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President Roosevelt created the National Youth Administration (NYA) on June 26, 1935 with Executive Order No. 7086, under authority of the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 [1].

When Roosevelt signed the Executive Order creating the NYA, he stated: "I have determined that we shall do something for the Nation's unemployed youth because we can ill afford to lose the skill and energy of these young men and women. They must have their chance in school, their turn as apprentices, and their opportunity for jobs-a chance to work and earn for themselves" [2].

The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) already employed many young American men on forestry projects. The NYA filled two needs that the CCC did not: The employment needs of young women and the greater variety of work and training opportunities needed by young people as a whole [3]. The NYA provided part-time work for two groups: "1. Youth who were in school but who needed financial assistance in order to continue their education; and 2. Youth who were out of school, unemployed and needy" [4]. Ages of eligibility for the first group were 16-24 and for the second, 16-25 [5].

Like the workers of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), young men and women in the NYA engaged in a wide variety of public works and public service projects, such as: Cancer research; flood control studies; agricultural experimentation; refurbishing furniture; health care; construction of recreational facilities; automotive repair; building maintenance; landscaping of public grounds; library services; forestry and soil work; and national defense and industry training (e.g., aviation mechanics) [6].

During the first four years of its existence the NYA was a division within the WPA; over the next three years it was a division within the Federal Security Agency; and for most of its last year it was a division of the War Manpower Commission [7]. Aubrey Williams served as the administrator of the NYA for almost the entire duration of the program, from Roosevelt's signing of the Executive Order in 1935 until September 10, 1943 [8].

The NYA program ended on January 1, 1944, per the Labor-Federal Security Appropriations Act of 1944 and the Second Deficiency Appropriations Act of 1943 [9]. By the time it closed its doors, the NYA had employed 2,677,000 young men and women in its out-of-school work program and 2,134,000 in its student work program [10]. The work of these young Americans motivated thousands of letter-writers to attest "to the educational, social, democratic, and human values that have accrued to America from this investment" [11].

Total expenditures of the NYA program were $662 million, of which $468 million went to the out-of-school work program and $170 million went to the student work program (the remaining amount went to administration) [12].

Sources: (1) The American Presidency Project, Franklin D. Roosevelt: 97 - Executive Order No. 7086, June 26, 1935, University of California Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15092, accessed February 10, 2015. (2) Federal Security Agency and War Manpower Commission, Final Report of the National Youth Administration, Fiscal Years 1936-1943, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1944, p. 23. (3) Ibid. (4) Ibid. at p. 24. (5) Ibid. at pp. 49 and 26, respectively. (6) Ibid. at pp. 59-63. (7) Ibid. at p. 25. (8) Note 2 at p. iii. (9) Ibid. at pp. iii-iv. (10) Ibid. at pp. 109 and 82 respectively. (11) Ibid. at p. 82. (12) Ibid. at p. 240.

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National Youth Administration (NYA) (1935) - Living New Deal

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President Roosevelt created the National Youth Administration (NYA) on June 26, 1935 with Executive Order No. 7086, under authority of the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 [1]. When Roosevelt signed the Executive Order creating the NYA, he stated: "I have determined that... read more

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When the New Deal began, the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) was an existing federal agency that had been created in 1918, with several predecessor agencies dating back to 1893 [1]. It built roads in national parks and forests, assisted states with road construction, helped beautify highways, and conducted various transportation studies (e.g. safety and collision research, subsurface examinations, erosion testing, and maintenance-cost studies). The agency was lodged within the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

BPR began receiving enhanced funding during the Hoover Administration, but the agency's road building expanded dramatically under the New Deal [2]. During the Roosevelt Administration, BPR worked on two kinds of highway projects related directly to New Deal employment efforts. The first group was called "work-relief highway projects" and received funding for material and equipment from the Public Works Administration (PWA) and funding for labor from the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) and, later, the Works Progress Administration (WPA). BPR assumed the administrative and supervisory role, in cooperation with the various state road agencies. The second kind of BPR intervention was "loan-and-grant highway projects," where federal money would be loaned or granted to the states and then the states would hire private contractors to perform the work [3].

During fiscal years 1934 through 1939, the BPR supervised and administered at least 7,000 miles of work-relief highway projects and 17,000 miles of loan-and-grant highway projects [4]. BPR also worked with the WPA on other projects, such as traffic safety improvements and the reconstruction of flood-damaged bridges [5].

In 1939, the Bureau of Public Roads was put under the Federal Works Agency and renamed the Public Roads Administration. During the entire New Deal period, Thomas "Chief" MacDonald was the supervisor of the Bureau of Public Roads and Public Roads Administration [6]. In 1970, after several additional reorganizations, the Public Roads Administration ceased to exist and its functions were absorbed into the newly-created Federal Highway Administration [7].

Sources ( all reports of the Bureau of Public Roads noted below can be accessed at the Internet Archive, http://archive.org/): (1) "Records of the Bureau of Public Roads," National Archives and Records Administration, http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/030.html, accessed May 15, 2015, and "Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1938," U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads, Washington, D.C., September 15, 1938, p. 1. (2) Compare the Reports of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads for 1931, 1934, 1935 and 1938, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads, Washington, D.C. (3) See 1938 report at note 1, pp. 51-54. (4) "Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1939," U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Roads, Washington, D.C., September 1, 1939, p. 55-56. (5) "Traffic Problem: Relief Funds Improve Roads," Work: A Journal of Progress, District of Columbia WPA, October 1936, pp. 30-31; and note 3, 1938 report, p. 50. (6) "Thomas Harris MacDonald," Federal Highway Administration, http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/administrators/tmacdonald.htm, accessed May 16, 2015. (7) See note 1, "Records of the Bureau of Public Roads."

