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Poaching is the illegal trafficking and killing of wildlife. Sometimes animal or plant parts are sold as trophies or "folk medicines" and sometimes they are sold as pets or houseplants. With more tigers kept captive than living wild, the scope of poaching can not be overstated. Maintaining Earth's biodiversity is critical as we rely on it for ecosystem services, which makes life possible. To have any hope of achieving this, poaching must be stopped.

Subjects

Conservation, Experiential Learning, Geography, Social Studies, Economics, Storytelling

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Poaching is the illegal trafficking and killing of wildlife. Sometimes animal or plant parts are sold as trophies or "folk medicines" and sometimes they are sold as pets or houseplants. With more tigers kept captive than living wild, the scope of poaching can not be overstated.

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Hunter-gatherer culture was the way of life for early humans until around 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. The lifestyle of hunter-gatherers was based on hunting animals and foraging for food.

Subjects

Anthropology, Social Studies, World History

Image

Hunting for Game

The Hadza people of Tanzania rely on hunting wild game for meat, a task that requires great skill in tracking, teamwork, and accuracy with a bow and arrow.

Photograph by Matthieu Paley

Hunter-gatherer culture is a type of subsistence lifestyle that relies on hunting and fishing animals and foraging for wild vegetation and other nutrients like honey, for food. Until approximately 12,000 years ago, all humans practiced hunting-gathering.

Anthropologists have discovered evidence for the practice of hunter-gatherer culture by modern humans ( Homo sapiens) and their distant ancestors dating as far back as two million years. Before the emergence of hunter-gatherer cultures, earlier groups relied on the practice of scavenging animal remains that predators left behind.

Because hunter-gatherers did not rely on agriculture, they used mobility as a survival strategy. Indeed, the hunter-gatherer lifestyle required access to large areas of land, between seven and 500 square miles, to find the food they needed to survive. This made establishing long-term settlements impractical, and most hunter-gatherers were nomadic. Hunter-gatherer groups tended to range in size from an extended family to a larger band of no more than about 100 people.

With the beginnings of the Neolithic Revolution about 12,000 years ago, when agricultural practices were first developed, some groups abandoned hunter-gatherer practices to establish permanent settlements that could provide for much larger populations. However, many hunter-gatherer behaviors persisted until modern times. As recently as 1500 C.E., there were still hunter-gatherers in parts of Europe and throughout the Americas. Over the last 500 years, the population of hunter-gatherers has declined dramatically. Today very few exist, with the Hadza people of Tanzania being one of the last groups to live in this tradition.

Media Credits

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Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Author

National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society

Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society

Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

other

Last Updated

October 19, 2023

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Hunter-gatherer culture was the way of life for early humans until around 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. The lifestyle of hunter-gatherers was based on hunting animals and foraging for food.

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Hunter-gatherer cultures forage or hunt food from their environment. Often nomadic, this was the only way of life for humans until about 12,000 years ago when archaeologic studies show evidence of the emergence of agriculture. Human lifestyles began to change as groups formed permanent settlements a…

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hunting, sport that involves the seeking, pursuing, and killing of wild animals and birds, called game and game birds, primarily in modern times with firearms but also with bow and arrow. In Great Britain and western Europe, hunting is the term employed for the taking of wild animals with the aid of hounds that hunt by scent, whereas the sport of taking small game and game birds with a gun is known as shooting. In the United States and elsewhere, the term hunting is used for both hunting and shooting. In fox hunting, the kill is made by the hounds. See also falconry.

Origins

To early humans, hunting was a necessity. The quarry provided not only food from the meat but also clothing from the skins, as well as material for tools from the bones, horns, and hooves. Both archaeological evidence from the past and observation of simpler societies of the present show widespread preoccupation with, and ingenuity in, methods of hunting. These varied, and vary, with the nature of the terrain, the animal hunted, the ingenuity and inventiveness of the hunters, and the materials and technologies at their disposal. Weapons ranged upward in intricacy and effectiveness from sticks and stones used to kill birds and small game to specially shaped clubs and throwing sticks such as the African knobkerry, the trombash of the Upper Nile, and the Australian boomerang; to spears ranging from simple pointed sticks to those with a separate foreshaft, usually barbed, and armed with heads of sharpened stone, bone, or metal. Except in Australia, bows and arrows were universal among early hunters and were revived by modern hunters in the 19th century. The blowpipe, or blowgun, with its poisoned darts, is one of the hunter's deadliest weapons.

Camouflages and disguises were used to conceal the early hunter, who also used nooses, traps, snares, pits, decoys, baits, and poisons. Dogs were probably trained to hunt as early as Neolithic times and came to be bred for specialized skills. The horse was adapted to the hunt in the 2nd millennium bce.

The development of agriculture made hunting less a sole means of support, but it was still pursued to protect crops, flocks, or herds as well as for food. The hunter's continual training with the implements and in tracking and stalking had a social value in maintaining group activity, earning prestige, and preserving tradition.

Ancient history

Early hunting for sport was for rulers and their nobles, those having the most leisure and wealth. In ancient Egypt the huntsmen constituted a social class; they hunted on their own as well as attending at the hunting of nobles. There was hunting in open deserts on both sides of the Nile valley, and sometimes animals were driven into enclosed preserves to be hunted there. Animals hunted included gazelle, antelope (oryx), stag, wild ox, Barbary sheep, and hare; the ostrich for its plumes; and fox, jackal, wolf, hyena, and leopard for their pelts or as enemies of the farmer. The hunters used the net, noose, arrow, and dart. The lion was occasionally trained to hunt. Later hunters occasionally rode in a chariot or on horseback.

The Assyrians and Babylonians also were partial to the chase, as is shown by the hunting scenes depicted on the walls of their temples and palaces. Ashurbanipal, the Hunting King, in the 7th century bce had himself immortalized in a bas-relief with the accompanying boast: "I killed the lion." A 5th-century silver dish showed the Sāsānian king Kavadh I galloping at full tilt after wild sheep. Hawks and falcons were used in hunting by Assyrians before 700 bce, and falconry was widely known in India and China at an early date. Biblical references show that game was plentiful, much sought after, and duly appreciated by the Israelites.

Hunting began early among the ancient Greeks. Xenophon's Kynēgetikos ("On Hunting") in the 4th century bce was based on his own experience in hunting the hare but also describes boar and stag hunting. Lions, leopards, lynx, panthers, and bears are also mentioned, the last being taken in pitfalls or speared by mounted horsemen. The Romans viewed hunting with less favour as a sport for gentlemen and left it to inferiors and professionals.

Later history

The Franks and other Teutonic peoples were fond of falconry and the chase, and in later centuries both the laity and the clergy were warned by provincial councils against spending so much time and money on hounds, hawks, and falcons. Originally, among the northern nations all could hunt except slaves, who were forbidden to bear arms. The idea of game preservation arose in feudal times when the right to hunt became attached to the ownership of land. Because of their hereditary claim to the title Lord High Masters of the Chase for the Holy Roman Empire, the electors of Saxony enjoyed exceptional opportunities to hunt. Elector John George II of Saxony (reigned 1656-80) shot an astonishing total of 42,649 red deer. He refused the crown of Bohemia not for political reasons but because Bohemian stags were smaller than Saxon ones. To protect his stags, he fenced the boundary between Saxony and Bohemia. An early landgrave of Hesse had a codicil added to the Lord's Prayer: "Give us this day our daily hart in the pride of grease," i.e., a fattened stag. In 11th-century England, Edward the Confessor delighted in riding after stag hounds, as did many of his successors. In 18th-century France Louis XV was so fond of hunting that he stopped on the way home from his coronation to chase stags in the Villars-Cotterets forest. In 1726 he spent 276 days hunting. In Russia the tsars had superb hunting in the forest of Belovezh; one remarkable 12-day shoot produced a tally of 36 elk, 53 stags, 325 roebuck, 42 bison (wisent), and 138 wild boars.

European women were also famous in the hunt. Princess Frederika of Eisenach was known for her deer-stalking skill. Maria, governess of the Netherlands, could track a stag, shoot it with a crossbow, and gut it. In France, Diana de Poitiers, with her paramour Henry II (ruled 1547-59), hunted stags, roe deer, and boar from the saddle at Chenonceaux, Europe's most magnificent hunting lodge. And in England, Elizabeth I was fond of both hunting and hawking.

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Hunting | History, Methods, & Management

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Hunting, sport that involves the seeking, pursuing, and killing of wild animals and birds, called game and game birds, primarily in modern times with firearms but also with bow and arrow. Learn about the origins, history, methods, and management of hunting.

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Why your children really should play videogames

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Many parents distrust video consoles and don't want them in the house because they are afraid that they will damage their children's performance at school. However, the benefits of videogames include improved powers of concentration, creativity, memory, languages and teamwork.

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Sometimes reading the news about psychology and video games can seem like the worst remake of Groundhog Day ever. The recent mass shootings in Dayton, Ohio and El Paso, Texas have again brought out the headlines that violent video games cause violent behavior, even on the scale of mass shootings.

It's an evergreen topic even outside of the pundits and the headline nabbers. Some psychology researchers have studied this question and tried to present evidence for the link between violent games and violent behavior. But, honestly, many of us are not impressed by the research. And I personally come down on the side of other academics who see no good support for the connection. I'll try to explain some of the reasons why here.

Those in the "violent games cause violent behavior" camp generally argue that playing such games increases the access that someone has to violent thoughts. Have someone play a first person shooter, for example, and they are more likely to answer a word completion exercise by filling in letters to turn "EXPLO_E" into "EXPLODE" instead of "EXPLORE." Watching violent media, the argument goes, makes us more likely to turn to such violent thoughts and more easily/frequently access violent "scripts" when deciding how to behave. Long term, the researchers argue, these patterns of thinking result in permanent changes to our personality, make us quicker to consider violence as an option, and in fact make us more violent.

The problem is the dearth of good data and well designed studies to support this idea. Oh, there are studies. They're out there. But let me break down some of the problems they have.

First is what these studies consider "violent behavior" in the laboratory doesn't exactly fit with everyday definitions of that concept. Most typically they ask subjects to blast other people with obnoxious but non-harmful noise, rob them of opportunities to win prizes in a competition, or even put too much hot sauce on people's food. It's a far cry from physical violence, much less mass shootings. These measures lack what psychologists call "external validity" in that they don't match up with the same concepts, inputs, and results outside of the lab.

Second, while priming someone with a violent game may give them easier access to thoughts related to violence adjacent-concepts, research has shown that this effect is fragile and short lived. And, more importantly, it's not enough to override all the other things that encourage us to NOT behave violently. Like laws. And society. And knowing that there will be consequences. Indeed, in longitudinal studies of violence and video games, taking other risk factors for violent behavior (e.g., prior aggressive behavior, substance abuse, etc.) pretty much wipes out any effects from media.

Third, it has historically been the case that studies that fail to find a relationship between two things are harder to get published in academic journals than studies that do find a relationship. This "file drawer problem" distorts the big picture and makes it harder to get all data needed for meta analysis. (Though movements like pre-registered research is making headway here.)

Finally, the "violent" games that researchers use in these studies are often suspect. It's hard to get approval to show children really violent games, so often the titles used are milquetoast at best. But perhaps an even more pervasive problem is that when choosing "violent" and "non-violent" games to compare to each other in the lab, researchers have a hard time finding two games that are the same except for their violent content. A first person shooter and a NASCAR racing game are wildly different. Researchers often end up having things like frustration levels, learning curves, or other factors interfere with their ability to make definitive statements about the effects of violence.

There are other reasons why this kind of research is typically flawed or limited, but these are the most frequently cited in my reading. Looking at the body of research through the critical eye of an academic instead of the attention-getting desires of a headline writer can really change what you believe.

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Why I Don't Trust the "Video Games Cause Violence" Argument

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Why the research linking violent games to violent behavior is often less than convincing.

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The Emberá of South America use the frogs' poison to coat the tips of the blow darts they use for hunting. You'll also hear poison frogs called "poison arrow frogs," but that's not accurate. The South American tribes that hunt with arrows usually coat their arrow tips with plant poisons, not frog poisons.

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Your destination for news, pictures, facts, and videos about amphibians.

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The food that can feed, and maybe save, the planet: Bugs | CNN

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Get ready to scream for cricket ice cream, and lots of other yummy insect treats. It’s the protein of the future that can help save the planet. So develop a taste for bugs!

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122 devil rays joined in a wild mating ritual that lasted for hours. See it here.

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Scientists captured rare footage of the animals in a stunning “courtship vortex” that raises concerns about their survival.

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Mammals include humans and all other animals that are warm-blooded vertebrates (vertebrates have backbones) with hair. They feed their young with milk and have a more well-developed brain than other types of animals.

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Reptiles are cold-blooded vertebrates. (Vertebrates have backbones.) They have dry skin covered with scales or bony plates and usually lay soft-shelled eggs.

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Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates (vertebrates have backbones) that don't have scales. They live part of their lives in water and part on land.

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Fish are vertebrates (vertebrates have backbones) that live in water. They breathe using special organs called gills.

