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Chap 1: Green
Chap 2: Blue
Chap 3: Orange
Chap 4: Purple
Chap 5: Red

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Principle:

A theory that is generally accepted by an overwhelming number of scientists; is also called a law.
Theory:

An explanation of a specific aspect of the natural world that has been widely supported by scientific studies and experimentation.

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Characteristics of life-
1. All living things are composed of the same chemical elements as non-living things (Atoms).
2. They obey the same physical and chemical laws that govern everything in the universe.

-Living things must reproduce to maintain a population.
Reproduce-> pass on genes.
Genes are composed of DNA
-Living things need to adapt.
Adaption- modification makes organisms better able to function.
-Diversity of life exists because, over long periods of time, organisms respond to changing environments by developing.
Evolution- change in the population of organisms over time to become more suited to the environment.

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Living: Biotic
Non-living: Abiotic
* A virus is abiotic as it cannot live without a host.

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-Organization
-Use of energy
-Internal consistency
-Reproduction and development (extinction)
-Evolution

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Levels of organization:
-Atom
-Molecule
-Organelle
-Cell (where life begins)
-Tissue
-Organ
-Organism
-Population
-Community
-Ecosystem (community+abiotic)
-Biosphere
*Species is NOT a level of organization.

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Life requires materials and energy.
-Energy is required to maintain organization.

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Metabolism- Chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
*Makes energy and materials cells and organisms need to grow and reproduce.
*Helps get rid of toxic substances.

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Photosynthesis- Converts solar energy into the chemical energy of carbohydrates.

-Plants and algae capture to perform photosynthesis.

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Ecosystems- Characterized by chemical cycling.

-Chemicals are NOT used up when organisms die.

Chemicals->Producers->Consumers->Decomposers.

*Requires constant input of solar energy

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*Living things maintain homeostasis.
Homeostasis- Maintenance of internal conditions within certain boundaries.

Living organisms have to maintain a state of biological balance.

-Feedback systems (neg&pos) monitor internal conditions and make adjustments.

*Living things respond to stimuli.
(Ability to respond produces movement)

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Evolution of life:
-Explains the diversity and unity of life.
-All living things descend from common ancestors (with modification).

*Evolutionary tree of life:
-Bacteria
-Archaea
-Eukarya---- Protists
Plants
Animals
Fungi

Evolutionary mechanisms proposed by Charles Darwin.
-Favorable traits
*Mutations fuel natural selection.
Ex: Deer likes to eat leaves without spikes. Leaves with spikes will continue to reproduce and leaves without spikes will continue to decrease.

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Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

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Archaea:
-Old
-Basic
-Unicellular and live in extreme environments.
-Can absorb or chemosynthesis food.
-Unique chemical characteristics.
*Lack membrane-bound organelle including membrane.
Bacteria:
-Largest domain
-Small
-Single-celled
-Live almost everywhere
-Adapts to all environments
-Has the ability to absorb, photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis food
-Unique chemical characteristics
*Unicellular prokaryotes that lack membrane-bound organelle including nucleus.
Eukarya:
-Has membrane-bound nucleus and organelles
-Advanced
-Unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.

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1. Protists
2. Kingdom plantae
3. Kingdom fungi
4. Kingdom animalia

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-Two-part name
First word: Capitalize.
Second word: Lower case
*Both words are italicized.
(If handwritten: underline)

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Scientific Method:
Unbiased to go through the process of understanding the world.
1. Observation
2. Hypothesis- stating a possible answer (educated guess)
*Variable- factor must be subject to a controlled experiment.
3. Experiment- Controlled.
*Determine the validity of the hypothesis.
*Involves analysis of 2 groups:
1. Control
2. Experimental
*Independent variable: Does not depend on another variable. (the cause)
*Dependent variable: Value depends on changes in the independent variable. (the effect)

Data:
- Table and graphs (any display)
- Analyze statistics
- Measure of variation
- Statistical significance

Conclusion:
- The hypothesis is supported (or not) and can be reported. Other researchers can duplicate the experiment and confirm the findings.

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Qualitative: Subject to personal opinions and cannot be verified.
Examples- "That tree is large", "That tree is ugly"
Quantitative: Testable statement.
Example- "That tree is 10 feet tall", "That boulder is 102 pounds"

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Matter: anything that has mass and takes up space.
*Solid, gas and liquid

Elements: substances that cannot be broken down.
*CHNOPS: the 4 most common elements in living organisms-
-Carbon
-Hydrogen
-Oxygen
-Nitrogen
-Phosphorus
-Sulfur
(Makes up 95% of the body weight of organisms)
*Elements 1-92 (except for 43 and 61) naturally occur on Earth

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Atoms: the smallest part of an element that displays the property of the element.
-Composed of protons, electrons, and neutrons.
-Has a central nucleus.
Protons: + charged
Neutrons: no charge
Electrons: - charged

*All atoms are neutral on the periodic table.