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Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) (1918) - Living New Deal

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(renamed Public Roads Administration, 1939) When the New Deal began, the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) was an existing federal agency that had been created in 1918, with several predecessor agencies dating back to 1893 [1]. It built roads in... read more

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The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC) was a voluntary public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men. Originally for young men ages 18-25, it was eventually expanded to ages 17-28. Robert Fechner was the first director of this agency, succeeded by James McEntee following Fechner's death. The CCC was a major part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal that provided manual labor jobs related to the conservation and development of natural resources in rural lands owned by federal, state, and local governments. The CCC was designed to provide jobs for young men and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States. Maximum enrollment at any one time was 300,000. Through the course of its nine years in operation, 3 million young men participated in the CCC, which provided them with shelter, clothing, and food, together with a wage of $30 (equivalent to $590 in 2019) per month ($25 of which had to be sent home to their families).

The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs. Sources written at the time claimed an individual's enrollment in the CCC led to improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC also led to a greater public awareness and appreciation of the outdoors and the nation's natural resources, and the continued need for a carefully planned, comprehensive national program for the protection and development of natural resources.

The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans. Approximately 15,000 Native Americans participated in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression.

By 1942, with World War II and the draft in operation, the need for work relief declined, and Congress voted to close the program.

As governor of New York, Franklin Delano Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale, known as the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration (TERA). It was started in early 1932 to use men from the lists of the unemployed to improve our existing reforestation areas. Within its first year alone, more than 25,000 unemployed New Yorkers would be active in its paid conservation work. Long interested in conservation, as president, he proposed to Congress a full-scale national program on March 21, 1933:

I propose to create [the CCC] to be used in complex work, not interfering with normal employment and confining itself to forestry, the prevention of soil erosion, flood control, and similar projects. I call your attention to the fact that this type of work is of definite, practical value, not only through the prevention of great present financial loss but also as a means of creating future national wealth.

He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, workwear, and medical care for working in the national forests and other government properties. The Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5, 1933, which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, a former labor union official who served until 1939. The organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency. The order indicated that the program was to be supervised jointly by four government departments: Labor, which recruited the young men, War, which operated the camps, and Agriculture and Interior, which organized and supervised the work projects. A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative from each of the supervising departments. In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program. To end the opposition from labor unions (which wanted no training programs started when so many of their men were unemployed) Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, as director of the corps. William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to demonstrate that there would be no job training involved beyond simple manual labor.

Reserve officers from the U.S. Army were in charge of the camps, but there was no military training. General Douglas MacArthur was placed in charge of the program but said that the number of Army officers and soldiers assigned to the camps was affecting the readiness of the Regular Army. But the Army also found numerous benefits in the program. When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals and sergeants. The CCC also provided command experience to Organized Reserve Corps officers. George Marshall had "embraced" the CCC, unlike many of his brother officers.

Through the CCC, the Regular Army could assess the leadership performance of both Regular and Reserve officers. The CCC provided lessons which the Army used in developing its wartime and mobilization plans for training camps.

An implicit goal of the CCC was to restore morale in an era of 25% unemployment for all men and much higher rates for poorly educated teenagers. Jeffrey Suzik argues in "'Building Better Men': The CCC Boy and the Changing Social Ideal of Manliness" that the CCC provided work, pay, and an ideology of robust outdoor manhood to counter the Depression's effeminacy, as well as cash to help the family budget. Through a regime of heavy manual labor, civic and political education, and an all-male living and working environment, the CCC tried to build "better men" who would be economically independent and not effete. By 1939 there was a shift from the athletic manual worker to the highly trained citizen soldier ready for the war.

The legislation and mobilization of the program occurred quite rapidly. Roosevelt made his request to Congress on March 21, 1933; the legislation was submitted to Congress the same day; Congress passed it by voice vote on March 31; Roosevelt signed it the same day, then issued an executive order on April 5 creating the agency, appointing its director (Fechner), and assigning War Department corps area commanders to begin enrollment. The first CCC enrollee was selected April 8, and subsequent lists of unemployed men were supplied by state and local welfare and relief agencies for immediate enrollment. On April 17, the first camp, NF-1, Camp Roosevelt, was established at George Washington National Forest near Luray, Virginia. On June 18, the first of 161 soil erosion control camps was opened, in Clayton, Alabama. By July 1, 1933 there were 1,463 working camps with 250,000 junior enrollees (18-25 years of age); 28,000 veterans; 14,000 American Indians; and 25,000 adults in the Locally Men (LEM) program.

The typical CCC enrollee was a U.S. citizen, unmarried, unemployed male, 18-25 years of age. Normally his family was on local relief. Each enrollee volunteered and, upon passing a physical exam and/or a period of conditioning, was required to serve a minimum six-month period, with the option to serve as many as four periods, or up to two years, if employment outside the Corps was not possible. Enrollees worked 40 hours per week over five days, sometimes including Saturdays if poor weather dictated. In return they received $30 per month (equivalent to $590 in 2019) with a compulsory allotment of $22-25 (about equivalent to $460 in 2019) sent to a family dependent, as well as housing, food, clothing, and medical care.

Following the second Bonus Army march on Washington D.C., President Roosevelt amended the CCC program on May 11, 1933, to include work opportunities for veterans. Veteran qualifications differed from the junior enrollee; one needed to be certified by the Veterans Administration by an application. They could be any age, and married or single as long as they were in need of work. Veterans were generally assigned to entire veteran camps. Enrollees were eligible for the following "rated" positions to help with camp administration: senior leader, mess steward, storekeeper and two cooks; assistant leader, company clerk, assistant educational advisor and three second cooks. These men received additional pay ranging from $36 to $45 per month depending on their rating.

Each CCC camp was located in the area of particular conservation work to be performed and organized around a complement of up to 200 civilian enrollees in a designated numbered "company" unit. The CCC camp was a temporary community in itself, structured to have barracks (initially Army tents) for 50 enrollees each, officer/technical staff quarters, medical dispensary, mess hall, recreation hall, educational building, lavatory and showers, technical/administrative offices, tool room/blacksmith shop and motor pool garages.