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As the sun begins to dip below the horizon of Malaysia's Royal Belum State Park, the team makes the final adjustments to the last of eight digital camera traps. Everyone is in good spirits and the leeches have taken a day off as the ground is dry underfoot.

The light may be fading, but the anticipation is high.

An anti-poaching team of dedicated Indigenous peoples working with WWF-Malaysia have trekked for a week through these dense, humid forests of with wildlife photographer Emmanuel Rondeau to set up a series of high-quality cameras in this 130 million year old rainforest.

The motion-sensor camera system, designed by Emmanuel, are installed across this forest for the next five months, waiting to capture wildlife walking by and triggering the camera to take a photo.

Across Southeast Asia tiger populations are decreasing. In Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam they're already nationally extinct. Malaysia's tiger population is at an all-time low-less than 150 tigers left in the country. What's driving tigers, their prey, and other wildlife towards extinction in this region? Snares.

Deadly traps made from wire, snares are set by poachers in the hope of catching wildlife, and prized most of all is the tiger. Snares have significantly contributed to Malaysia's decline in tiger populations.

What the camera traps found

Months after their initial setup, the camera traps revealed the rich diversity of wildlife in one of the world's oldest forests and what's at stake if poaching, deforestation, and human-wildlife conflict are not addressed.

Tiger

Royal Belum State Park is one of the country's last strongholds of tigers. Increasing tiger populations in Malaysia is by no means impossible and would be a historic achievement. But it requires political will, sustainable financing, and support from Indigenous Peoples and local communities.

Black leopard

The Malay Peninsula is home to the world's largest population of black leopards (also known as black panthers). Black leopards get their colour from a genetic mutation that causes an overproduction in the dark pigment melanin, which results in black fur coats and is very hard to see against the backdrop of the rainforest.

Malay tapir

The Malay tapir is one of many unique animals that live in this rainforest. With its long snout and patchwork markings, it is the only species of tapir that can be found in Asia. Listed by the IUCN as endangered, they spend most of their time wandering the rainforest looking for shoots and leaves to eat.

Clouded leopard

Although known as one of the most arboreal (tree-dwelling) cat species, the clouded leopard spends ample time on the forest floor. Little is known about this elusive cat, but they prey on primates, rodents, small deer, and wild boars which they ambush from the trees or stalk from the ground.

Sun bear

A sun bear, also highly sought after by poachers, scales twisted vines and roots in its search for fruits, small rodents, birds, termites, and other insects to eat. These bears are endemic to Southeast Asia and are the smallest of the bear family.

The hard work of park patrols

Thanks to a dedicated anti-poaching patrol, conservation efforts have ramped up in recent years in an effort to halt the decline of tiger populations. In Royal Belum State Park today, there are 60 patrol team members, made up of Indigenous Peoples from community members in the area. They have already proved essential in reducing active snares by 98% inside the park.

The teams plan patrol routes ahead of schedule and send out a team of roughly 10 anti-poaching members for one or two weeks at a time. Navigating by GPS devices, they scale the forests for signs of poachers and snares and, more recently, set hundreds of camera traps to monitor the status of wildlife and threats in the landscape.

We have the opportunity to ensure a future for tigers in Malaysia and every tiger country. Only urgent conservation on a large-scale will reverse the national decline of tigers.

The time for action is now.

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Camera traps showcase Malaysia's incredible biodiversity | Stories | WWF

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Months after their initial setup, the camera traps revealed the rich diversity of wildlife in one of the world's oldest forests and what's at stake if poaching, deforestation, and human-wildlife conflict are not addressed.

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Photograph by Barry Bishop, courtesy of the National Geographic image collection

Mount Everest is a peak in the Himalaya mountain range. It is located between Nepal and Tibet, an autonomous region of China. At 8,849 meters (29,032 feet), it is considered the tallest point on Earth. In the nineteenth century, the mountain was named after George Everest, a former Surveyor General of India. The Tibetan name is Chomolungma, which means "Mother Goddess of the World." The Nepali name is Sagarmatha, which has various meanings.

The first ever recorded people to climb Everest were Edmund Hillary (a mountaineer from New Zealand) and his Tibetan guide Tenzing Norgay. They climbed the mountain in 1953 and hold the record together. The first records of Everest's height came much earlier, in 1856. British surveyors recorded that Everest was the tallest peak in the world in their Great Trigonometrical Survey of the Indian subcontinent.

The Himalayan mountains have long been home to indigenous groups living in the valleys. The most famous of these are the Sherpa people. The word "Sherpa" is often used to mean mountain guide, though it actually refers to an ethnic group. The Sherpa have valuable experience in mountain climbing, which they can provide to other climbers. Most climbs of Everest would be impossible without the Sherpas' logistical help and knowledge. However, their way of life extends beyond helping Everest climbers. Traditionally, their lifestyle has consisted of farming, herding, and trade. And, because they live at such a high altitude year round, they are accustomed to the low oxygen levels.

Climbing Mount Everest has become a popular expedition for mountain climbers. However, it is a dangerous undertaking. Climbing Everest requires a lot of experience mountaineering elsewhere, as well as a certificate of good health, equipment, and a trained Nepalese guide. The snow and ice on the mountain create deadly hazards like avalanches, and there is only a limited climbing season due to bad weather conditions. But perhaps the biggest danger is the altitude. Most climbers are not accustomed to the high altitude and low oxygen levels and rely on bottled oxygen they bring along. This is why the area above 8,000 meters (26,000 feet) elevation on Everest is called the "death zone." Climbers who spend long periods in this region can develop altitude sickness and even brain swelling.

Mount Everest's climbing industry has become controversial. As popularity of the climb has increased, there have been more "traffic jams" as climbers spend too much time in the death zone waiting for their chance to go to the summit. With more people has also come more pollution up near the summit as climbers often discard unwanted items all along the mountain. Additionally, the Sherpa people have been exploited by climbers, and their traditional way of life has been disrupted by foreign climbers. Sherpa guides are faced with some of the highest death rates of any field of employment, for comparatively little pay. Most disturbingly, because many climbers have died along the way, and their bodies are impossible to retrieve, climbers must frequently travel past corpses as they make their way up the mountain.

National Geographic Society

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Mount Everest is the highest point on Earth. Learn about its history, the people who live there, and the people who visit to climb.

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Idea for Use in the Classroom (High School)

National Geographic and Rolex recently partnered to support an expedition to install weather stations on Mount Everest. These weather stations are among the highest in the world and transmit data back in real-time.

Begin by asking students to read the encyclopedic entries Mount Everest and altitude to build their background knowledge on this extreme environment. Then have them watch the video Real-Time Data from Mt. Everest (above) and read the article Inside the Everest Expedition that Built the World's Highest Weather Station to become familiar with the expedition and data set students will be working with. Next, direct students to the interactive map of Everest, and encourage them to click on each of the points along the expedition route, read the accompanying text, and view the image. Have students examine data from the Everest Weather Station Network. Use the Perpetual Planet Data Table handout to record the temperature and pressure values for one week for each of the weather stations.
Note: Sometimes, when working with live data, things go wrong. Extreme winds blow the weather station clean off the mountain, a tool freezes, or there is a poor connection with the satellite transmitting the data. If the widgets linked in the Perpetual Planet Data Table are down, use the data in this pre-completed Perpetual Planet Data Table Backup Data handout to complete the activity.
Once students have completed their data collection, ask them what trends they notice in the data. They should observe that both temperature and pressure decrease as elevation increases. Explain that, in the troposphere, the reason temperature decreases as pressure decreases is because the air molecules expand and cool as they rise.

Tell students that there are two ratios we can use to calculate how temperature changes relative to altitude/elevation, called the dry adiabatic lapse rate and wet or moist adiabatic lapse rate. Mt. Everest has very dry air, so in this case, students will need the dry adiabatic lapse rate which states that the temperature decreases by approximately 9.8 degrees Celsius for every 1000 meters (or approximately 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit for every 1000 feet) gained in elevation. Give students the Mt. Everest Adiabatic Lapse Rate handout and ask them to follow the directions to explore how this real data approximately follows that pattern.

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Sam Brooks Hyde works with a team at National Geographic to bring real-time data from Mount Everest right to your screen. The technology they use visualizes data to help people experience and understand the world.

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Sherpas and scientists faced extreme weather and record crowds as they struggled to install a crucial network of weather sensors.

Subjects

Conservation, Earth Science, Climatology, Meteorology

Image

Mount Everest Base Camp

One of the biggest challenges the team faced in setting up a weather station and drilling ice cores had nothing to do with Everest's extreme temperatures or thin air. That spring of 2019, they were joined by a record number of would-be summitters at base

Photograph by Andy Bardon

This article was supported by Rolex, which is partnering with the National Geographic Society on science-based expeditions to explore, study, and document change in the planet's most unique regions.

Everest Base Camp, Nepal - Just after dawn on May 23, 2019, two climate scientists, Tom Matthews and Baker Perry, stood on the Southeast Ridge of Mount Everest at 8,427.7 meters (27,650 feet), on the verge of making history. They had spent months preparing for this moment: the installation of the highest weather station in the world.

Their team had worked closely with a crew of engineers to meticulously construct the 2.1-meter (seven-foot)-tall, 50-kilogram (110-pound) structure to withstand the extreme cold and hurricane-force winds it would face on the highest point of the planet. They had tested it in the American state of New Hampshire and lower ground in Nepal, and then had painstakingly practiced erecting it as quickly and efficiently as possible with their team of six Sherpa. They knew that the lack of oxygen and effects of exhaustion would give them a maximum of three or four hours to get the station up and working before they had to descend.

Now, with the sun beginning to rise over the Tibetan plateau, everything seemed to be coming together. Even the season's notoriously fickle weather was cooperating. But as Matthews and Perry unpacked their gear, a terrible truth began to sink in: a key piece was missing.

To lug the weather station to the top of the world had required parceling its pieces out among the members of their team. And among the coils of guy-wire, aluminum poles, and various scientific instruments, there were supposed to be two short sections of metal tubing that connect the wind sensors to the main structure. The men searched and re-searched the packs, but it was nowhere to be found. They stared at each other, both simultaneously turning over this fact in their oxygen-deprived brains and seeking a solution.

The reason any of this was worth the effort, risk, and cost is because only Mount Everest and a few of its Himalayan cousins are tall enough to reliably pierce the subtropical jet stream-one of the narrow bands of powerful winds that circle the globe at high altitudes, influencing everything from storm tracks to agriculture growing seasons. For climate scientists, there are few more pressing phenomena to understand than the jet stream, and the weather station would provide scientists an important new tool with which to gather data about it.

And yet there they were, on the roof of the world, with no way to attach the wind sensor-the most important part of the station.

A New Window on the Planet

Matthews and Perry had come to Everest as part of an ambitious scientific assessment of the mountain. The National Geographic Society, working in partnership with the Government of Nepal, the local Tribhuvan University, and funded by Rolex, launched the two-month expedition, which ultimately involved more than 30 scientists conducting fieldwork at various elevations on the mountain as well as across the rugged Khumbu Valley.

"This is a new window into the planet," said Paul Mayewski, director of the Climate Change Institute at the University of Maine-located in the United States-and the expedition's scientific leader. "We believe the best way to do science on Everest isn't just to do one kind of science, but do many kinds of science."

The multidisciplinary group included geologists, glaciologists, biologists, cartographers, and climate scientists, who set out to collect hundreds of water, snow, and rock samples as well as install sensors to record vegetation growth, and survey the landscape using high-resolution laser technology.

While the bulk of the team's work would happen at base camp or lower elevations, Mayewski had challenged Matthews, Perry, and climate scientist Mariusz Potocki to climb to the summit for scientific purposes. Aided by a strong support team of Sherpa, the group hoped to install weather stations and drill ice cores at both the South Col and the summit. The two weather stations (part of a network of six the team would establish on and around the mountain) would be the world's highest.

The herculean task of conducting field science at 8,850 meters (29,035 feet) demanded months of preparation and planning. Specialized equipment needed to be designed, built, and tested, while the team trained for the rigors of not only climbing the world's tallest mountain, but also the physical effort required to set up the weather stations and drill the cores.

"No one's ever done field science above 7,000 meters [22,965.9 feet]," Mayewski said, simply. "Everything is very different up there."

Based on exclusive access to the team's base camp and scores of interviews with its team members, this is their story.

Bad news for the Himalaya

"Climate change operates differently in different parts of the world," Paul Mayewski told me one afternoon as he sat in the communications tent at base camp on the Khumbu Glacier. It was the third week in May, and snow flurries drifted among the moraine crests outside, softly padding the tent's orange and black fabric. A bearded 72-year-old with youthful features and unkempt, silver hair, Mayewski spoke in no-nonsense bursts.

"This is one of the faster warming continental regions in the world, but we don't know what's really going on above 5,000 meters [16,404.2 feet]," he continued, "and these mountains are the water towers of the planet. Between 20-25 percent of the world's population gets their water from the Himalaya."

Three months earlier, in February 2019, the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development released the Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment, a landmark report five years in the making. Collecting and analyzing data from 350 researchers and policy experts, the study forecast what is likely to happen to the Greater Himalaya, and its inhabitants over the next 80 years as Earth continues to warm.