Every atom has its own atomic number:
-Number of protons in its nucleus.
Every atom has its own mass number:
-The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

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-Accounts for the unique properties of atoms.
-Number of electrons is the same as the number of protons in the atom.
-Atomic number tells you not only the number of protons but also the number of electrons.

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-The sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
-Protons and neutrons are assigned one atomic mass unit.

*To find the number of neutrons: the difference between the mass number and the atomic number.
Example:
Sulfur-
Mass number: 32
Atomic number: 16
Number of neutrons: 16

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-Atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons.
Example: the element Carbon has 3 naturally occurring isotopes. (pictured)

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-Formed when 2 or more of the same type of atoms bond.
-Is the smallest component of a compound that retains the chemical properties of the compound.

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-A molecule containing atoms of at least two different elements.

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-Held together by an attraction between negatively and positively charged ions.
-Requires an electron to be donated.

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-Two atoms share electrons allowing each atom to have a completed outer shell.
Example:
H2: H-H
"Handshake- it requires two hands."

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-Nonpolar covalent bond: the sharing between two atoms is equal.
-Polar covalent bond: electrons are not shared equally.

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-The attraction of a slightly positive hydrogen to a slightly negative atom in the vicinity.

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-Solvent
-Molecules attracted to water: Hydrophilic
-Molecules that repel water: Hydrophobic
-Cohesion: allows water molecules to cling together.
-Adhesion: allows water to cling to surfaces.

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-Carbohydrates
-Lipids
-Proteins
-Nucleic acids
(Collectively called biomolecules)
*Contain both carbon and hydrogen atoms and exists in living organisms.

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-Can form covalent bonds with as many as 4 other elements.
-Generally, forms covalent bonds with other atoms of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Example: Octane (pictured)

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-Organic molecules that have identical molecular formulas but different arrangements of atoms.

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-Polymers: carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
-Monomers: polymers linking together a large number of the same type of subunit

Lipids do not form polymers, because they contain two different types of subunits (glycerol and fatty acids).

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Many biomolecules are macromolecules (they contain smaller subunits joined together) such as Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

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The iodine test can help to distinguish starch from monosaccharides, disaccharides, and other polysaccharides.
Benedict's can test for the presence of simple carbohydrates.
A biuret reagent is used for checking the presence of peptide bonds.

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Class of organic compounds that typically contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio; includes monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides- Consists of only a single sugar molecule and are commonly known as simple sugars.
Disaccharides- Contains 2 monosaccharides that have joined after a dehydration reaction.
Polysaccharides- (Energy-storage molecules) are long polymers of monosaccharides.

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Six-carbon monosaccharide; used as an energy source during cellular respiration and as a monomer of the structural polysaccharides.

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Class of organic compounds that tend to be soluble in nonpolar solvents; includes fats and oils.

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Molecule that forms the bilayer of the cell’s membranes; has a polar, hydrophilic head bonded to two nonpolar, hydrophobic tails.

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Neutral fat composed of glycerol and three fatty acids; typically involved in energy storage.

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Three-carbon carbohydrate with three hydroxyl groups attached; a component of fats and oils.

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Type of lipid molecule having a complex of four carbon rings (e.g., cholesterol, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone).

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Polymer of amino acids; often consisting of one or more polypeptides and having a complex three-dimensional shape.
Some functions of protein in animals:
-Metabolism
-Support
-Transport
-Defense
-Regulation
-Motion

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Proteins may have up to 4 levels of structural organization:
-Primary
-Secondary
-Tertiary
-Quaternary

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Contains the sugar deoxyribose, phosphate, and nitrogen-containing bases. it is the genetic material that stores information for its own replication and specifies the order in which amino acids are sequenced in proteins.

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Linear polymers of nucleotides.
Single-stranded contains the sugar ribose and phosphate.
Has the same bases as DNA except that uracil takes the place of thymine.

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Stores energy to do cellular work.

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One of the major theories of biology, which states that all organisms are made up of cells, cells are capable of self-reproduction, and come only from preexisting cells.

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-Lacks membrane-bound organelles including the nucleus
-Includes bacteria and archaeans
-Smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells
-DNA stored in cytoplasm
-Unicellular

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-Much larger than prokaryotic cells
-Contain organelles that increase cell efficiency
-Contain a variety of transport vesicles that move around the cell using the proteins of the cytoskeleton

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Can be bacillus(rod-shaped), coccus (circular), spirillum(spirals), or spirochete (rigid spiral) depending on their shape.

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Includes a plasma membrane, cell wall, and an outer glycocalyx (capsule).
Plasma membrane: Membrane surrounding the cytoplasm that consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; functions to regulate the entrance and exit of molecules from the cell.