The company organization of each camp had a dual-authority supervisory staff: firstly, Department of War personnel or Reserve officers (until July 1, 1939), a "company commander" and junior officer, who were responsible for overall camp operation, logistics, education and training; and secondly, ten to fourteen technical service civilians, including a camp "superintendent" and "foreman", employed by either the Departments of Interior or Agriculture, responsible for the particular fieldwork. Also included in camp operation were several non-technical supervisor LEMs, who provided knowledge of the work at hand, "lay of the land," and paternal guidance for inexperienced enrollees. Enrollees were organized into work detail units called "sections" of 25 men each, according to the barracks they resided in. Each section had an enrollee "senior leader" and "assistant leader" who were accountable for the men at work and in the barracks.

The CCC performed 300 types of work projects within ten approved general classifications:

1. Structural improvements: bridges, fire lookout towers, service buildings

2. Transportation: truck trails, minor roads, foot trails and airport landing fields

3. Erosion control: check dams, terracing, and vegetable covering

4. Flood control: irrigation, drainage, dams, ditching, channel work, riprapping

5. Forest culture: planting trees and shrubs, timber stand improvement, seed collection, nursery work

6. Forest protection: fire prevention, fire pre-suppression, firefighting, insect and disease control

7. Landscape and recreation: public camp and picnic ground development, lake and pond site clearing and development

8. Range: stock driveways, elimination of predatory animals

9. Wildlife: stream improvement, fish stocking, food and cover planting

10. Miscellaneous: emergency work, surveys, mosquito control

The responses to this seven-month experimental conservation program were enthusiastic. On October 1, 1933, Director Fechner was directed to arrange for the second period of enrollment. By January 1934, 300,000 men were enrolled. In July 1934, this cap was increased by 50,000 to include men from Midwest states that had been affected by drought. The temporary tent camps had also developed to include wooden barracks. An education program had been established, emphasizing job training and literacy.

Approximately 55% of enrollees were from rural communities, a majority of which were non-farm; 45% came from urban areas. Level of education for the enrollee averaged 3% illiterate; 38% had less than eight years of school; 48% did not complete high school; and 11% were high school graduates. At the time of entry, 70% of enrollees were malnourished and poorly clothed. Few had work experience beyond occasional odd jobs. Peace was maintained by the threat of "dishonorable discharge". "This is a training station; we're going to leave morally and physically fit to lick 'Old Man Depression,'" boasted the newsletter, Happy Days, of a North Carolina camp.

Because of the power of the Solid South white Democrats in Congress, who insisted on racial segregation, the New Deal programs were racially segregated; blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other. At this time, all the states of the South had passed legislation imposing racial segregation and, since the turn of the century, laws and constitutional provisions that disenfranchised most blacks; they were excluded from formal politics. Because of discrimination by white officials at the local and state levels, blacks in the South did not receive as many benefits as whites from New Deal programs.

In the first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, however, all the camps in the United States were segregated. Enrollment peaked at the end of 1935, when there were 500,000 men located in 2,600 camps in operation in all states and received equal pay and housing. Black leaders lobbied to secure leadership roles. Adult white men held the major leadership roles in all the camps. Director Fechner refused to appoint black adults to any supervisory positions except that of education director in the all-black camps.

The CCC operated a separate division for members of federally recognized tribes: the Indian Emergency Conservation Work (IECW or CCC-ID). Native men from reservations worked on roads, bridges, clinics, shelters, and other public works near their reservations. Although they were organized as groups classified as camps, no permanent camps were established for Native Americans. Instead, organized groups moved with their families from project to project and were provided with an additional rental allowance in their pay. The CCC often provided the only paid work, as many reservations were in remote rural areas. Enrollees had to be between the ages of 17 and 35.

During 1933, about half the male heads of households on the Sioux reservations in South Dakota were employed by the CCC-ID. With grants from the Public Works Administration (PWA), the Indian Division built schools and conducted an extensive road-building program in and around many reservations to improve infrastructure. The mission was to reduce erosion and improve the value of Indian lands. Crews built dams of many types on creeks, then sowed grass on the eroded areas from which the damming materials had been taken. They built roads and planted shelter-belts on federal lands. The steady income helped participants regain self-respect, and many used the funds to improve their lives. John Collier, the federal Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Daniel Murphy, the director of the CCC-ID, both based the program on Indian self-rule and the restoration of tribal lands, governments, and cultures. The next year, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which ended allotments and helped preserve tribal lands, and encouraged tribes to re-establish self-government.

Collier said of the CCC-Indian Division, "no previous undertaking in Indian Service has so largely been the Indians' own undertaking". Education programs also trained participants in gardening, stock raising, safety, native arts, and some academic subjects. IECW differed from other CCC activities in that it explicitly trained men in skills to be carpenters, truck drivers, radio operators, mechanics, surveyors, and technicians. With the passage of the National Defense Vocational Training Act of 1941, enrollees began participating in defense-oriented training. The government paid for the classes and after individuals completed courses and passed a competency test, guaranteed automatic employment in the defense work. A total of 85,000 Native Americans were enrolled in this training. This proved valuable social capital for the 24,000 alumni who later served in the military and the 40,000 who left the reservations for city jobs supporting the war effort.

Responding to favorable public opinion to alleviate unemployment, Congress approved the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, on April 8, 1935, which included continued funding for the CCC program through March 31, 1937. The age limit was expanded to 18-28 to include more men. From April 1, 1935 to March 31, 1936 was the period of greatest activity and work accomplished by the CCC program. Enrollment had peaked at 505,782 in about 2,900 camps by August 31, 1935, followed by a reduction to 350,000 enrollees in 2,019 camps by June 30, 1936. During this period the public response to the CCC program was overwhelmingly popular. A Gallup poll of April 18, 1936, asked: "Are you in favor of the CCC camps?"; 82% of respondents said yes, including 92% of Democrats and 67% of Republicans.

On June 28, 1937, the Civilian Conservation Corps was legally established and transferred from its original designation as the Emergency Conservation Work program. Funding was extended for three more years by Public Law No. 163, 75th Congress, effective July 1, 1937. Congress changed the age limits to 17-23 years old and changed the requirement that enrollees be on relief to "not regularly in attendance at school, or possessing full-time employment." The 1937 law mandated the inclusion of vocational and academic training for a minimum of 10 hours per week. Students in school were allowed to enroll during summer vacation. During this period, the CCC forces contributed to disaster relief following 1937 floods in New York, Vermont, and the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys, and response and clean-up after the 1938 hurricane in New England.