Even if the global community met the most ambitious carbon-reduction goals laid out by the Paris Agreement, the report warned, one-third of the region's approximately 10,000 glaciers will be gone by the end of the century. For the 250 million people who live across the mountain region-and the 1.6 billion people who depend on the water that flows from it-the report spelled out an enormous cataclysm that many will witness in their lifetimes.

"As we begin to put together a better understanding of what the future will be like, understanding what is happening between 5,000-8,800 meters [16,404.2-28,871.4 feet] will become extremely important," Mayewski explained. Virtually all the glaciers in the Himalaya originate in snow deposit zones above 5,000 meters (16,404.2 feet), meaning that scientists can't put together an accurate picture of how fast the region's glaciers are melting until they venture above 5,000 meters (16,404.2 feet) to understand the environment where glaciers are being formed.

"We will have just that much better understanding of how the hydrosphere-the water system-will react with increased change," Mayewski continued. "How the winds will change and where the jet stream is. It's critical throughout the northern hemisphere."

Early in his career, Mayewski embarked on a series of expeditions to Antarctica, traversing the Transantarctic Mountains several times, and to the North Side of Everest, where he took ice cores at 6,500 meters (21,325.5 feet). "I always wanted to be an adventurer, an explorer first," he said. "It wasn't until 10 years after I earned my Ph.D. that I began to think of myself as a scientist. I actually get annoyed that most people think of scientists as being lab nerds."

As Mayewski spoke, he kept one eye on a radio handset, his only connection to the summit team now climbing high on the mountain. He confided that it was hard not to be with them. "I like to be a leader who actually leads, and is in the front. But I accept the fact that we have really good people, and we can only tell them so many times 'please be careful about this.'"

He added, "Probably the biggest wild card has been the crowds on the mountain this year."

Extreme Drills and Indestructible Tripods

Conducting "meaningful field science," as Mayewski put it, in the environment above 8,000 meters (26,246.7 feet) presents several uniquely daunting challenges.

At extreme altitudes, a mountaineer's fine motor control and high-level decision making are frequently impaired. Erecting a weather station or drilling a 10-meter (32.8-foot) ice core are both activities that require several hours of rigorous effort under the best conditions. On the upper reaches of Everest, one must work wearing both an oxygen mask and mittens, or risk disorientation and frostbite.

Then there's the not insignificant logistical matter of ensuring that all the necessary equipment is transported up the mountain and all the ice samples are moved safely down and then remain frozen as they are taken from Nepal to the United States and deposited in the custom-built freezers at the University of Maine's Climate Change Institute.

"Mountaineers are just hoping to summit, take a few selfies, and then get down as quickly as possible," explained Pete Athans, a seven-time Everest summiteer and the climbing leader of the team. "This is like stopping on the summit and trying to assemble a car."

To design and install a series of automated weather stations at various altitudes, Mayewski recruited Baker Perry, a tall, taciturn climate scientist from Appalachian State University, in the U.S., who once played professional basketball in Bolivia, and Tom Matthews, a quick-talking English climatologist and avid marathoner from the United Kingdom's Loughborough University.

"You can't really make a bulletproof station," Perry told me. "Especially with solar panels and radiation shields, you're limited by the sensors that are available." An Italian research team installed a weather station at the South Col a decade ago, only to have it shredded by small stones picked up by the wind, which blasted the equipment like shrapnel. Perry and Matthews ultimately partnered with the design team at Campbell Scientific to help them engineer and build six weather stations.

The first challenge is engineering a tripod light enough to carry up but also strong enough to survive what could easily be 322-plus kilometer (200-plus mile) an hour winds, Perry told me. And the second is how to build a reliable satellite link to transmit the data in real time from the station.

As Perry and Matthews worked on the latest iteration of the tripod, Mariusz Potocki, a Polish climate scientist who works with Mayewski at the University of Maine, was busy developing a special drill-light enough to haul to the summit of Everest yet powerful enough to cut through rock-hard glacial ice and collect the highest ice core ever recorded.

Similar to the rings that record the growth of a tree, layers of ice contain historical records of the chemicals present in the atmosphere when the water droplets froze. With the data derived from an ice core, Mayewski and Potocki hoped to study the deep record of precipitation on the mountain and also the composition of the atmosphere during pre-industrial times-critical information that would help provide a baseline for assessing current climate trends.

"The problems were how to power the drill and how to transport the ice chips up around the barrel," Potocki said in clipped English. "When you're drilling, you're scraping ice around the core. So it's very important to smoothly transfer the chips up to the top and over the barrel, or else, especially in wet ice, the drill gets stuck." Potocki made a flat belching sound to mimic the sound of a stuck drill. "That can be game over."

In a large research freezer kept at minus 25° C (minus 13° F) at the University of Maine, Potocki tested five different cordless drills to determine which battery held the best power and longevity in extreme cold. Then he, Mayewski, and two colleagues traveled to Iceland to test the entire system. And then the entire team of scientists who would climb Everest traveled to Nepal in January to conduct dry runs of their respective experiments and practice with a crack team of climbing Sherpa led by Panuru Sherpa, a 17-time Everest summiteer.

"We understand what the work is all about," Panuru said. "We've been seeing the changes in our valley our whole lives, so we want to help." And besides, he added, "Sherpas are used to working with tools."

Forecasts and Frozen Fingers

When the team arrived at base camp in mid-April, they joined a record number of mountaineers hoping to cross off the world's highest peak from their bucket lists. According to Everest blogger Alan Arnette, Nepal's Ministry of Tourism issued 382 climbing permits and 390 support permits for a total of 772 people attempting to get to the summit during the 2019 spring season, which generally lasts until around the end of May.

Furthermore, all of these climbers would be closely watching the erratic weather, looking to time their summit attempts for the few days each season when the winds abate and the skies clear. With so many climbers, the route to the top could create dangerous traffic jams high on the mountain and potentially lead to tragedy.

Prolonged good weather was especially crucial for Perry and Matthews to put up the weather station and for Potocki's ice-core drilling. Not only did they need enough good weather to safely reach the summit-and get down-but also to spend several hours working there. Ultimately, weather and crowd behavior would determine much of the team's chances for success.

"There's limited space close to the summit to actually do things, even with oxygen," Mayewski explained. "We need space to work. It would only take one person-not even in our group-to completely derail that."

"You have to avoid self-inflected wounds on crowded days, like taking too long and running out of oxygen," Athans said, "or you could end up getting involved in rescuing someone else and run out of oxygen."

By May 19, with the traditional summit window at hand, the weather forecasts remained iffy. But the models predicted the winds would subside in a couple days, so Matthews, Perry, Potocki, and their team of climbing Sherpa led by Panuru packed up and departed base camp for the three-day climb to the South Col.

In Search of Ancient Ice

Potocki's first target was a small remnant glacier clinging to the north side of the South Col. It's the first stretch of ice encountered when leaving Camp 4 bound for the summit. Mountaineers regard it as a moderate obstacle, but to Potocki it represented scientific gold-ancient, undisturbed, relatively clean ice.

As soon as the drill bit into the ice, Potocki, broke into a smile. The exceptionally cold, dry conditions at 8,020 meters (26,312.3 feet) made for brittle ice chips, which cleared easily around the barrel of the drill, ensuring a clean core. "I knew it would be very enjoyable drilling," he said with a laugh. "You know from experience how the drill behaves."

The team steadily removed approximately 50-centimeter (19.7-inch) lengths of core at time, packaging each sample in a white cardboard poster tube and adding extensions to the drill as the hole grew deeper. As they drilled, Matthews and Perry and a contingent of six Sherpa were busy erecting the weather station on the other side of the Col.

By early afternoon, the ice-coring team had returned to camp, having drilled a 10-meter (32.8-foot) section of ice.

Back in his tent but too excited to rest, Potocki realized that a second core, taken from ice at the foot of the glacier, would provide a full picture of the glacier's age, which he and Mayewski estimated could be 5,000 to 10,000 years old. "I said, 'oh no, I will not leave it that easy; I want more ice,'" Potocki recalled.

He returned to the glacier to take a second core. "I went 2.2 meters [7.2 feet], down to bedrock," he says. "Now we have the top and the bottom of the glacier, so we can determine how old the glacier is and see accumulation rates."

As Potocki celebrated his ice haul, Matthews and Perry had returned from successfully installing the South Col weather station-the world's highest. Instead of rejoicing, they lay fretting in their tent, worrying the weather would prevent them from setting up the second weather station on the summit. "We had two conflicting forecasts," Matthews recalled, "and one indicated the winds were going to be more unfavorable."

As the afternoon wind rattled their tent, they somberly considered aborting their summit attempt. Both scientists felt their mission was somehow incomplete without at least venturing higher. "I felt it would be a really sad conclusion to the summit push," Matthews said. "I really wanted the weather to allow us to start up."

By nightfall, the winds had subsided and a new, favorable forecast arrived. The team left at 11:30 p.m., planning for a seven- to eight-hour ascent to the summit.

Saved by a Shovel Handle and Duct Tape

As Perry, Matthews, Potocki, and their team of Sherpa left the South Col, a high deck of clouds passed over the mountain, and it began to snow intermittently, casting everything in a chalky darkness.

"We made good progress off the bat, but then we hit the back of the line," Perry said. A line of dozens of mountaineers, some of whom had left Camp 4 as early as 5 p.m., had come to a near standstill at a part of the route known as the Triangle Face.

"It wasn't totally unexpected. We had seen some of this in the icefall and going up the Lhotse Face," Perry reflected. "But it was frustrating for the Sherpa team because we couldn't all just unclip and zip past these people. The slower you move, the colder you get."

After two hours of stop-and-go traffic, the team reached the Balcony-a flat section where the climbing route intersects with the crest of the Southeast Ridge.

"We saw the line of people ahead of us," Perry said, "and realized what we were up against. When we moved to May 23rd, that just put us in the middle of two very busy summit days."

"You're trying to maximize your team's advantages by going on the best summit day," Pete Athans explained. "The strong irony is everyone else is trying to do the same thing."

Panuru, Perry, and Matthews had already discussed the Balcony as an alternative site for the weather station in the event reaching the summit wasn't feasible. Now, they quickly shifted focus to setting it up. "There was some disappointment, yeah," Perry recalled, "but none of us was there to summit Everest."

"It was the hardest moment because so much effort had gone into it," Potocki said. He was perhaps the most frustrated: The snowpack around the Balcony was too contaminated by human waste and discarded oxygen bottles to drill a core. "Seeing so many unqualified people, everyone going up like flies to honey," Potocki said, shaking his head, "Damn, there were too many people."

As Potocki fumed, Perry and Matthews discovered the batteries in the hammer drill that would drive in the weather station's anchor bolts were dead from the cold. Matthews and one of the Sherpa, Phu Tashi, each stuck a battery inside his down suit to warm it. The sky slowly brightened as they waited.

"It was one of those anticlimactic moments," Matthews said, laughing. "We're standing stark still, with batteries stuck down our crevasses. It took a long while, but it worked."

With the anchor bolts in, the system went up smoothly. "We had built the South Col station the day before," Perry said. "Our Sherpa team knew how to do almost everything."

Then Perry realized the mounts for the wind sensor were missing. They had the cross arm fixed horizontally to the mast, but no way to attach the wind sensor to the cross arm.

"We couldn't go down without putting on the wind sensors, and we weren't going to send someone down to get them," Perry said. "So, we started brainstorming."

Perry realized that the handle to a lightweight aluminum mountaineering shovel the team had brought was roughly the same diameter as the missing mounts. "I've had to deal with different diameter tubes in the field before," he said, "so, I had some experience with this."

There was one issue: The shovel handle was oval, while the attachments on the cross arm were machined for circular tubing. One of the Sherpa, Lhakpa, grabbed a lightweight hammer and began to pound the handle into a circle. Then Perry wrapped strips of duct tape around it to increase the circumference, making the fit tighter.

"It's a super modern weather station," said Matthews. "But you look closely, and there's a bunch of duct tape and a florescent orange and blue shovel handle."

As the team prepared to descend, Perry took a final look at the newly constructed station before turning his gaze toward the summit. By then, the long line of climbers had advanced, and for a moment Perry wondered if he and the team could have gone higher. He quickly dismissed the thought and turned to begin the lengthy descent.

The Lab Work Begins

While the group made their way back to base camp, the weather stations were already transmitting data to a National Geographic Society computer server.

Potocki's ice cores were helicoptered from Camp 2 to Kathmandu below, where they went into storage in the deep freezer unit at the American Club. They will soon be flown to the U.S. and driven in a specially chartered freezer truck from the customs office at New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport to the Climate Change Institute in Maine.

It will take months before the true scope of the fieldwork is understood.

Despite the overcrowded, high-stakes environment on Everest, all three scientists see reason to return. "It would be worth going back with radar to learn more about this glacier and to drill all the way to the bottom," Potocki said. "But my wife said she'd divorce me."

Media Credits

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Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society

Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society

Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

other

Last Updated

October 19, 2023

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Inside the Everest Expedition that Built the World's Highest Weather Station

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Sherpas and scientists faced extreme weather and record crowds as they struggled to install a crucial network of weather sensors.