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Contains ribosomes, plasmids, and a region called the nucleoid.
Nucleoid: Where DNA may be found.

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Includes the flagella, fimbriae, and conjugation pili.

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-Eukaryotic cells
-Surrounded by a nuclear envelope containing nuclear pores
Nuclear pores: Regulate transport between the cytoplasm and the nucleoplasm.
-Contains chromatin that organize into chromosomes
Genes on the chromosomes contain specific instructions for traits.

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Organelles that function in protein synthesis.
*In order to make a protein, mRNA is copied exactly from the DNA, processed, and exits the nucleus through a nuclear pore.

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Consists of:
-Endoplasmic reticulum: Makes lipids that are carried by vesicles to different locations
-Golgi apparatus: Modifieds, sorts, and repackages proteins, and processes lipids
-Lysosomes: Produced by the golgi apparatus and contain digestive enzymes that are involved in breaking down macromolecules
-Transport vesicles: Carries lipids

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The large central vacuole in plant cells functions in storage and in the breakdown of molecules and cell parts.

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Chloroplast: Captures energy of the sun and conducts photosynthesis
Stroma: Region within a chloroplast that surrounds the grana; contains enzymes involved in the synthesis of carbohydrates during the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis.
Thylakoids: Flattened sac within a granum of a chloroplast; membrane contains chlorophyll; the location where the light reactions of photosynthesis occur.
Grana: Stack of chlorophyll-containing thylakoids in a chloroplast.

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Provides cell shape, movement, and internal support.
Actin filament: Component of the cytoskeleton; plays a role in the movement of the cell and its organelles; a protein filament in a sarcomere of a muscle, its movement shortens the sarcomere, yielding muscle contraction.
Intermediate filaments: Ropelike assemblies of fibrous polypeptides in the cytoskeleton that provide support and strength to cells; so-called because they are intermediate in size between actin filaments and microtubules.
Microtubules: Small, cylindrical organelle composed of tubulin protein around an empty central core; present in the cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and flagella.
Centrioles: Cell structure, existing in pairs, that occurs in the centrosome and may help organize a mitotic spindle for chromosome movement during animal cell division.

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Cilia: Short, hairlike projections from the plasma membrane, occurring usually in large numbers.
Flagella: Long, slender extension used for locomotion by some bacteria, protozoans, and sperm.

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Fluid-mosaic model: Describes the interactions of components of the plasma membrane.
Lipid bilayer: Phospholipids are arranged with the hydrophilic (love water) *polar* heads adjacent to water and their hydrophobic (hates water) *nonpolar* tails buried in the interior.
Glycolipids: Lipid in plasma membranes that contains an attached carbohydrate chain; assembled in the Golgi apparatus.
Glycoproteins: Protein in plasma membranes that has an attached carbohydrate chain; assembled in the Golgi apparatus.

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Channel proteins: Forms a channel through the membrane to move molecules.
Carrier proteins: Interact with a target molecule, causing a change in shape, which allows movement of the molecule through the membrane.
Cell recognition proteins: Glycoproteins are involved in cellular identification.
Receptor proteins: Detect specific molecules in the environment and invoke a cellular response.
Enzymatic proteins: Carry out metabolic reactions within the plasma membrane.
Junction proteins: Forms connections between cells.

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The plasma membrane of a cell is selectively permeable and isolates the cell from the external environment. In doing so, the membrane establishes a concentration gradient for each type of molecule.
Movement:
-Active
-Passive: Diffusion (higher to lower concentration)
In a solution, the solute diffuses within the solvent until it is evenly distributed.
*No metabolic energy is required for diffusion to occur*

Diffusion across water is called osmosis.

-Bulk transport

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The measure of the relative solute concentration.
Isotonic solution: neither gain or lose water.
Hypotonic solution: Gain water.
*Hemolysis- red blood cells swell
*Turgor pressure- plant cells swell
Hypertonic solution: Lose water.
*Crenation- red blood cells shrivel
*Plasmolysis- plant cells shrivel

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A carrier protein acts as a pump that causes a substance to move against its concentration gradient.
Ex:
Sodium-potassium pump: Carries Na+ to the outside of the cell and K+ to the inside of the cell.
*Energy in the form of ATP molecules is required for active transport to occur.

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Larger substances can enter and exit a cell by exocytosis and endocytosis.
Exocytosis: substances exiting a cell
*Process in which an intracellular vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane so that the vesicle’s contents are released outside the cell.
Endocytosis: substances entering a cell
*Process by which substances are moved into the cell from the environment; includes phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Three methods of endocytosis:
1. Phagocytosis: The substance being transported into the cell is large
2. Pinocytosis: When a macromolecule, such as a peptide, is transported into the cell
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis: A form of pinocytosis. Molecules first bind to specific receptor proteins, which migrate to or are already in a coated pit. the coated vesicle that forms contain the molecules and their receptors.