In 1939 Congress ended the independent status of the CCC, transferring it to the control of the Federal Security Agency. The National Youth Administration, U.S. Employment Service, the Office of Education, and the Works Progress Administration also had some responsibilities. About 5,000 Reserve officers for the camps were affected, as they were transferred to federal Civil Service, and military ranks and titles were eliminated. Despite the loss of overt military leadership in the camps by July 1940, with war underway in Europe and Asia, the government directed an increasing number of CCC projects on resources for national defense. It developed infrastructure for military training facilities and forest protection. By 1940 the CCC was no longer wholly a relief agency, was rapidly losing its non-military character, and it was becoming a system for work-training, as its ranks had become increasingly younger, with little experience.

Although the CCC was probably the most popular New Deal program, it never was authorized as a permanent agency. The program was reduced in scale as the Depression waned and employment opportunities improved. After conscription began in 1940, fewer eligible young men were available. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Roosevelt administration directed all federal programs to emphasize the war effort. Most CCC work, except for wildland firefighting, was shifted onto U.S. military bases to help with construction.

The CCC disbanded one year earlier than planned, as the 77th United States Congress ceased funding it. Operations were formally concluded at the end of the federal fiscal year on June 30, 1942. The end of the CCC program and closing of the camps involved arrangements to leave the incomplete work projects in the best possible state, the separation of about 1,800 appointed employees, the transfer of CCC property to the War and Navy Departments and other agencies, and the preparation of final accountability records. Liquidation of the CCC was ordered by Congress by the Labor-Federal Security Appropriation Act (56 Stat. 569) on July 2, 1942; and virtually completed on June 30, 1943. Liquidation appropriations for the CCC continued through April 20, 1948.

Some former CCC sites in good condition were reactivated from 1941 to 1947 as Civilian Public Service camps where conscientious objectors performed "work of national importance" as an alternative to military service. Other camps were used to hold Japanese, German and Italian Americans interned under the Western Defense Command's Enemy Alien Control Program, as well as Axis prisoners of war. Most of the Japanese American internment camps were built by the people held there. After the CCC disbanded, the federal agencies responsible for public lands organized their own seasonal fire crews, modeled after the CCC. These have performed a firefighting function formerly done by the CCC and provided the same sort of outdoor work experience for young people. Approximately 47 young men have died while in this line of duty.[citation needed ]

Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Vogel State Park, Blairsville, Georgia

Colossal Cave Mountain Park, Vail, Arizona

Conservation Corps State Museum at Camp San Luis Obispo, San Luis Obispo, California

|Civilian Conservation Corps Museum and Memorial at Monte Sano State Park, Huntsville, Alabama

Civilian Conservation Corps Legacy, Edinburg, Virginia

Civillan Conservation Corps Museum, Rhinelander, Wisconsin

Florida Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Highlands Hammock State Park, Sebring, Florida

Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at DeSoto State Park, Fort Payne, Alabama

Civilian Conservation Corps Camp in Koke's State Park, Waimea, Kauai County, Hawaii, National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii

Iowa Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Backbone State Park, Strawberry Point, Iowa

Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Lake Greenwood State Recreation Area, Ninety Six, South Carolina

Lou and Helen Adams Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Parker Dam State Park, Huston Township, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania.

Masker Museum at Promised Land State Park, Greentown, Pennsylvania

North East States Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Camp Conner, Stafford, Connecticut

New York State Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Gilbert Lake State Park, New Lisbon, New York

Civilian Conservation Corps Museum at Pocahontas State Park, Chesterfield, Virginia

West Virginia CCC Museum, Harrison County, West Virginia

James F. Justin Civilian Conservation Corps Museum

Michigan Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Roscommon, Michigan

Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Guernsey State Park, Guernsey, Wyoming

Bear Brook State Park Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Camp Historic District, Allenstown, New Hampshire

Starved Rock State Park (CCC Section in the visitors' center) Oglesby, IL

In several cities where CCC workers worked, statues were erected to commemorate them.

Pride of the Bowery (1940), the fourth movie in the East Side Kid series, is a movie about friendship, trouble, and boxing at a CCC camp.

The American Experience PBS series showcased documentaries on American history; it portrayed the life in Civilian Conservation Corps in 2009, in the first episode of Season 22.

Jeanette Ingold's novel Hitch (2012) is a young adult book about a teenager in the CCC.

The CCC program was never officially terminated. Congress provided funding for closing the remaining camps in 1942 with the equipment being reallocated. It became a model for conservation programs that were implemented in the period after World War II. Present-day corps are national, state, and local programs that engage primarily youth and young adults (ages 16-25) in community service, training, and educational activities. The nation's approximately 113 corps programs operate in 41 states and the District of Columbia. During 2004, they enrolled more than 23,000 young people. The Corps Network, known originally as the National Association of Service and Conservation Corps (NASCC), works to expand and enhance corps-type programs throughout the country. The Corps Network began in 1985 when the nation's first 24 Corps directors banded together to secure an advocate at the federal level and a repository of information on how best to start and manage a corps. Early financial assistance from the Ford, Hewlett and Mott Foundations was critical to establishing the association.

Another similar program is the National Civilian Community Corps, part of the AmeriCorps program, a team-based national service program in which young adults ages 18-24 spend 10 months working for non-profit and government organizations.

The CCC program became a model for the creation of team-based national service youth conservation programs such as the Student Conservation Association (SCA). The SCA, founded in 1959, is a nonprofit organization that offers conservation internships and summer trail crew opportunities to more than 4,000 people each year. The SCA mission is to build a new generation of conservation managers by inspiring lifelong stewardship of the environment and communities by engaging high school and college-age volunteers in hands-on service to the land. SCA program is active nationwide in the US, including national and state parks, forests, wildlife refuges, seashores and historic sites. SCA National Headquarters is located in Charlestown, New Hampshire, with regional offices across the country.

