nevada Mountains and discovered a pass that made crossing them much safer. The crossing called Beckwourth Pass is located north of Reno, Nevada, and was used by many American settlers on their way to California. He also helped raise money to build a road through the pass to make it easier to reach some of California's richest mining areas.

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By the age of 26 Carson had already explored and traveled throughout the American Southwest. For this reason, he was hired by John Fremont as an exploration guide for his journey westward to Oregon and California. Carson guided Fremont so he could map and survey the West. Many of Fremont's reports from their travels describe Carson as an Old West hero.

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1842 John C. Fremont sets off on journey to survey the Oregon Territory and the Mountains of California

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1842 John C. Fremont sets off on journey to survey the Oregon Territory and the Mountains of California

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John C. Fremont was one of the most famous explorers and mapmakers of his time. As a young man, Fremont became a surveyor ( someone who measures and marks the land) for the Army. He explored and mapped routes through the Appalachian Mountains, trails in Georgia, and the land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Fremont hoped to explore further west and he was presented his chance in 1842. Because of the highly accurate and detailed maps he made, Fremont was nicknamed " The Pathfinder." Fremont's descriptions were written to make those living in the east want to settle in the new and unexplored areas of the west. Fremont's descriptions of the land brought many American settlers west to claim land.

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1846- Donner Party starts their journey west

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1846- Donner Party starts their journey west

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in 1846, a group of 87 settlers, led by George Donner, got into terrible trouble on their way to California. The group tried to take a shortcut from the trail, but instead of saing time, the Donner Party added it, throwing off their travel schedule. When they finally reached the Sierra Nevada, it was October, and snow had already blocked their path. The Donner Party was stuck for the winter at what is not Donner Lake. Heavy snow made it impossible for them to hunt, and their food supply ran out. In December, several men set out on foot to find help. Finally a rescue party from Sutter's Fort reached Donner Lake, where the group had been trapped in the snow for almost six month. Only 48 people survived the ordeal. The Donner Party's experience discouraged some people from coming to California, but the number of settlers traveling to California from the United States continued to grow.

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1841 Nancy Kelsey joins Bidwell Party and ends up being first white woman to get to California by taking an overland trail.

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1841 Nancy Kelsey joins Bidwell Party and ends up being first white woman to get to California by taking an overland trail.

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Nancy Kelsey had just turned 18 when she started a journey that took her places no white woman had been before. In 1841 Kelsey joined the Bidwell Party with her husband and their two year old daughter. She was also expecting another child. The party stayed together until they reached Idaho. Once they arrived, many of the families changed their minds about their destination. Instead of California, they chose to go to Oregon. Kelsey was the only woman in the group of 34 men who continued to California. They had nothing but a few hand drawn maps and some advice from people who hadn't even explored the territory. The trip was hard, with ever changing weather, with short supply of food and water. She had to carry her two year old the whole way. She was able to overcome these challenges and became the first known woman to cross the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the first white woman to get to California by taking an overland trail. The entire trip took them 7 months.

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Fort Ross - Russian Settlement in California Virtual Fieldtrip

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Fort Ross - Russian Settlement in California Virtual Fieldtrip

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The Pacific Coast of North America was seen as a prime location for fur hunting. Russian explorers sailed along with coast in the 1700s and 1800s in the hopes of settling the area and tapping into it's rich resources. Vitus Bering led an expedition to North America. Bering was a seasoned explorer and had led many expeditions to the Artic before. Bering claimed Alaska and all of the land south along the Pacific Ocean for Russia. Russian leaders encouraged their people to go east to America to fish, hunt whales, and become fur trappers. Russian trappers had wiped out the furry mammals in their home country. By 1799, The Russian-American Company was created to try to control the fur trad in the Pacific Northwest. After some conflict with the native Tlingit and Inuit populations the Russian-American company moved south to northern California. There they established Fort Ross, north of San Francisco in 1812. Fort Ross became a thriving Russian settlement for about 30 years. Russian settlers, native Alaskans, Californians, and people of multiple ethnicities lived side by side at Fort Ross. The settlement was the site of California's first windmills, shipbuilding docks, and Russian orthodox church. Fort Ross was also a center for fur trading and agricultural production. Eventually the number of marine mammals around Fort Ross became depleted and this began the decline of Fort Ross. It was later sold to John Sutter.