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In the years since human beings first reached the summit of Mount Everest in 1953, climbing the world's highest mountain has changed dramatically. Today, hundreds of mountaineers manage the feat each year thanks to improvements in knowledge, technology, and the significant infrastructure provided by commercially guided expeditions that provide a veritable highway up the mountain for those willing to accept both the risks and a hefty price tag.

Where is Everest-and how old is it?

Mount Everest-known in Nepali as Sagarmatha and Tibetan as Chomolungma -straddles the border between Nepal and Tibet at the crest of the Himalayan mountain chain. Although reaching the top of the world is an arduous and potentially deadly undertaking due to the extreme altitude, avalanches, icefalls, and other hazards, the mountain lies quite close to the equator, at a latitude of approximately 28 degrees, the same as Tampa, Florida.

Earth scientists estimate that Everest is 50 to 60 million years old, a youngster by geological standards. The mountain was formed by the upward force generated when the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates collided, pushing up the rocks that formed the highest mountain on Earth. That force is still at work today, pushing Everest's summit about a quarter of an inch higher each year. (Learn more about how mountains are formed.)

What are the hazards of climbing Everest?

At 29,032 feet, Everest's summit has approximately one-third the air pressure that exists at sea level, which significantly reduces a climber's ability to breathe in enough oxygen. Because of this, scientists have determined that the human body is not capable of remaining indefinitely above 19,000 feet.

As climbers move higher up the mountain and their oxygen intake is reduced, their bodies are increasingly at risk for a number of ailments, including pulmonary edema, cerebral edema, and blood embolisms. The chances of frostbite are also dramatically increased at such altitude as the heart works harder to pump blood around the body delivering oxygen. The life-giving organs are first priority; digits are last.

The vast majority of climbers ascending Everest use tanks of oxygen to reduce the effects of the extreme altitude. However, bottled oxygen has its own drawbacks and risks. For starters, it's expensive, heavy to carry, and empty cylinders are frequently abandoned as litter.

Furthermore, breathing "gas" only increases the relative oxygen to about the same level as the air at basecamp, and if it runs out on summit day, the body might not be able adapt to the sudden lack of oxygen. Lastly, oxygen units are notoriously unreliable, as Everest guide Adrian Ballinger discovered in 2018 on summit day when his team experienced a systematic failure of their breathing systems.

How many routes are there to the top?

Although 17 different routes have been pioneered to the summit of Everest, almost everyone climbs it via one of two routes. From Nepal there's the Southeast Ridge, the line created by Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hilary in 1953. From Tibet, there's the North Ridge, where George Mallory disappeared in 1924 long before a Chinese team finally completed the climb in 1960.

Although experienced mountaineers say the overall difficulty of the two routes is comparable, the challenges are different. On the Southeast Ridge, mountaineers must race through the hazardous Khumbu Icefall, but it's a slightly shorter summit day and easier to descend quickly in the event of an emergency. On the North Ridge, it's possible to drive jeeps all the way to base camp, but mountaineers must traverse several kilometers of terrain above 27,000 feet to reach the summit. (Read about China's highway to Everest.)

How crowded is Everest?

Mount Everest's popularity soared in the 1990s when international guides began to pioneer commercial trips up the mountain. Despite the risks, Everest draws hundreds of mountaineers from around the world to its slopes each year. In 2021, the Nepal Ministry of Tourism issued a record 408 Everest climbing permits, the highest in its history.

Who are Everest's guides?

For local logistics companies and the government of Nepal, Everest is big business. A typical spot on a commercial team costs anywhere from $40,000 to $100,000 depending on the level of service and the expertise of the outfitter. The Ministry of Tourism reported collecting $5.2 million in 2018 permit fees.

The industry is built on the backs of a small cadre of professional Nepalese guides who work together each spring to prepare the route with fixed ropes and ladders, stock each camp with essentials like tents, stoves, bottled oxygen, and food, and then patiently coach their foreign guests up to the summit.

Although historically it was the Sherpas-the Tibetan tribe of people who live closest to the mountain-who were hired by expeditions to carry loads of supplies up the mountain, today there are multiple ethnic groups who find employment on the mountain, leading to the less-catchy moniker of "high-altitude mountain worker."

For a typical three-to-four-month Everest expedition, most earn between $2,500 and $5,000. In recent years, thanks to educational opportunities like the Khumbu Climbing Center, Nepalese guides have begun to receive training and certifications to international standards.

How long is an expedition?

The best weather for reaching the top of Everest typically arrives in the second half of May, but preparations for a successful ascent begin months beforehand. Most teams assemble in Kathmandu in late March to begin acclimatization. As they trek toward basecamp, their basecamp support staff and high-altitude workers are already on the mountain, carrying loads and preparing the route to the summit.

In April, climbers make several overnight forays ("rotations" in Everest parlance) to successively higher camps up the mountain to acclimatize, while the first teams of Nepalese guides reach the summit. By the second week in May, teams hope to have an established trail of several miles of fixed ropes leading from basecamp to the summit, with several well-stocked camps along the way.

After a final rest-some teams will even decamp the mountain entirely to spend a few nights at lower elevation for maximum recovery-the summit push normally takes place over an arduous four to five days' round trip from basecamp. If all goes well, most Everest climbers are done with the mountain and on their way home by the beginning of June.

How dangerous is it?

More than 300 people are known to have died climbing Everest, according to the Himalayan Database. The overall death rate-the number of fatalities divided by the overall number of people on the mountain, not just those who summit-is approximately 1.2 percent, meaning that if you try to climb Everest, you have about a one in a hundred chance of dying along the way.

"Statistically, Everest is becoming safer primarily due to better gear, weather forecasting, and more people climbing with commercial operations," says respected Everest chronicler Alan Arnette. "From 1923 to 1999: 170 people died on Everest with 1,169 summits or 14.5 percent. But the deaths drastically declined from 2000 to 2018 with 7,990 summits and 123 deaths, or 1.5 percent." (Read about new safety measure on Everest.)

What's the summit like?

The actual summit of the mountain is a small dome of snow about the size of a dining room table. There's room for a half dozen or so climbers to stand and enjoy the view, although on busy days mountaineers must take turns to truly stand on top of the world.

Is there anything left to explore on Everest?

The last new route to be climbed on the mountain was accomplished by a team of hearty Russians in 2004. While each of Everest's three major faces and ridges have been ascended, there are several intriguing challenges for future mountaineers to attempt, including the unclimbed Fantasy Ridge and the so-called Horseshoe Traverse, an audacious enchainment of Everest and its two neighboring peaks, Lhotse and Nuptse.

"Everest is in many ways still a blank canvas," says alpinist and National Geographic photographer Cory Richards. "It's still as high, cold, and formidable as it ever was. How one chooses to climb it is as much a reflection of creativity as skill. There is always a new way to approach something, and Everest is no different."
Editor's note: This story was originally published on January 22, 2019. It has been updated.

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What to know about climbing Mount Everest

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Find out all you need to know about climbing Mount Everest, from its geology to the cost of climbing the notorious peak.

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All The Ways Mt. Everest Can Kill You | WIRED

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What happens to your body at the top of Mount Everest - Andrew Lovering

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Where Are All the Bodies on Mount Everest?

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The 4 greatest threats to the survival of humanity

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When will the next ice age happen? - Lorraine Lisiecki

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Educators in Santa Rosa, California, first celebrated Women's History Week in March 1978 to increase awareness of women's contributions to society. Organizers selected a week in early March to correspond with International Women's Day on March 8. Over the next several years, other cities across the country joined Santa Rosa in celebrating Women's History Week.

In 1980, U.S. President Jimmy Carter declared the week of March 8 National Women's History Week, urging everyone in the United States to participate. According to Carter, "too often the women were unsung and sometimes their contributions went unnoticed. But the achievements, leadership, courage, strength, and love of the women who built America was as vital as that of the men whose names we know so well."

The week-long event officially became a month-long one in 1987 when Congress passed a resolution designating March as Women's History Month. Women's History Month has been celebrated in the United States every March since.

Who it honors

Among the notable figures often spotlighted during Women's History Month are Sacagawea, a Native American woman who helped make Lewis and Clark's expedition to map parts of the West in the early 19th century a success; Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, who fought for equality for women in the mid-19th century, more than 70 years before the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote in the United States in 1920; Harriet Tubman, a spy who led slaves to freedom during the Civil War; Amelia Earhart, one of the world's first female pilots (she mysteriously disappeared over the Pacific Ocean in 1937); Madeleine Albright, who became the first female Secretary of State in 1996; and Misty Copeland, the first African-American woman to be named a principal dancer-the highest level-in the 75-year history of the American Ballet Theatre in 2015.

Women's history month today

Since the first Women's History Week in 1978, other countries have joined the United States in honoring women and their contribution to history and culture, including Canada and Australia.

Each year the National Women's History Alliance chooses a theme for Women's History Month. Previous themes have included "Women Taking the Lead to Save Our Planet"(2009) and "Celebrating Women in STEM" (2013). The theme for 2020 and 2021 is "Valiant Women of the Vote." ( Learn about the fight for the right to vote.) And the theme for 2023 is "Celebrating Women Who Tell Our Stories."

Beyond the theme of the year, Women's History Month continues the discussion of women and their contributions through activities such as museum exhibits and film screenings, and by encouraging the study of achievements by women year-round.

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Every March, people in the United States celebrate the achievements and history of women as part of Women's History Month.

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Loch Ness monster enthusiasts from around the world will converge on the Scottish Highlands this weekend for the biggest hunt in half a century.

"We are guardians of this unique story, and as well as investing in creating an unforgettable experience for visitors, we are committed to helping continue the search and unveil the mysteries that lie underneath the waters of the famous Loch," says Paul Nixon, general manager of the Loch Ness Centre, in a statement.

During the search for the creature, known as Nessie, participants will use surveying technologies such as hydrophones, which detect sounds underwater, and drones equipped with infrared cameras, which produce thermal images of the loch.

Roughly 100 volunteers will participate in person, while many others will keep watch online, reports CNN 's Lianne Kolirin. Every morning, organizers will brief the group and provide instructions.

Organizers are billing the search as the "biggest of its kind" since a hunt by the Loch Ness Investigation Bureau in 1972. The event is hosted by the Loch Ness Centre and the research group Loch Ness Exploration.

"If you believe that the Loch Ness monster exists, then we invite you to join the search," writes Loch Ness Exploration on Facebook. "We equally invite you to support the study of the Loch and the natural behavior of the elements that may be the root cause of these strange reports from Loch Ness."

The history of the Loch Ness monster stretches back to 565, when the Irish monk Saint Columba made what may be history's first recorded Nessie sighting. As the story goes, he confronted the monster, which had been terrorizing locals, and banished it into the loch.

The global phenomenon of the Loch Ness monster really began 90 years ago, in 1933. That spring, a local hotel manager named Aldie Mackay claimed she and her husband had encountered a creature that looked like a whale in the loch. A journalist for the local paper, the Inverness Courier, ran the story and referred to Nessie as a "monster" for the first time.

Later that summer, a visitor to the region reported seeing a creature crossing the road with a lamb in its mouth. A few months later, in November, a man named Hugh Gray took the first alleged photograph of the creature from the northern shore of the loch.

"The photo kicked off the modern era of [Nessie] hunting. Up until then, it was just a local mystery," Roland Watson, the author of several books about the Loch Ness monster, tells Samantha Drake of the Washington Post.

The worldwide attention that followed these sightings created an entire tourism industry of enthusiasts and skeptics alike. This weekend's gathering is just the latest chapter in a story that spans generations.

Today, the legends surrounding Nessie are also helping out a community facing increasing challenges. Fraser Campbell is director of the Cobbs Group, which owns various sites around Loch Ness. He tells Libby Brooks of the that the buzz surrounding this hunt for Nessie has generated "unbelievable" business in the region-which is sorely needed in the wake of challenges like Brexit and increasing costs of living.

Many smaller surveys have taken place at the site. A few years ago, researchers tested the waters of Loch Ness for traces of DNA to find out more about the creatures that live there. They didn't discover anything especially startling-though they did find plenty of eel DNA.

Registration for this weekend's in-person events has already filled up, but hunters from around the world can tune in virtually to search for Nessie via one of five webcams the organizers have set up.

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Loch Ness Monster Lovers Come Together for Biggest Hunt in 50 Years

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Volunteers will convene in the Scottish Highlands armed with drones, hydrophones and other technologies

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Stories of a hairy, forest-dwelling, bi-pedal primate have persisted for centuries in British Columbia. But perhaps more important than whether it exists, is what it symbolizes.

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Where is the Lost City of Atlantis — and Does it Even Exist?

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We’re sorry to report there is no found Atlantis! Though fictional, it hasn’t stopped people’s quest for thousands of years.

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A vegan diet is made up of only plant-based products - no meat, fish, dairy, or eggs (some people also exclude honey). While these diets are still relatively rare, they are becoming more common. Some families or teens choose them for health reasons, and it's certainly true that plant-based diets are low in saturated fat and can have other health benefits. Some choose them for philosophical reasons - either sustainability, or not wanting to harm animals, or both.