In 1976, Governor of California Jerry Brown established the California Conservation Corps. This program had many similar characteristics - residential centers, high expectations for participation, and emphasis on hard work on public lands. Young adults from different backgrounds were recruited for a term of one year. Corps members attended a training session called the Corpsmember Orientation Motivation Education and Training (COMET) program before being assigned to one of the various centers. Project work is also similar to the original CCC of the 1930s - work on public forests, state and federal parks.

Established in 1995, Environmental Corps, now Texas Conservation Corps (TxCC), is an American YouthWorks program which allows youth, ages 17 to 28, to contribute to the restoration and preservation of parks and public lands in Texas. The only conservation corps in Texas, TxcC is a nonprofit corporation based in Austin, Texas, which serves the entire state. Their work ranges from disaster relief to trail building to habitat restoration. TxCC has done projects in national, state, and city parks.

The Montana Conservation Corps (MCC) is a non-profit organization with a mission to equip young people with the skills and values to be vigorous citizens who improve their communities and environment. Collectively, MCC crews contribute more than 90,000 work hours each year. The MCC was established in 1991 by Montana's Human Resource Development Councils in Billings, Bozeman and Kalispell. Originally, it was a summer program for disadvantaged youth, although it has grown into an AmeriCorps-sponsored non-profit organization with six regional offices that serve Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, North Dakota, and South Dakota. All regions also offer Montana YES (Youth Engaged in Service) summer programs for teenagers who are 14 to 17 years old.

The Washington Conservation Corps (WCC) is a sub-agency of the Washington State Department of Ecology. It employs men and women 18 to 25 years old in a program to protect and enhance Washington's natural resources. WCC is a part of the AmeriCorps program.

Conservation Corps Minnesota & Iowa provides environmental stewardship and service-learning opportunities to youth and young adults while accomplishing conservation, natural resource management projects and emergency response work through its Young Adult Program and the Summer Youth Program. These programs emphasize the development of job and life skills by conservation and community service work.

The Vermont Youth Conservation Corps (VYCC) is a non-profit, youth service and education organization that hires Corps Members, aged 16-24, to work on high-priority conservation projects in Vermont. Through these work projects, Corps Members develop a strong work ethic, strengthen their leadership skills, and learn how to take personal responsibility for their actions. VYCC Crews work at VT State Parks, U.S. Forest Service Campgrounds, in local communities, and throughout the state's backcountry. The VYCC has also given aid to a similar program in North Carolina, which is currently in its infancy.

The Youth Conservation Corps is a youth conservation program present in federal lands around the country. The program gives youth aged 13-17 the opportunity to participate in conservation projects in a team setting. YCC programs are available in land managed by the National Park Service, the Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service. Projects can last up to 10 weeks and typically run over the summer. Some YCC programs are residential, meaning the participants are given housing on the land they work on. Projects may necessitate youth to camp in backcountry settings in order to work on trails or campsites. Most require youth to commute daily or house youth for only a few days a week. Youth are typically paid for their work. YCC programs contribute to the maintenance of public lands and instill a value for hard work and the outdoors in those who participate.

Conservation Legacy is a non-profit employment, job training, and education organization with locations across the United States including Arizona Conservation Corps in Tucson and Flagstaff, Arizona; Southwest Conservation Corps in Durango and Salida, Colorado; and Southeast Conservation Corps in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Conservation Legacy also operates an AmeriCorps VISTA team serving to improve the environment and economies of historic mining communities in the American West and Appalachia. Conservation Legacy also hosts the Environmental Stewards Program - providing internships with federal, state, municipal and NGO land management agencies nationwide. Conservation Legacy formed as a merger of the Southwest Youth Corps, San Luis Valley Youth Corps, The Youth Corps of Southern Arizona, and Coconino Rural Environmental Corps.

Conservation Legacy engages young adults ages 14 to 26 and U.S. military veterans of all ages in personal and professional development experiences involving conservation projects on public lands. Corp members live, work, and learn in teams of six to eight for terms of service ranging from 3 months to 1 year.

The Sea Ranger Service is a social enterprise, based in Netherlands, that has taken its inspiration from the Civilian Conservation Corps in running a permanent youth training program, supported by veterans, to manage ocean areas and carry out underwater landscape restoration. Unemployed youths are trained up as Sea Rangers during a bootcamp and subsequently offered full-time employment to manage and regenerate Marine Protected Areas and aid ocean conservation. The Sea Ranger Service works in close cooperation with the Dutch government and national maritime authorities.

Alexander, Benjamin F. The New Deal's Forest Army: How the Civilian Conservation Corps Worked. (2018) "+New+Deal's+Forest+Army" online review

American Youth Commission. Youth and the Future: The General Report of the American Youth Commission (1942)

Bass, Melissa. The Politics and Civics of National Service: Lessons from the Civilian Conservation Corps, Vista, and AmeriCorps (Brookings Institution Press, 2013)

Brandimarte, Cynthia, and Angela Reed Brown. Texas State Parks and the CCC: The Legacy of the Civilian Conservation Corps (2013)

Clancy, Patrick. "Conserving the Youth: the Civilian Conservation Corps Experience in the Shenandoah National Park" The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography Volume: 105. Issue: 4. 1997. p. 439ff. online

Colen, Olen Jr. The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps (1999)

Heller, Charles E. "The US Army, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and Leadership for World War II, 1933-1942." Armed Forces & Society (2010) 36#3 pp: 439-453.

Helms, Douglas. "The Civilian Conservation Corps: Demonstrating the Value of Soil Conservation," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 40 (March-April 1985): 184-188 online

Hendrickson Jr.; Kenneth E. "Replenishing the Soil and the Soul of Texas: The Civilian Conservation Corps in the Lone Star State as an Example of State-Federal Work Relief during the Great Depression" The Historian, Vol. 65, 2003

Hill, Edwin G. In the Shadow of the Mountain: The Spirit of the CCC. (1990). ISBN 978-0-87422-073-5

Holland, Kenneth, and Frank Ernest Hill. Youth in the CCC (1938) detailed description of all major activities

Jolley, Harley E. "That Magnificent Army of Youth and Peace": The Civilian Conservation Corps in North Carolina, 1933-1942 (Raleigh: Office of Archives and History, 2007) 167pp.