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Fort Ross (Russian settlement) in California

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In 1834, John Sutter immigrated to America from Switzerland. He settled in California in 1839. In exchange for a land grant, Sutter agreed to become a Mexican citizen. He was granted 49,000 acres in the Central Valley and was permitted to build a settlement along the Sacramento River. He called his new community Helvetia otherwise known as Sutter's Fort. Sutter's Fort was the first settlement in the Central Valley that wasn't established aby Native Americans. Sutter build a fort, a bakery, blacksmith and carpenter shops and 24 homes. He also established a large plantation. The settlement and fort became an important trading post for explorers and settlers traveling through California. It was also a haven for immigrants coming to California. Sutter welcomed and encouraged Americans to settle in the area. This led to conflict between himself and the Mexican government. By 1847 the population of Sutter's Fort and the surrounding area totaled approximately 21,837 people.

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President of Mexico during the Mexican-American War

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General Zachary Taylor was sent by US President James K. Polk to occupy the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande.

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On June 1oth, 1846, a group of American immigrants who lived north of San Francisco stole a band of horses from Mexican troops. They did this to precent the soldiers from driving the Americans out of California. This was the first strike of the Bear Flag Revolt. Four days later, William Ide and Ezekiel Merritt rounded up a group of about 30 American rebels and headed for Sonoma. The goal was to capture the local Mexican military authority, General Mariano Vallejo, and declare independence from Mexico. In the pre-dawn hours of June 14, 1846, the 30 rebels surrounded Vallejo's house. Vallejo was met with the mob of rebels and was taken prisoner. This began the Bear Flag Revolt. The Americans told Vallejo they were determined to declare war against Mexico and were claiming California as their own. The rebels in Sonoma were unaware that that the United States had already declared war on Mexico. Once the news reached Sonoma the bear flag was replaced by the American flag and the rebels joined the other US troops in the fight to make California part of the United States.

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Flag from the Bear Flag Revolt  the Inspiration for California's State Flag.  

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Flag from the Bear Flag Revolt  the Inspiration for California's State Flag.  

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A treaty is a formal document that creates an agreement between two nations. Representatives of the government are authorized to create a treaty. The goal of a treaty is to end conflict and prevent further conflict. Negotiations, or discussions designed to end a conflict and bring about peace began in late 1847. Representatives of the United States and Mexico met on February 2, 1848, in Mexico City. They signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to end the conflict between the two nations. The treaty stipulated that in exchange for peace, Mexico surrendered the territory that included what is now New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas and Western Colorado. It was required in the treaty that the US pay $15 million to Mexico. The US also had to pay about $3 million in claims from US citizens. Because of the treaty, California officially became a territory fo the the United States. Many Americans saw the treaty as finally allowing the United States to achieve Manifest Destiny. This was a hope and belief that the United States should extend all the way to the Pacific. Mexico suffered a terrible loss as nearly half its territory went to the United States.

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The world changed dramatically during the 18th and 19th centuries. Explorers continued to claim and settle land in the Americas for the major European powers. Many British colonies in North America gained independence from England and formed the United States of America. Rivalry between the countries in Europe created an opportunity for the United States to to double in size. In the sale of the Louisiana Territory in North America funded France's most recent war in Great Britain. In 1803 Thomas Jefferson purchased 828,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River for $15 million. For around 4 cents an acre, the US doubled it's size. expanding the nation westward.

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Between 1800 to 1850 many things were happening around the world that encouraged immigrants to leave their homes ad settle in North America. These events are known as push-pull factors. A push factor could be considered forceful, or negative. Usually a push factor is when a person's way of life is in danger. The danger could be because of war, persecution, famine, or any other factor that endangers the welfare of a person or a family. A pull factor could be considered an attraction or draw to a place. Leaving a location would then be considered a positive. A pull factor could be the availability of land, new jobs, a better climate, fewer natural disasters, and other things.

Countries in Europe were experiencing continual wars. People living in the path of armies had push factors to emigrate to America. The pull factor was not living in a war zone. In Great Britain , people were being pushed off their rented land. Often, landlords found they they could make more money by using the land for animals. In some cases, the landlord paid for the tenants to emigrate. Some tenants emigrated to Australia. Some emigrated to America. In Ireland, there was a famine when the potato crops failed. Millions of Irish people were pushed by starvation to emigrate to different parts of the world. The resources available in America pulled them to the United States.

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In 1848, Sutter sent James W. Marshall, a carpenter employed by him into the mountains to find a suitable location to build a sawmill. Marshall chose a site and the building of the mill began. The mill never became successful in turning out lumber, however. While the mill was being built, Marshall made a discovery that changed the world.