Whatever the reason, it's important to get educated before you begin. You should talk to your doctor, and if possible it's a good idea to also meet with a nutritionist. Because while vegan diets can absolutely be healthy, there are some nutritional and other issues that can cause trouble if you aren't careful.

Calories and protein for children eating a vegan diet

Two issues you should learn about and plan for are:

Calories. Plant-based foods tend to have fewer calories than animal-based ones. This is not a bad thing, given the current obesity epidemic in the US, but it's important to be sure that children and teens get enough calories to grow and support daily activity. The number of calories a child needs will depend on their age, size, and activity level. Nuts, nut butters, and soy products can help add calories, as can granola and other whole-grain products.

Protein. Protein is crucial, not just for building muscle but for all sorts of body processes. This is another nutrient that is simply easier to get from animal products, as there is more of it and it is complete, meaning that it has all the amino acid building blocks that humans need. The protein you get from plant products is less accessible to the body and may or may not be complete - and for that reason, people on vegan diets need to eat more protein than those on animal-based diets, to be on the safe side. As with calories, the amount of protein a child needs depends on their age and size. Nuts, legumes (including peanuts), soy products, and whole grains are good sources of protein.

Key minerals and vitamins for children eating a vegan diet

Consider sources for key minerals and vitamins:

Calcium. Calcium is important, especially for bone health. Dairy is the easiest source of calcium, but there are other ways to get it, including foods like kale, bok choy, and broccoli. Many "alterna-milks" such as soy milk and almond milk are fortified with calcium (and vitamin D), as are some brands of orange juice.

Iron. Iron is important to keep our blood and our bodies healthy and strong. Fortified cereals and some other plant products have iron, but it's not a bad idea to give your child a multivitamin with iron.

Vitamin B₁₂. This is another crucial nutrient that can be harder to get on a plant-based diet. While vegans can get it from soy beverages and fortified cereals, it's another reason why a multivitamin is a good idea.

Vitamin D. While the main source of vitamin D is sunshine (really!), most of us don't spend enough time in the sun to get enough of it, and need to get it from our diet. If a child isn't going to get it from fortified dairy products, then a supplement is the way to go. For younger children, the 400 IU that is present in most multivitamins is enough; older children may need more. Talk to your doctor about what is best for your child.

Fiber. This is one thing that vegan diets may actually have too much of, given that plants have a lot of fiber. The most common problem with getting too much fiber is that it can fill you up, making it harder to get enough of the calories and other nutrients you need. Giving children some refined grains like cereals can help, as can giving peeled fruits and cooked vegetables rather than raw.

What else should you consider?

It's also helpful to consider the emotional aspects of being on a vegan diet. If your family is not vegan and your child is asking to be, it's important to understand why. The reasons may be perfectly fine and healthy, but some children, especially teens, choose vegan diets in order to lose weight. If you suspect that your child may have an eating disorder, talk to your doctor.

Being on a restrictive diet can be difficult for some children, too, who may feel different from their peers, or excluded from group eating experiences like birthday parties. This is something that you should think about as parents and talk about as a family. If it's important to you that your child adhere to a vegan diet in all settings, you should talk about strategies for navigating that, both in terms of making sure your child has food to eat in every setting, and in terms of helping them talk about their dietary choices with their friends.

Eating, after all, is about more than just feeding our bodies. Eating can and should be fun, no matter what diet we choose.

About the Author

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What parents need to know about a vegan diet - Harvard Health

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If your family follows a vegan diet--or your child expresses the desire to do so on their own--it's important for parents to be aware of the nutritional challenges of vegan eating, and how to meet them.

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The short answer is yes, with the right planning and knowledge, a child can get everything they need following a vegan diet. The biggest concern with vegan diets in early childhood is nutritional inadequacy. Parents therefore need to be very well informed, otherwise there's a risk some nutrients might fall short, such as vitamin D, calcium, iron, omega-3 fatty acids and possibly vitamin B12 deficiency.

So what are the most important points parents have to remember when feeding their child a plant-based diet. Read on to discover more.

For more on vegan diets, we've collaborated with BBC Future - read the BBC Future guide to the health benefits of going vegan.

Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is encouraged for at least the first six months, as the milk is a rich source of nutrients. Many parents continue breastfeeding until the age of one or beyond. However, breast milk shouldn't be the sole source of nutrition, and weaning should begin from six months. If parents decide to stop breastfeeding at six months, a formula fortified with iron, calcium, vitamins B12 and D is recommended. Speak to your GP, dietician or health visitor for an appropriate recommendation.

Soya and oat 'milks' are not appropriate for babies less than one year old, as they don't have the right ratio of carbohydrate, protein and fat. They also lack the vital nutrients for growth and development. Rice milk should also be avoided for all children under 5 years, it is low in protein and fat and these products contain levels of arsenic.

Vegan weaning

During weaning, an iron-fortified infant cereal is a great option for a first food. The cereal can be mixed with expressed breast milk or plant-based formula for a thin consistency. A variety of foods are to be encouraged when weaning, including vegetables, cereal foods, pulses (peas, beans and lentils), tofu, ground nuts, seeds and fruits. As long as your baby doesn't have an allergy, nuts can be given from six months old, but make sure they are finely ground. Children under five years old should not have whole nuts because of the risk of choking. Naturally sweet fruits (such as apples or bananas) or vegetables (such as carrots, sweet potatoes or butternut squash) can be used to sweeten foods in place of sugar. Never add artificial sweeteners, sugar or salt to foods for infants.

It's worth bearing in mind that as your baby's intake of breast milk or formula decreases, you may need to consider supplementation - speak to your GP or health visitor about the Department of Health's recommendations for children under five years old.

Eating for energy

Vegan diets tend to be less energy dense, so children need to eat larger quantities to get enough energy. We know that children typically have small appetites, so achieving their daily calorie needs can be a challenge. Adding healthy oils to food, such as soya bean or cold-pressed rapeseed are key, as they add more calories to meals and encourage the production of important fatty acids, which are needed for brain development.

Focus on the following nutrients from the age of one:

Protein

Protein is a key nutrient for growth and development and is essential in every child's diet. There are plenty of protein-rich foods suitable for a vegan diet, and these include a variety of pulses, beans and lentils which will ensure a good mix of amino acids. Grain-like food such as quinoa as well as nuts and nut butters are good sources of protein, provided your child has no allergies. Egg replacers are available in health foods shops and some supermarkets, and can be used in cooking and baking. Aim to include three portions of vegetable protein per day to ensure adequate nutrition.

Calcium and milk alternatives

Calcium is key for maintaining healthy bones, and approximately 45% of our bone mass is accrued before the age of eight years. A further 45% is laid in the next eight years, with the remaining 10% in the following 10 years. It's therefore essential that calcium requirements are met for children eating a vegan diet.

A plant-based milk (about 300ml per day) that's been fortified with calcium and vitamin D is a good choice, and you may wish to include soya yogurts and calcium-rich cereals in your child's diet too. Oat and coconut 'milks' are another option - they're both available in a fortified form with calcium (but not all are fortified with vitamin D - so check labels). Fortified rice milk can be used as a main drink for children but only from the age of five.

Plant-based spreads can be used. Almonds, calcium-set tofu, beans and green leafy vegetables are also good sources of calcium, and should be regularly included in your child's diet. It's important that parents check the calcium recommendations for their child as they vary with age.

Iron

Iron is essential for the formation of red blood cells. Good sources of iron, such as pulses (including beans), lentils and peas, dark green leafy vegetables (like broccoli, okra, watercress or spring greens), wholemeal bread and flour, nuts, wholegrains and fortified cereals should regularly be included in their diet. Dried fruits such as apricots, prunes and figs are also good choices. By combining an iron-rich food with a vitamin C rich one you will increase your child's uptake of iron; try orange segments on a fortified breakfast cereal or peppers with lentils in a vegetable casserole.

Vitamin D

Required for absorption of calcium to maintain strong bones and teeth, vitamin D is found in a very limited variety of foods, with the best source being sunlight absorbed by the skin. Dietary sources for vegans are limited, so fortified plant-based milk, spreads and cereals are the best options. The Department of Health recommends that all children between six months and five years take a vitamin D supplement. The dose will depend on the child's age. But, not all vitamin D supplements are suitable for vegans, so check the label before you buy.

Omega-3 fatty acids

These essential fats are vital for brain development and help keep the brain healthy and functioning optimally. They're also important for vision and heart health. Plant sources include chia seeds, flaxseeds, hemp and walnuts. However, because plant foods are not the richest source of these essential fats, some vegans, including pregnant and breast-feeding mums, choose to supplement with omega-3 fatty acids derived from microalgae.

Vitamin B12

Essential for the formation of red blood cells, vitamin B12 is key for brain and nervous system formation. It's widely recognised that vitamin B12 is only found naturally in animal sources, but fortified breakfast cereals and some low-salt yeast extracts contain B12, as do fortified plant milks and soya products. It's important that a combination is included in your child's diet. If not, a B12 supplement may be required. A reliable source of iodine is also important, and a supplement is typically recommended.

Fibre

High-fibre foods tend to be very filling and can often cause children to become full before they've got all of the calories and nutrition they need. Opt for nutrient-dense foods that also contain fibre, such as avocados, nuts and dried fruits. Remember: it's good practice to encourage children to brush their teeth after eating dried fruits to minimise the chance of tooth decay.

In summary, vegan diets can be safe for children as long as parents and guardians are well informed about the key nutrients required for growth and development. Furthermore, parents of vegan children must be extra cautious to ensure they're eating a balanced diet and seek professional guidance, where necessary.
You might also be interested in: Emer Delaney BSc (Hons), RD All health content on bbcgoodfood.com is provided for general information only, and should not be treated as a substitute for the medical advice of your own doctor or any other health care professional. If you have any concerns about your general health, you should contact your local health care provider. See our website Are you bringing your child or children up as vegan? Let us know how you're getting on in the comments below... terms and conditions for more information. has an honours degree in Human Nutrition and Dietetics from the University of Ulster. She has worked as a dietitian in some of London's top teaching hospitals and is currently based in Chelsea. This article was last reviewed on 22nd January 2020 by nutritional therapist Kerry Torrens. A registered Nutritional Therapist, Kerry is a member of the Royal Society of Medicine, Complementary and Natural Healthcare Council, and the British Association for Applied Nutrition and Nutritional Therapy (BANT).

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The short answer is yes, with the right planning and knowledge, a child can get everything they need following a vegan diet. The biggest concern with vegan diets in early childhood is nutritional inadequacy. Parents therefore need to be very well informed, otherwise there's a risk some nutrients might fall short, such as vitamin D, calcium, iron, omega-3 fatty acids and possibly vitamin B12 deficiency.

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Let's Begin...

What would the planet look like if everyone became a vegetarian right now? AsapSCIENCE takes a look at the numbers.

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What would happen if the world went vegetarian?

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What would the planet look like if everyone became a vegetarian right now? AsapSCIENCE takes a look at the numbers.

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Let's Begin...

Imagine if a wizard of meatless dining suddenly appeared on Earth and with one wave of a wand wiped away all meat from our shelves- along with any desire to eat it. Farm animals destined for food vanish, whisked away to another planet. What happens in the following days, years, and even millennia? Carolyn Beans explores what a vegetarian world could look like.

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What would happen if everyone stopped eating meat tomorrow? - Carolyn Beans

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Imagine if a wizard of meatless dining suddenly appeared on Earth and with one wave of a wand wiped away all meat from our shelves- along with any desire to eat it. Farm animals destined for food vanish, whisked away to another planet. What happens in the following days, years, and even millennia?

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Vegetarian, vegan, flexitarian, pescetarian: Which diet is best for the planet?

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The food we consume has a massive impact on our planet. Agriculture takes up half the habitable land on Earth, destroys forests and other ecosystems, and produces a quarter of the world’s greenhous…

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Meat and poultry are great sources of protein. They also provide lots of other nutrients your body needs, like iodine, iron, zinc, vitamins (especially B12) and essential fatty acids.

So it's a good idea to eat meat and poultry every week as part of your balanced diet. But it's best to stick with unprocessed, lean cuts and to eat the recommended serving size, to avoid taking in too much salt and saturated fat.

Why meat and poultry are so good for you

Meat and poultry are very good sources of , which is important for growth and development. But did you know they are also full of other things that you need to be healthy? For example:

iodine to help your body produce thyroid hormone

iron to carry oxygen around your body

zinc to keep your immune system strong, your skin healthy, and for growth, development and reproductive health

vitamin B12 for your nervous system

omega 3 to support heart and brain health.

Getting the right amount of meat and poultry

Advice about how much meat to eat can be confusing - eat enough, but don't eat too much. But how much meat and poultry is enough, and how much is too much?

The recommend that you eat 1-3 serves of lean meat and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds, and legumes or beans every day. During pregnancy, 3-4 serves are recommended. And to make sure you get enough iron and zinc, around half these serves should be lean red meat.

A standard serve of meat or poultry is:

65 grams cooked lean red meat such as beef, lamb, veal, pork, goat or kangaroo (around 90-100 grams raw)

80 grams cooked lean poultry such as chicken or turkey (around 100 grams raw).