Leighninger, Robert D., Jr. Long-Range Public Investment: The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal (2007), providing a context for American public works programs, and detailing major agencies of the New Deal: CCC, PWA, CWA, WPA, and TVA.

Maher, Neil M. Nature's New Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Roots of the American Environmental Movement (2008). excerpt and text search

Mielnik, Tara Mitchell. New Deal, New Landscape: The Civilian Conservation Corps and South Carolina's State Parks (University of South Carolina Press; 2011) 201 pages; CCC built 16 state parks in SC between 1933 and 1942.

Otis, Alison T., William D. Honey, Thomas C. Hogg, and Kimberly K. Lakin The Forest Service and The Civilian Conservation Corps: 1933-42 (United States Forest Service FS-395, August 1986) online

Paige, John C. The Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Park Service, 1933-1942: An Administrative History. (National Park Service, 1985) online

Pasquill, Jr., Robert. The Civilian Conservation Corps in Alabama, 1933-1942: A Great and Lasting Good (University of Alabama Press, 2008) 242 pp, with cd of oral interviews

Patel, Kiran Klaus. Soldiers of Labor. Labor Service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933-1945, (2005), ISBN 0-521-83416-3. online review

Roberts, Andrew (2008). Masters and Commanders. How Roosevelt, Churchill, Marshall and Alanbrooke won the war in the west. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9969-3. (pb 2009) Online free to borrow

Salmond John A. The Civilian Conservation Corps 1933-1942: a New Deal case study. (1967), the scholarly history of the entire CCC complete text online

Salmond, John A. "The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Negro," The Journal of American History, Vol. 52, No. 1. (Jun. 1965), pp. 75-88. in JSTOR

Sherraden, Michael W. "Military Participation in a Youth Employment Program: The Civilian Conservation Corps," Armed Forces and Society, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 227-245, April 1981, pp. 227-245; ISSN 0095-327X available online from SAGE Publications

Sommer, Barbara W. Hard Work and a Good Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps in Minnesota (2008).

Sommer, Barbara W. "' We Had This Opportunity': African Americans and the Civilian Conservation Corps in Minnesota" in The State We're In: Reflections on Minnesota History, Annette Atkins and Deborah L. Millers, eds. (2010) pp 134-157.

Steely, James W. "Parks for Texas: Enduring Landscapes of the New Deal" (1999), detailing the interaction of local, state and federal agencies in organizing and guiding CCC work.

Waller, Robert A. "The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Emergence of South Carolina's State Park System, 1933-1942*South Carolina Historical Magazine Volume: 104#2 2003, p. 101ff.

Wilson, James; "Community, Civility, and Citizenship: Theatre and Indoctrination in the Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s" Theatre History Studies, Vol. 23, 2003, pp. 77-92

Gower, Calvin W. "The CCC Indian Division: Aid for Depressed Americans, 1933-1942," Minnesota History 43 (Spring 1972) 7-12

Parman, Donald L. The Navajos and the New Deal (1969)

Parman, Donald L. "The Indian and the CCC," Pacific Historical Review 40 (February 1971): p. 54ff.

"The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)", on YouTube

Youth Jobs Program (CCC) During Great Depression, The March of Time

President Visits Foresters (CCC), Roosevelt 1933/08/14, newsreel

Recreation Resources, 1935, West Virginia, available through NARA (National Archives and Records Administration)

A Nationwide System of Parks 1939, NARA

Alabama Highlands 1937 Alabama State Parks, NARA

Down Mobile Way, 1935 Alabama State Parks, NARA

The Cradle of the Father of Waters, 1938 Minnesota State Parks, Lake Itasca State Park, NARA

Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 1936, NARA

Land of the Giants, 1935 California, NARA

The East Side Kids (Pride of the Bowery, 1941), Leo Gorcey - Bobby Jordan

American Experience: The Civilian Conservation Corps, PBS American Experience, 2009

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The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC) was a voluntary public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men. Originally for young men ages 18-25, it was eventually expanded to ages 17-28. Robert Fechner was the first director of this agency, succeeded by James McEntee following Fechner's death.

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Works Progress Administration: WPA & New Deal - HISTORY

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The Works Progress Administration or WPA was a New Deal employment and infrastructure program created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression.

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Created by FDR in 1935, the WPA was established as an ambitious employment plan for those who were struggling to find jobs. The WPA put roughly 8.5 million Americans to work doing temporary jobs including: building schools, hospitals, roads, and other public works. Not only did the WPA employ millions of Americans, the program also sponsored projects of the arts, employing more actors, musicians, writers, and other artists.

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In 1935, the Social Security Act was passed in an attempt to provide for the general welfare of specifically senior citizens. They did this by enabling the several States to make more adequate provision for aged persons, blind persons, dependent and crippled children, maternal and child welfare, public health, and the administration of their unemployment compensation laws; to establish a Social Security Board; to raise revenue; and for other purposes.

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Later changed to the Public Roads Administration, the Bureau of Public Roads was enacted in order to build more roads across the large and developing country as well as document research done on these roads. (This research was specifically done on erosion, collisions, maintenance, and such.)

This later was absorbed into the Federal Highway Administration, but laid the groundwork for a transportation system that remains integral in the widespread American states.

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Though it didn't last until present day, the NYA was a program that promoted the employment of young, school-enrolled citizens as well as the unemployed youth that did not continue their education. The principles introduced by this act are still around today. It helped give students part-time jobs so that they may participate in furthering their schooling or aided those who were unable to financially continue pursuing their tutelage, but still needed an unskilled job. This helped establish the standard for modern day workers rights, especially for high school and college aged students.

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On February 4, 1937, Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes created the U.S. Travel Bureau. The purpose was to encourage both internal and external traveling to the United States. This would help to drum up business within the U.S., as well as advertise a beautiful nation worth spending money on. Additionally, it encouraged Americans to visit national parks, of which would employ thousands of impoverished citizens and appreciate the efforts of the C.C.C.

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" Back to Glossary Index
(renamed Work Projects Administration, 1939)
President Roosevelt created the WPA on May 6, 1935 with Executive Order No. 7034, under authority of the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935. Harry Hopkins was the first (and most well-remembered) administrator of the WPA, serving from July 1935 through December 1938 [1].

The WPA was the largest and most diverse of the New Deal public works programs. It was created to alleviate the mass unemployment of the Great Depression and by the time it was terminated in 1943, the WPA had put 8.5 million Americans back to work [2].

The majority of WPA projects built infrastructure, such as bridges, airports, schools, parks, and water lines. In addition, the Federal Project Number One programs undertook theater, music, and visual arts projects, while other service programs supported historic preservation, library collections, and social science research. The WPA also employed women in sewing rooms and school classrooms and cafeterias, and in the later run-up to war it improved many military facilities.

The volume and diversity of work was so large that one researcher wrote at the time: "An enumeration of all the projects undertaken and completed by the WPA during its lifetime would include almost every type of work imaginable...from the construction of highways to the extermination of rats; from the building of stadiums to the stuffing of birds; from the improvement of airplane landing fields to the making of Braille books; from the building of over a million of the now famous privies to the playing of the world's greatest symphonies" [3]. An inventory of WPA accomplishments in the Final Report on the WPA Program, 1935-43 includes 8,000 new or improved parks, 16,000 miles of new water lines, 650,000 miles of new or improved roads, the production of 382 million articles of clothing, and the serving of 1.2 billion school lunches [4].

The WPA employed people directly. A typical project began at the local level, with city and county governments assessing their needs and unemployment numbers. Proposals were then sent to a WPA state office for vetting before being forwarded to headquarters in Washington, D.C. and, finally, to the president for final approval. Projects could be rejected anywhere along this three-step process, and were not imposed on local communities by the Federal government. Normally, localities had to provide about 12-25% to trigger federal funding of WPA projects [5].

In 1939, after a federal government reorganization, the Works Progress Administration was renamed the "Work Projects Administration" and was placed under the newly created Federal Works Agency. With the advent of World War II and absorption of the ranks of the unemployed into war production and the military, the WPA was gradually shut down. Official termination came on June 30, 1943, per a December 4, 1942 presidential letter to the Federal Works Administrator, while the Second Deficiency Appropriation Act of July 13, 1943 established liquidation procedures.

Sources: (1) Federal Works Agency, Final Report on the WPA Program, 1935-43, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946, pp. 7-10. (2) Ibid. at p. iii ("Letter of Transmittal"). (3) Donald S. Howard, The WPA and Federal Relief Policy, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1943, p. 126. (4) See note 1, at pp. 134-136. (5) See note 3 at p. 147 and note 1 at p. 9.

" Back to Glossary Index

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Works Progress Administration (WPA) (1935) - Living New Deal

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(renamed Work Projects Administration, 1939) President Roosevelt created the WPA on May 6, 1935 with Executive Order No. 7034, under authority of the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935. Harry Hopkins was the first (and most well-remembered) administrator of the WPA, serving from... read more

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The CCC was created on March 31, 1933 by the Emergency Conservation Work Act [1] and put into action by President Roosevelt with Executive Order No. 6101 on April 5, 1933 [2].

The CCC was designed to put jobless young men to work on public land projects, including "the prevention of forest fires...plant pest and disease control, the construction, maintenance and repair of paths, trails and fire-lanes in the national parks and national forests and such other work...as the President may determine to be desirable" [3]. In what is described by Dr. Robert Leighninger, Jr., as the "largest peacetime mobilization in U.S. history," 275,000 young men between the ages of 18 and 25 enrolled in the CCC during the first three months of the program. Many of these men had been roaming the country in a desperate search for jobs. The enrollees were supervised by Army Reserve Officers, "often themselves unemployed" [4].

The CCC was primarily geared towards the employment of young men in America's forests and parks. The CCC 'boys', as they were called, received training, education, shelter, health care, food, and a monthly pay of $30 - $25 of which was required to be sent home to support their families. More than 3,000,000 men were enrolled in the CCC between 1933 and 1942 [5]. This enrollment included jobless World War I veterans and the employment of Indians on reservation land. CCC boys sometimes worked alongside WPA workers, as can be seen at Prince William Forest Park in Virginia and Catoctin Mountain Park in Maryland.

The National Park Service describes, in part, what was achieved by the CCC program: "Nationwide, the CCC operated 4,500 camps in national parks and forests, as well as state and community parks, planting three billion trees, protecting 20 million acres from soil erosion, and aiding in the establishment of 800 state parks. The CCC advanced natural resource conservation in this country by decades..." [6].

Other accomplishments of the CCC included the restoration of 4,000 historic structures, the construction of 3,100 fire lookout towers, the building of 1,500 cabins, the installation of 5,000 miles of water lines, the creation of 4,600 fish rearing ponds, the improvement of 3,400 beaches, and 6.5 million man-days devoted to firefighting [7].

Robert Fechner was the director of the CCC program from 1933 until his death in 1939. James J. McEntee was the second director and led the CCC until its end in 1942. Though the CCC was never formally terminated, Congress had, by June 30, 1942, ended the program's funding and set aside money for its liquidation [8]. During its nine-year lifespan the CCC had invested $3 billion in America's young men and the forests and parks they worked in [9].