But moderation is the key with red meat. The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend up to 455g cooked lean meat per week, and limiting processed meats (such as ham and bacon) to avoid some of the health risks associated with eating these foods. Many Australian men eat too much red meat and, conversely, Australian women and children tend not to eat enough.

Healthy ways to cook meat and poultry

There are so many tasty ways to cook meat and poultry. Check out these tips:

Choose a lean cut of meat or poultry. A trimmed pork chop, a lean rump steak or a chicken breast without skin or crumbs on the outside are a great place to start.

Grill your meat, rather than frying it. And don't add extra oil when you are cooking.

Use a low-fat marinade to give your meat and poultry a great flavour. Marinades also tenderise your meat and keep it moist during cooking.

When you are roasting meat or poultry, sit it on a metal rack above the roasting pan so the fat drips off.

And when you are slow cooking stews, curries and casseroles, try putting less meat or poultry in and adding more vegetables and pulses.

Cooking meat and poultry safely

Cooking your meat and poultry properly kills any bacteria. And this helps protect you and your family from food poisoning.

Safe cooking practices depend on the type of meat or poultry. Some meat and poultry must be cooked all the way through (that is, until the juices run clear and there is no pink or red meat on the inside when you cut it). Cook the following meat and poultry all the way through:

poultry and game, including chicken, turkey, duck and goose

pork

offal (including liver)

rissoles and sausages

kebabs

rolled joints of meat.

Generally you can eat whole cuts of beef or lamb when they are still pink or rare in the middle (as long as they are cooked on the outside). These include:

However, if you are at a greater risk of the more serious effects of (for example, you are pregnant or immunocompromised) you should ensure your meat is cooked thoroughly to reduce that risk.

It can be hard to know how long to cook meat and poultry - it varies depending on the size of the cut, the quality of the meat, and how you like it served (if it's red meat). So rather than concentrate on cooking time, you could monitor temperature. The safe temperatures for different types of meat and poultry are listed below:

A good food thermometer is a worthwhile investment. They are not expensive (usually around $15 and available from most homewares stores) and you will know the exact temperature inside your meat and poultry.

The best ways to store your meat and poultry

Storing your meat and poultry safely also helps stop bacteria spreading, reducing the risk of food poisoning. Tips for include:

Store unwrapped fresh raw meat in clean containers in the coldest part of your fridge (at 0-3 ºC). If the container is ventilated to allow air circulation, you can keep it for up to 5 days (the surface of the meat will dry out a little, but this stops the growth of micro-organisms).

You can leave meat and poultry wrapped in its original packaging (for example, a plastic bag from the butcher or a sealed package from the supermarket), but this keeps moisture trapped, which enables bacteria to grow. Meat or poultry refrigerated in its shop packaging should be used within 3 days.

Store raw minced meat in the coldest part of the fridge and use within 3 days.

Don't eat meat after the use-by date.

Cool any leftover cooked meat or poultry as quickly as you can (less than one hour), and then put it in your fridge for later.

Freezing meat and poultry is a great way to stay organised. Here are some tips for freezing your meat safely:

Freeze your meat and poultry before the best before or use by date. The best idea is to put your meat and poultry in the freezer as soon as you get home from shopping. (Over time, the air in the freezer can permeate the plastic, 'burning' the meat or poultry. Meat with freezer burn is still safe to eat, but the freezer burn can affect the taste.)

If you defrost the meat or poultry in the microwave, cook it straight away. If you want to cook it later, thaw it in the fridge to make sure it doesn't get too warm.

When defrosting meat or poultry in the fridge, do it in a sealed container. This keeps any juices (which may contain bacteria) away from other foods in your fridge.

And remember, if you defrost meat and then cook it, you can freeze it again. But don't reheat meat or poultry more than once. This increases the risk of food poisoning.

Feel good about shopping for meat and poultry

Producing meat and poultry uses a lot of energy, water and chemicals (especially compared with fruit, vegetables and grains). Did you know a 150 gram serve of meat can take over 200 litres of water to produce and create 5 kilograms of greenhouse gases?

But there are things you can do to help meat and poultry production be more sustainable and ethical.

You could reduce your weekly meat or poultry intake each week by one portion. You'll still get the good things your body needs but also reduce the cost of this food on the environment.

Buying organic meat and poultry may reduce the amount of environmental damage done by synthetic chemicals (like petro-chemical based fertilisers and pesticides).

Check where your meat and poultry has come from. Reducing your food miles is good for you and the environment.

And try to buy free-range meat and poultry if possible. Free-range means open pasture grazing for animals (rather than small indoor sheds or cages).

So when you are shopping, try to buy local, in season, higher welfare and less processed meat and poultry. This is best for you, your family and dinner guests, the animals involved and the environment.

Remember...

Meat and poultry are a great source of protein and lots of other nutrients your body needs.

Check your recommended intake of meat and poultry and try to stick with it.

Meat and poultry must be stored and cooked safely.

There are lots of ways you can shop for meat and poultry sustainably and ethically.

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Meat and poultry are a great source of protein and lots of other nutrients your body needs. Check your recommended intake of meat and poultry and try to stick with it.

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Meat is a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals in your diet. However, if you currently eat more than 90g (cooked weight) of red or processed meat a day, the Department of Health and Social Care advises that you cut down to 70g.
Some meats are high in saturated fat, which can raise blood cholesterol levels if you eat too much of it. Making healthier choices can help you eat meat as part of a balanced diet.

If you eat a lot of red or processed meat, it's recommended that you cut down as there is likely to be a link between red and processed meat and bowel cancer.

A healthy balanced diet can include protein from meat, as well as from fish and eggs or non-animal sources such as beans and pulses. Meats such as chicken, pork, lamb and beef are all rich in protein.

Red meat provides us with iron, zinc and B vitamins. Meat is one of the main sources of vitamin B12 in the diet.

Food hygiene is important when storing, preparing and cooking meat.

Meat and saturated fat

Some meats are high in fat, especially saturated fat. Eating a lot of saturated fat can raise cholesterol levels in the blood, and having high cholesterol raises your risk of coronary heart disease.

The type of meat product you choose and how you cook it can make a big difference to the saturated fat content.

Make healthier choices when buying meat

When buying meat, go for the leanest option. As a rule, the more white you can see on meat, the more fat it contains. For example, back bacon contains less fat than streaky bacon.

These tips can help you buy healthier options:

ask your butcher for a lean cut

if you're buying pre-packed meat, check the nutrition label to see how much fat it contains and compare products

go for turkey and chicken without the skin as these are lower in fat (or remove the skin before cooking)

try to limit processed meat products such as sausages, salami, pâté and beefburgers, because these are generally high in fat - they are often high in salt, too

try to limit meat products in pastry, such as pies and sausage rolls, because they are often high in fat and salt

Cut down on fat when cooking meat

Cut off any visible fat and skin before cooking - crackling and poultry skin are much higher in fat than the meat itself.

Here are some other ways to reduce fat when cooking meat:

grill meat, rather than frying

avoid adding extra fat or oil when cooking meat

roast meat on a metal rack above a roasting tin so the fat can run off

try using smaller quantities of meat and replacing some of the meat with vegetables, pulses and starchy foods in dishes such as stews, curries and casseroles

How much red and processed meat should we eat?

Red meat (such as beef, lamb and pork) can form part of a healthy diet. But eating a lot of red and processed meat probably increases your risk of bowel (colorectal) cancer.

Processed meat refers to meat that has been preserved by smoking, curing, salting or adding preservatives. This includes sausages, bacon, ham, salami and pâtés.

If you currently eat more than 90g (cooked weight) of red or processed meat a day, the Department of Health and Social Care advises that you cut down to 70g.

90g is equivalent to around 3 thinly cut slices of beef, lamb or pork, where each slice is about the size of half a piece of sliced bread. A cooked breakfast containing 2 typical British sausages and 2 rashers of bacon is equivalent to 130g.

For more information read red meat and the risk of bowel cancer.

Storing meat safely

It's important to store and prepare meat safely to stop bacteria from spreading and to avoid food poisoning:

store raw meat or raw poultry in clean sealed containers on the bottom shelf of the fridge, so the meat cannot touch or drip onto other food

follow any storage instructions on the label and do not eat meat after its "use by" date

store red meat or raw poultry in a freezer before its "use by" date

if you cook meat that you're not going to eat straight away, cool it as quickly as possible and then put it in the fridge or freezer - remember to keep cooked meat separate from raw meat and only reheat cooked meat once

always thoroughly clean plates, utensils, surfaces and hands straight away after they have touched raw or thawing meat using warm soapy water or disinfectant cleaning products

Freezing meat safely

It's safe to freeze raw meat providing that you:

freeze it before the "use by" date

date and label meat in the freezer, following any freezing or thawing instructions on the packaging

defrost meat in the microwave, using the defrost setting, if you are going to cook it straight away

thaw meat fully in a fridge, if you want to defrost it and cook it later - keep it in the fridge and use it within 2 days of defrosting

cook food until it's steaming hot all the way through

When meat thaws, liquid can come out of it. This liquid will spread bacteria to any food, plates or surfaces that it touches. Keep the meat in a sealed container at the bottom of the fridge so that it cannot touch or drip onto other foods.

If you defrost raw meat and then cook it thoroughly, you can freeze it again. But never reheat meat or any other food more than once as this could lead to food poisoning.

Cooking meat safely

Follow the cooking instructions on the packaging.

Some people wash meat before they cook it, but this actually increases your risk of food poisoning, because the water droplets splash onto surfaces and can contaminate them with bacteria.

It's important to prepare and cook food safely. Cooking meat properly ensures that harmful bacteria on the meat are killed. If meat is not cooked all the way through, these bacteria may cause food poisoning.

Bacteria and viruses can be found all the way through poultry and certain meat products (such as burgers). This means you need to cook poultry and these sorts of meat products all the way through. When meat is cooked all the way through, its juices run clear and there is no pink or red meat left inside.

Meats and meat products that you should cook all the way through are:

poultry and game, such as chicken, turkey, duck and goose, including liver

pork

offal, including liver

burgers and sausages

kebabs

rolled joints of meat

You can eat whole cuts of beef or lamb when they are pink inside - or "rare" - as long as they are cooked on the outside.

These meats include:

Liver and liver products

Liver and liver products, such as liver pâté and liver sausage, are a good source of iron, as well as being a rich source of vitamin A.

You should be able to get all the vitamin A you need from your daily diet. Adults need:

700 micrograms of vitamin A per day for men

600 micrograms of vitamin A per day for women

However, because they are such a rich source of vitamin A, we should be careful not to eat too much liver and liver product foods.

Having too much vitamin A - more than 1.5mg (1,500 micrograms) of vitamin A per day from food and supplements - over many years may make your bones more likely to fracture when you are older.

People who eat liver or liver pâté once a week may be having more than an average of 1.5mg of vitamin A per day. If you eat liver or liver products every week, you may want to consider cutting back or not eating them as often. Also, avoid taking any supplements that contain vitamin A and fish liver oils, which are also high in vitamin A.

Women who have been through the menopause, and older men, should avoid having more than 1.5mg of vitamin A per week from food and supplements. This is because older people are at a higher risk of bone fracture. This means not eating liver and liver products more than once a week, or having smaller portions. It also means not taking any supplements containing vitamin A, including fish liver oil, if they do eat liver once a week.

Pregnant women should avoid liver and liver products and vitamin A supplements.

Eating meat when you're pregnant

Meat can generally be part of a pregnant woman's diet. However, pregnant women should avoid:

raw and undercooked meat because of the risk of toxoplasmosis - make sure any meat you eat is well cooked before eating

pâté of all types, including vegetable pâté - they can contain listeria, a type of bacteria that could harm your unborn baby

liver and liver products - these foods are very high in vitamin A, and too much vitamin A can harm the unborn child

game meats such as goose, partridge or pheasant - these may contain lead shot

Read more about foods to avoid in pregnancy.

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Meat is a good source of protein. Find out more about meat and nutrition, and how meat - including chicken, pork, lamb and beef - can form part of a healthy diet when cooked, stored and prepared safely.

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Vegetarian and Vegan Diets in Teens - KV Healthcare

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Contributor Dr. Elise Herman Although still a minority, more people are exploring plant-based diets, including teens. If your teen has expressed interest in this, you may wonder if being a vegetarian […]

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For much of the world, vegetarian diets are largely a matter of economics. Meat can cost a lot more than beans or rice, so meat is a special-occasion dish (if it's eaten at all).

In countries like the United States where meat is not as expensive, people often eat vegetarian diets for reasons other than cost. These can include:

parental preferences

religious or other beliefs

health issues

concern over animal rights or the environment

No matter the reason, if you eat a vegetarian diet, be sure to get the nutrition you need by including plenty of fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes (like beans, soy, and lentils), nuts, and seeds. Be careful when it comes to processed foods, which tend to be low in nutrients and high in fat, calories, and salt.

What Are the Types of Vegetarian and Semi-Vegetarian Diets?