Sources: (1) "CCC Brief History," CCC Legacy, http://www.ccclegacy.org/CCC_Brief_History.html, accessed February 14, 2015. (2) The American Presidency Project, 32 - Executive Order 6101, Starting the Civilian Conservation Corps, April 5, 1933, University of California Santa Barbara, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14609, accessed February 14, 2015. (3) A full text of the Emergency Conservation Work Act is contained in Roosevelt's Forest Army: A History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942, by Perry H. Merrill, 1981, p. 197. (4) Robert D. Leighninger, Jr., Long-Range Public Investment: The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal, Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2007, p. 13. (5) "The Civilian Conservation Corps at Platt National Park," National Park Service, Chickasaw National Recreation Area, http://www.nps.gov/chic/historyculture/ccc.htm, accessed February 14, 2015. For other estimates of the number of CCC enrollees, see Federal Security Agency, Final Report of the Director of the Civilian Conservation Corps, April 1933 through June 1942, 1943, p. 109; and Perry H. Merrill, Roosevelt's Forest Army: A History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942, 1981, p. 196 (6) Ibid. (7) See note 3 at p. 196 and note 4 at p. 27. (8) See note 1 and note 4 at p. 26. (9) See note 3 at p. 196.

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Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933) - Living New Deal

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The CCC was created on March 31, 1933 by the Emergency Conservation Work Act [1] and put into action by President Roosevelt with Executive Order No. 6101 on April 5, 1933 [2]. The CCC was designed to put jobless young... read more

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The U.S. Travel Bureau began on February 4, 1937 [1] and was briefly called the "Tourist Bureau" [2]. The office was created by Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes and placed within the National Park Service. Its purpose was to market the national parks, both to American citizens and foreign tourists, in the tradition of NPS founding directors Stephen Mather and Horace Albright [3].

The Travel Bureau had offices in New York and Washington, DC, and it operated with emergency funds. It was hoped that Congress would enact legislation to make it a regular agency, but early legislative efforts were unsuccessful [4]. Still, Secretary Ickes enhanced the Travel Bureau during fiscal year 1939 by the appointment of an "Interdepartmental Travel Advisory Committee" and the opening of a new office in San Francisco [5].

To encourage tourism in the United States, the Travel Bureau mounted exhibitions in places like the New York World's Fair and the Golden Gate International Exhibition; coordinated with public and private groups interested in recreational travel; printed various materials such as a calendar of events and monthly bulletin; and made use of radio, film, and lectures. In the New York office, a "Travel America Hall" was created, filled with exhibits and promotional material [6]. These and other efforts worked to boost recreation and tourism across the country. For example, visits to the national parks "for the period October 1939, through September 1940, reached the all-time high of 16,741,855 persons" [7]. President Roosevelt, meanwhile, declared 1940 to be "Travel America Year" [8].

The Travel Bureau also participated in the production of "The Negro Motorist Green-Book," a travel guide developed by postal worker and social activist Victor H. Green. The guide listed "hotels, boarding houses, restaurants, beauty shops, barber shops and various other services" friendly to African Americans. Because of racial discrimination and hostility, travel could be quite uncomfortable, and even dangerous, for African Americans. The Green-Book assisted travelers for nearly three decades, from 1936 to 1964 [9].

Congress finally passed legislation giving the Travel Bureau a firm statutory footing, which President Roosevelt signed on July 19, 1940. Ickes and his department noted that "for the first time since its establishment in 1937, permanent existence of the Bureau was assured and long range planning made practicable" [10]. The positive mood could only have been enhanced when, in 1941, reports indicated that Americans were spending more than ever for recreational travel (the $6 billion they spent in 1940 is about $100 billion in 2014 dollars) [11]. With its tiny annual budget of $75,000 (a little over $1 million today) [12], the Travel Bureau was helping to stimulate the economy on a grand scale. Because of this, it enjoyed "aggressive" support from the private sector [13].

Unfortunately, World War II signaled the demise of the Travel Bureau. During fiscal year 1942, the New York and San Francisco offices were closed. And even though the Travel Bureau had a few new duties, e.g., travel and recreational resources for war workers, the writing was on the wall [14]. During fiscal year 1943, all activities of the Travel Bureau were terminated, except for a few projects nearing completion [15]. Nevertheless, the age of mass outdoor recreation was launched, and car travel and park visitation would continue to grow rapidly in the postwar era [16].

Sources: (1) "The United States Travel Bureau," Kelvin Smith Library, Case Western Reserve University, http://library.case.edu/ksl/collections/govdocs/travel/bureau.html, accessed November 15, 2015. (2) Annual report of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal year 1938, p. 34. (3) Annual report of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal year 1937, p. 70. (4) See note 2, p. 3. (5) Annual report of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal year 1939, p. 269. (6) Annual reports of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal years 1938 through 1941. (7) Annual report of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal year 1940, p. xvi. (8) Ibid., p. 169. (9) Ibid., p. 170, and "Green Book Helped Keep African Americans Safe on the Road," Independent Lens, PBS, January 10, 2013, http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/blog/green-book-helped-keep-african-americans-safe-on-the-road/, accessed November 15, 2015. (10) See note 7, p. 169. (11) Annual report of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal year 1941, p. 297. (12) Ibid., p. 296. (13) Ibid., p. 297. (14) Annual report of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal year 1942, p. 164. (15) Annual report of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal year 1943, p. 218. The Travel Bureau was "reestablished" in 1948, as the "U.S. Travel Division," but was terminated again in 1949, due to a lack of funds (see annual reports of the Secretary of the Interior, fiscal years 1948 and 1950. (16) For overviews, see Hal Rothman, Devil's Bargains: Tourism in the 20th Century American West. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1998, and Marguerite Shaffer, See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880-1940, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001. ( Note: annual reports of the Secretary of the Interior can be found on Hathitrust.)

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U.S. Travel Bureau (1937) - Living New Deal

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The U.S. Travel Bureau began on February 4, 1937 [1] and was briefly called the "Tourist Bureau" [2]. The office was created by Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes and placed within the National Park Service. Its purpose was to... read more

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Created on March 31, 1933 by the Emergency Conservation Work Act and was put into action by FDR was created to put jobless young men (specifically) to work on public land projects. The CCC was primarily geared towards the employment of young men in America’s forests and parks.  The CCC ‘boys’, as they were called, received training, education, shelter, health care, food, and a monthly pay of $30 – $25 of which was required to be sent home to support their families.  More than 3,000,000 men were enrolled in the CCC between 1933 and 1942 [5].  This enrollment included jobless World War I veterans and the employment of Indians on reservation land.