People can eat different kinds of vegetarian diets:

A vegetarian eats no meat at all, including poultry or fish.

A lacto-ovo vegetarian eats dairy products and eggs.

A lacto vegetarian eats dairy products but not eggs.

An ovo vegetarian eats eggs but not dairy products.

A vegan (pronounced: VEE-gun) does not eat eggs, dairy, or other animal products like honey and gelatin.

Many people try to eat the amount of meat in their diets. Some people who don't eat red meat but may eat poultry or fish consider themselves semi-vegetarians, sometimes called flexitarians. People who follow a vegetarian diet but eat fish and seafood are called pescatarians.

Are Vegetarian Diets OK for Teens?

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics endorses vegetarian eating, saying that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets, including total vegetarian or vegan diets, are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."

So what does this mean for you? Being a vegetarian is a good choice if you can plan a well-balanced diet. Simply dropping some foods from your diet isn't the way to go if you're interested in maintaining good health, a high energy level, and strong muscles and bones.

Vegetarians must include these key nutrients into a vegetarian diet:

If meat, fish, dairy products, and/or eggs are not going to be part of your diet, you'll need to know how to get enough of these nutrients. The stricter the diet, the harder it will be to get enough of these from the foods you eat.

Talk to your doctor or a registered dietitian to see if you need to take daily vitamin and mineral supplements.

Iron

Vegetarians can get enough iron in the plant-based foods they eat. Sea vegetables like nori, wakame, and dulse are very high in iron. Less exotic but still good options are iron-fortified breakfast cereals, legumes (chickpeas, lentils, and baked beans), soybeans and tofu, dried fruit (raisins and figs), pumpkin seeds, broccoli, and blackstrap molasses. Eating these foods along with foods high in vitamin C (citrus fruits and juices, tomatoes, and broccoli) will help your body absorb iron better.

Girls need more iron because some is lost during menstruation. Some girls who are vegetarians may not get enough iron from their diet and may need a daily supplement. Check with your doctor about your own iron needs.

Calcium

Milk and yogurt are good sources of calcium if you're eating dairy products. Tofu, calcium-fortified milk alternatives, calcium-fortified orange juice, green leafy vegetables, and dried figs are also excellent ways to get calcium. Remember: You're building strong bones during the teen years to last for the rest of your life.

Because women are more likely to have osteoporosis (weak bones), it's particularly important for girls to make sure they get enough calcium. If you don't get enough in your diet, your doctor may recommend taking a calcium supplement.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D helps get calcium into the bones. Your body makes vitamin D when your skin is exposed to sunlight. Cow's milk is top on the list for food sources of this vitamin. Vegans can try vitamin D-fortified milk alternatives and fortified breakfast cereals.

Your doctor may recommend a daily vitamin D supplement.

Protein

Vegetarians can get all the protein they need by eating a variety of plant foods throughout the day. Choose nuts and nut butters, tofu and other soy products, beans, lentils, seeds, grains, cereals, and vegetables to get all the protein your body needs. Lacto-ovo vegetarians also get protein from eggs and dairy products.

If you don't think you're getting enough protein in your diet, talk to your doctor or a registered dietitian.

Vitamin B12

B12 is an essential vitamin found in animal products, including eggs and dairy. Fortified milk alternatives, fortified breakfast cereals, and nutritional yeast also have this important vitamin. It's hard for vegans to get enough vitamin B12 so you may need a B12 supplement.

Fat, Calories, and Fiber

Besides vitamins and minerals, vegetarians need to keep an eye on calories and fat. Vegetarian diets tend to be high in fiber and low in fat and calories. That may be good for people who need to lose weight or lower their cholesterol, but it can be a problem for kids and teens who are still growing. High-fiber diets tend to be more filling, so some vegetarians may feel full before they've eaten enough calories to keep a healthy weight.

Some vegetarians may not get enough healthy omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fats are good for heart health and are found in fish and eggs. Plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids include some vegetable oils (such as soybean, canola, and flaxseed), chia seeds, ground flax seeds, and walnuts.

Getting Some Guidance

Let your doctor know if you eat a vegetarian diet or are planning to. Your doctor can talk to you about healthy vegetarian diets or recommend a registered dietitian to help you plan a vegetarian diet that's right for you.

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People choose vegetarianism for a variety of reasons. This article describes different types of vegetarianism and provides advice on ways for vegetarians to get all the nutrients they need.

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There is a whimsical elegance to places that have experienced lifetimes of occupants, as if hiding a secret that only the ghosts can relay, and in these eerie destinations, they just might clue you in. Behind their opulent facades hides a skeleton-or two. The creek of a floorboard or the flicker of a light is just the beginning of the frightening tales these locations have to tell. From the pair of "suicide brides" who took their lives in the same room decades apart to the headless apparition of a famous royal, the dark histories behind these places are as spooky as they are beautiful. Take a tour of these stunning houses, ocean liners, restaurants, and hotels to see why visitors never want to leave-even after death.

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The 32 Most Beautiful Haunted Destinations Around the World

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There is a whimsical elegance to places that have experienced lifetimes of occupants, as if hiding a secret that only the ghosts can relay, and in these eerie destinations, they just might clue you in. Behind their opulent facades hides a skeleton-or two.

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"Our family lived among the dead for a decade. The farm, known to us as the old Arnold Estate, was where we all came to understand that we are not alone and there is something beyond our mortal existence, though none of us can tell you precisely what is or where we go after death."

- Andrea Perron

The mystery of life, death, and the afterlife is something we might not ever comprehend fully in this realm, but it is the fascination, the curiosity about it that keeps us guessing and searching for answers to our most esoteric questions about human existence.

In June of 1970, my mother, Carolyn Perron discovered the farm quite by accident though, as we looked back in retrospect, it seems to bear that our family was called to that place in the country -- Harrisville, RI. My parents bought the place in December of 1970, and we lived there until June 1980. We experienced continual paranormal encounters beginning from the day we moved in until the day the family moved to Georgia. Having graduated from Burrillville High School in 1976, I left the home I loved, attending Chatham College in Pittsburgh, PA. In 1980 my mother informed me that the sale of the farm was pending. I was heartbroken by the news. Despite the trials, it was "home," and I loved it. Though we abandoned our place in the country, it never left us.

In 2007, I began writing the manuscript which became the trilogy "House of Darkness: House of Light," and I relocated to Georgia to be with my family to write our story. This task proved to be quite an excursion, spawning several nightmares while we exhumed our memories of the dead. Often painful, it has also been a healing process, as each of us revisited a past impacting our present, clearly mapping the future of a family. Many have spoken and written about fragments of our story. Now is the time to tell the whole truth about what happened in the farmhouse, alive with death. We spent a very illuminating decade living among the spirits. It is a tale worth telling because it is true.

As it turns out, you can go home again. Thanks to Cory and Jennifer Heinzen and now Jacqueline Nunez, we have been afforded access to the place that will always be my home in heart."

​

- Andrea Perron

Read more

Madison Heinzen is an experienced paranormal investigator who started joining her father on investigations when she was thirteen years old, then occupying the farmhouse with her parents before Jacqueline purchased it from their family. She has investigated several places throughout the New England area with exposure to various equipment and techniques for paranormal investigations. Madison has an avid following on TikTok, Instagram and Facebook.

Our Team of Staff and Collaborators:

We are proud of the team of investigators, mediums, and tour guides who have joined us to bring you a variety of experiences at The Conjuring House. Each professional is skilled, knowledgeable about the house, and ready to lead you on your adventure.

The Spirits Among Us

The time's come to play, here in my garden of shadows.

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"Our family lived among the dead for a decade. The farm, known to us as the old Arnold Estate, was where we all came to understand that we are not alone and there is something beyond our mortal existence, though none of us can tell you precisely what is or where we go after death."

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You may think that being haunted would be a bad thing, but for many places in the United States, it can be a tourist draw. Ghost stories attract both believers and skeptics all year-round, and especially during Halloween.

Often, these ghost stories are based on people who died under unfortunate circumstances, like an old man falsely accused of witchcraft, or a president assassinated in his second term. Many involve verifiable historical events, rumors that strain credulity or a combination of both. Below, are seven places in the United States that have a reputation for being haunted.

1. Howard Street Cemetery (Salem, Massachusetts)

Salem, Massachusetts is most known for being the site of the famous witch trials in 1692 and 1693. More than 200 people were accused of witchcraft, and 19 were put to death by hanging. In addition, there was one man, 81-year-old Giles Corey, who was pressed to death with weights.

Corey's death supposedly occurred in the present-day Howard Street Cemetery, and the brutal way in which he died sparked rumors that his ghost haunted the grounds. Salem's seventh mayor, Charles Wentworth Upham, mentioned this "popular superstition" in his 1867 two-volume book Salem Witchcraft, though he didn't seem to believe the superstition himself.

2. The White House (Washington, D.C.)

People have long claimed to have spotted various presidential ghosts in the White House, but the commander-in-chief people claim to see most frequently is Abraham Lincoln. One of the first people to say they saw Lincoln's ghost in the White House may have been Jeremiah "Jerry" Smith, who worked there between the late 1860s and the early 1900s. In addition to Lincoln, Smith claimed to have seen the ghosts of Ulysses S. Grant and William McKinley, whose assassination Smith was present for in 1901.

Since then, many other people have claimed to see the ghost of Lincoln, including British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Allegedly, Churchill saw Lincoln's ghost after stepping out of a bath in the White House.

3. RMS Queen Mary (Long Beach, California)

The RMS Queen Mary is a retired British ship that sailed between 1936 and 1967. It was primarily a passenger ship, except for a period during World War II in which it transported Allied troops and earned itself the nickname "The Grey Ghost."

Since 1967, the retired ship has been permanently docked in Long Beach, California, where it serves as a hotel and haunted tourist attraction. The Queen Mary hotel claims to host such spirits as an engineer who died in the engine room, a girl who drowned in the first-class pool and a "lady in white"-a type of specter that often pops up in other ghost stories.

4. New Jersey Pine Barrens (New Jersey)

The New Jersey Pine Barrens is a National Reserve that stretches across seven of the state's counties, and is the rumored home of the Jersey Devil. According to legend, in the early 18th century a woman by the name of Leeds gave birth to a devil-like creature that terrorized the surrounding area and has lived there ever since. But the reason this legend spread is likely due to a rivalry Benjamin Franklin had with an almanac publisher.

The American Almanack's first publisher, Daniel Leeds, had a reputation as "Satan's Harbinger" among his fellow Quakers. When Dianel's son Titan took over publication of The American Almanack, Franklin used his Poor Richard's Almanack to help spread supernatural rumors about Titan. These various accusations eventually morphed into a legend about the Leeds Devil, or the Jersey Devil.

5. The Stanley Hotel (Estes Park, Colorado)

The Stanley Hotel in Estes Park, Colorado is most famous for inspiring the haunted Overlook Hotel in Stephen King's 1977 novel The Shining. Although the real-life hotel has been open since 1909, it wasn't until after the publication of King's book and the release of the 1980 film adaptation that rumors of ghosts began to swirl around the Stanley Hotel. The hotel actively promotes the idea that it's haunted, offering visitors a "spirited night tour" of the premises.

6. The Whaley House (San Diego, California)

In the 1850s, a man named Thomas Whaley decided to build a home for his family in San Diego, California. Supposedly, the spot he picked for his house was the site of an execution that had happened just a few years before. Since then, legend has it that the executed man-James "Yankee Jim" Robinson-has haunted the house.

The museum that now owns and operates the house claims that other spirits have since made their presence known in the residence. These spirits include Thomas himself, his wife Anna and their son who died as an infant.

7. Fort Mifflin (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)

Fort Mifflin-located on the Delaware River in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania-served as a Continental Army fort during the American Revolution, and later a Union prison during the Civil War. Decommissioned in 1962, the fort is now a National Historic Landmark. The site offers candlelight ghost tours, a "sleep with the ghosts" program and public paranormal investigation events.

HISTORY Vault: The Lincoln Assassination

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7 Famously Haunted Places Around the US | HISTORY

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Rumors of ghosts haunt U.S. cemeteries, hotels and even the White House.

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These are the most haunted places in the United States

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From abandoned asylums to ghost-ridden houses, discover these haunts’ spine-chilling histories.

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The Galápagos Islands are a chain of islands, or archipelago, in the eastern Pacific Ocean. They are part of the country of Ecuador, in South America. The Galápagos lie about 966 kilometers (600 miles) off of the Ecuadorian coast.

There are thirteen major islands and a handful of smaller islands that make up the Galápagos archipelago. The largest of the islands is called Isabela. It is approximately 129 kilometers (80 miles) long. Repeated volcanic eruptions helped to form the rugged mountain landscape of the Galápagos Islands.

The Galápagos are best known for their diverse array of plant and animal species. Many species are endemic, which means they are not found anywhere else in the world. These include the giant Galápagos tortoise ( Chelonoidis nigra), the marine iguana ( Amblyrhynchus cristatus), the flightless cormorant ( Phalacrocoraz harrisi), and the Galápagos penguin. The Galápagos penguin ( Spheniscus mendiculus) is the only penguin species to live in the Northern Hemisphere.

Environmental conditions make the Galápagos a unique island ecosystem. The Galápagos Islands are located near the equator, yet they receive cool ocean currents. This makes for a strange mix of tropical and temperate climates. For most of their history, the islands have been extremely isolated. This combination of factors created a laboratory for the evolution of an unusual mix of plant and animal species.

Scientists have studied this complex ecosystem for more than 180 years. British naturalist Charles Darwin may be the most influential scientist to have visited the Galápagos Islands. Darwin first came to the Galápagos in 1835, on a ship called the HMS Beagle. His observations of wildlife on the island inspired his theory of evolution by natural selection.

Today, scientists study the archipelago's aquatic ecosystems as well. For example, marine ecologist Salome Ursula Burglass works to identify and describe the plant and animal species living on and around the underwater, deep-sea volcanoes, or seamounts, in the Galápagos.

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The Galápagos Islands are a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean best known for their impressive array of plant and animal species.

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Plants are autotrophs, which means they produce their own food. They use the process of photosynthesis to transform water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide into oxygen, and simple sugars that the plant uses as fuel. These primary producers form the base of an ecosystem and fuel the next trophic levels. Without this process, life on Earth as we know it would not be possible. We depend on plants for oxygen production and food.

Subjects

Biology, Earth Science, Chemistry, Ecology

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Plants are autotrophs, which means they produce their own food. They use the process of photosynthesis to transform water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide into oxygen, and simple sugars that the plant uses as fuel. These primary producers form the base of an ecosystem and fuel the next trophic levels.

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An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and landscapes, work together to form a bubble of life.

Subjects

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Meteorology, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography

An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and landscape, work together to form a bubble of life. Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity.

Every factor in an ecosystem depends on every other factor, either directly or indirectly. A change in the temperature of an ecosystem will often affect what plants will grow there, for instance. Animals that depend on plants for food and shelter will have to adapt to the changes, move to another ecosystem, or perish.

Ecosystems can be very large or very small. Tide pools, the ponds left by the ocean as the tide goes out, are complete, tiny ecosystems. Tide pools contain seaweed, a kind of algae, which uses photosynthesis to create food. Herbivores such as abalone eat the seaweed. Carnivores such as sea stars eat other animals in the tide pool, such as clams or mussels. Tide pools depend on the changing level of ocean water. Some organisms, such as seaweed, thrive in an aquatic environment, when the tide is in and the pool is full. Other organisms, such as hermit crabs, cannot live underwater and depend on the shallow pools left by low tides. In this way, the biotic parts of the ecosystem depend on abiotic factors.

The whole surface of Earth is a series of connected ecosystems. Ecosystems are often connected in a larger biome. Biomes are large sections of land, sea, or atmosphere. Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all types of biomes, for example. They're organized very generally, based on the types of plants and animals that live in them. Within each forest, each pond, each reef, or each section of tundra, you'll find many different ecosystems.

The biome of the Sahara Desert, for instance, includes a wide variety of ecosystems. The arid climate and hot weather characterize the biome. Within the Sahara are oasis ecosystems, which have date palm trees, freshwater, and animals such as crocodiles. The Sahara also has dune ecosystems, with the changing landscape determined by the wind. Organisms in these ecosystems, such as snakes or scorpions, must be able to survive in sand dunes for long periods of time. The Sahara even includes a marine environment, where the Atlantic Ocean creates cool fogs on the Northwest African coast. Shrubs and animals that feed on small trees, such as goats, live in this Sahara ecosystem.

Even similar-sounding biomes could have completely different ecosystems. The biome of the Sahara Desert, for instance, is very different from the biome of the Gobi Desert in Mongolia and China. The Gobi is a cold desert, with frequent snowfall and freezing temperatures. Unlike the Sahara, the Gobi has ecosystems based not in sand, but kilometers of bare rock. Some grasses are able to grow in the cold, dry climate. As a result, these Gobi ecosystems have grazing animals such as gazelles and even takhi, an endangered species of wild horse.

Even the cold desert ecosystems of the Gobi are distinct from the freezing desert ecosystems of Antarctica. Antarcticas thick ice sheet covers a continent made almost entirely of dry, bare rock. Only a few mosses grow in this desert ecosystem, supporting only a few birds, such as skuas.

Threats to Ecosystems

For thousands of years, people have interacted with ecosystems. Many cultures developed around nearby ecosystems. Many Native American tribes of North Americas Great Plains developed a complex lifestyle based on the native plants and animals of plains ecosystems, for instance. Bison, a large grazing animal native to the Great Plains, became the most important biotic factor in many Plains Indians cultures, such as the Lakota or Kiowa. Bison are sometimes mistakenly called buffalo. These tribes used buffalo hides for shelter and clothing, buffalo meat for food, and buffalo horn for tools. The tallgrass prairie of the Great Plains supported bison herds, which tribes followed throughout the year.

As human populations have grown, however, people have overtaken many ecosystems. The tallgrass prairie of the Great Plains, for instance, became farmland. As the ecosystem shrunk, fewer bison could survive. Today, a few herds survive in protected ecosystems such as Yellowstone National Park.

In the tropical rain forest ecosystems surrounding the Amazon River in South America, a similar situation is taking place. The Amazon rain forest includes hundreds of ecosystems, including canopies, understories, and forest floors. These ecosystems support vast food webs.

Canopies are ecosystems at the top of the rainforest, where tall, thin trees such as figs grow in search of sunlight. Canopy ecosystems also include other plants, called epiphytes, which grow directly on branches. Understory ecosystems exist under the canopy. They are darker and more humid than canopies. Animals such as monkeys live in understory ecosystems, eating fruits from trees as well as smaller animals like beetles. Forest floor ecosystems support a wide variety of flowers, which are fed on by insects like butterflies. Butterflies, in turn, provide food for animals such as spiders in forest floor ecosystems.

Human activity threatens all these rain forest ecosystems in the Amazon. Thousands of acres of land are cleared for farmland, housing, and industry. Countries of the Amazon rain forest, such as Brazil, Venezuela, and Ecuador, are underdeveloped. Cutting down trees to make room for crops such as soy and corn benefits many poor farmers. These resources give them a reliable source of income and food. Children may be able to attend school, and families are able to afford better health care.

However, the destruction of rain forest ecosystems has its costs. Many modern medicines have been developed from rain forest plants. Curare, a muscle relaxant, and quinine, used to treat malaria, are just two of these medicines. Many scientists worry that destroying the rain forest ecosystem may prevent more medicines from being developed.

The rain forest ecosystems also make poor farmland. Unlike the rich soils of the Great Plains, where people destroyed the tallgrass prairie ecosystem, Amazon rain forest soil is thin and has few nutrients. Only a few seasons of crops may grow before all the nutrients are absorbed. The farmer or agribusiness must move on to the next patch of land, leaving an empty ecosystem behind.

Rebounding Ecosystems

Ecosystems can recover from destruction, however. The delicate coral reef ecosystems in the South Pacific are at risk due to rising ocean temperatures and decreased salinity. Corals bleach, or lose their bright colors, in water that is too warm. They die in water that isnt salty enough. Without the reef structure, the ecosystem collapses. Organisms such as algae, plants such as seagrass, and animals such as fish, snakes, and shrimp disappear.

Most coral reef ecosystems will bounce back from collapse. As ocean temperature cools and retains more salt, the brightly colored corals return. Slowly, they build reefs. Algae, plants, and animals also return.

Individual people, cultures, and governments are working to preserve ecosystems that are important to them. The government of Ecuador, for instance, recognizes ecosystem rights in the countrys constitution. The so-called Rights of Nature says Nature or [Earth], where life is reproduced and exists, has the right to exist, persist, maintain and regenerate its vital cycles, structure, functions and its processes in evolution. Every person, people, community or nationality, will be able to demand the recognitions of rights for nature before the public bodies. Ecuador is home not only to rain forest ecosystems, but also river ecosystems and the remarkable ecosystems on the Galapagos Islands.

Fast Fact

Bactrian and Dromedary
Different desert ecosystems support different species of camels. The dromedary camel is tall and fast, with long legs. It is native to the hot, dry deserts of North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. The Bactrian camel has a thicker coat, is shorter, and has more body fat than the dromedary. The Bactrian camel is native to the cold desert steppes of Central Asia.

It is easy to tell the two types of camels apart: Dromedaries have one hump, Bactrians have two.

Fast Fact

Coral Triangle
The most diverse ecosystem in the world is the huge Coral Triangle in Southeast Asia. The Coral Triangle stretches from the Philippines in the north to the Solomon Islands in the east to the islands of Indonesia and Papua in the west.

Fast Fact

Ecocide
The destruction of entire ecosystems by human beings has been called ecocide, or murder of the environment.

Fast Fact

Human Ecosystem
"Human ecosystem" is the term scientists use to study the way people interact with their ecosystems. The study of human ecosystems considers geography, ecology, technology, economics, politics, and history. The study of urban ecosystems focuses on cities and suburbs.

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Illustrators

Mary Crooks, National Geographic Society

Editors

Jeannie Evers, Emdash Editing, Emdash Editing

Producer

National Geographic Society

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Last Updated

October 19, 2023

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An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and landscapes, work together to form a bubble of life.

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Image

Photograph by Frans Lanting

Biodiversity is a term used to describe the enormous variety of life on Earth. It can be used more specifically to refer to all of the species in one region or ecosystem. Biodiversity refers to every living thing, including plants, bacteria, animals, and humans. Scientists have estimated that there are around 8.7 million species of plants and animals in existence. However, only around 1.2 million species have been identified and described so far, most of which are insects. This means that millions of other organisms remain a complete mystery.

Over generations, all of the species that are currently alive today have evolved unique traits that make them distinct from other species. These differences are what scientists use to tell one species from another. Organisms that have evolved to be so different from one another that they can no longer reproduce with each other are considered different species. All organisms that can reproduce with each other fall into one species.

Scientists are interested in how much biodiversity there is on a global scale, given that there is still so much biodiversity to discover. They also study how many species exist in single ecosystems, such as a forest, grassland, tundra, or lake. A single grassland can contain a wide range of species, from beetles to snakes to antelopes. Ecosystems that host the most biodiversity tend to have ideal environmental conditions for plant growth, like the warm and wet climate of tropical regions. Ecosystems can also contain species too small to see with the naked eye. Looking at samples of soil or water through a microscope reveals a whole world of bacteria and other tiny organisms.

Some areas in the world, such as areas of Mexico, South Africa, Brazil, the southwestern United States, and Madagascar, have more biodiversity than others. Areas with extremely high levels of biodiversity are called hotspots. Endemic species-species that are only found in one particular location-are also found in hotspots.

All of the Earth's species work together to survive and maintain their ecosystems. For example, the grass in pastures feeds cattle. Cattle then produce manure that returns nutrients to the soil, which helps to grow more grass. This manure can also be used to fertilize cropland. Many species provide important benefits to humans, including food, clothing, and medicine.

Much of the Earth's biodiversity, however, is in jeopardy due to human consumption and other activities that disturb and even destroy ecosystems. Pollution, climate change, and population growth are all threats to biodiversity. These threats have caused an unprecedented rise in the rate of species extinction. Some scientists estimate that half of all species on Earth will be wiped out within the next century. Conservation efforts are necessary to preserve biodiversity and protect endangered species and their habitats.

National Geographic Society

March 11, 2024

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Biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. While Earth's biodiversity is so rich that many species have yet to be discovered, many species are being threatened with extinction due to human activities, putting the Earth's magnificent biodiversity at risk.

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Image

Walter Meayers Edwards

The desert biome covers about one-fifth of Earth's surface. This biome has a layer of soil that can either be sandy, gravelly, or stony, depending on the type of desert. Deserts usually get at most 50 centimeters (20 inches) of rainfall a year, and the organisms that live in deserts are adapted to this extremely dry climate.

Plants in deserts have adaptations to conserve water. For example, cacti have enlarged stems to store water, as well as spines to protect these water reserves from thirsty animals. Animals such as the black-tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus californicus) are also adapted to life in the desert: Their extra-long ears help to transfer out excess heat from their body into the air.

The four main types of desert include hot and dry deserts, semi-arid deserts, coastal deserts, and cold deserts. In hot and dry deserts, also known as arid deserts, the temperatures are warm and dry year-round. Some famous arid deserts include the Sahara Desert that covers much of the African continent and the Mojave Desert located in the southwest of the United States. Semi-arid deserts are a bit cooler than hot and dry deserts. The long, dry summers in semi-arid deserts are followed by winters with some rain. Semi-arid deserts are found in North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia. Coastal deserts are a bit more humid than other types of deserts. Although heavy fogs blow in from the coast, rainfall is still rare. The Atacama Desert of Chile in South America is an example of a coastal desert. Cold deserts are still dry but have extremely low temperatures in comparison to the other types of deserts. The Antarctic is an example of a cold desert.

Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Author

National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society

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Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society

Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

Last Updated

October 19, 2023

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Deserts are extremely dry environments that are home to well-adapted plants and animals. The main types of deserts include hot and dry deserts, semi-arid deserts, coastal deserts, and cold deserts.