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PBS Wisconsin Documentaries
Being Hmong Means Being Free highlights the history, culture and identity of the Hmong immigrants who have settled in the United States between 1975 and the early 1990s. The documentary looks at Hmong life in this country as seen through the eyes of the program host, seventeen year-old Lia Vang.

Aired: 01/01/00

Rating: TV-G

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PBS Wisconsin Documentaries | Being Hmong Means Being Free

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PBS Wisconsin Documentaries Being Hmong Means Being Free highlights the history, culture and identity of the Hmong immigrants who have settled in the United States between 1975 and the early 1990s. The documentary looks at Hmong life in this country as seen through the eyes of the program host, seventeen year-old Lia Vang.

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From 1820 to 2013, 79 million people obtained lawful permanent resident status in the United States. The interactive map below visualizes all of them based on their prior country of residence. The brightness of a country corresponds to its total migration to the U.S. at the given time.

Use the controls at the bottom to stop / resume the animation or to move back and forth in time.

Two Centuries of U.S. Immigration (1 dot = 10,000 people)

Over time, the sources of immigration trace a clear path across the world.

Through most of the 1800's, immigration came predominantly from Western Europe (Ireland, Germany, the U.K.). Toward the end of the century, countries further east in Europe (Italy, Russia, Hungary) took over as the largest source of migration. Beginning in the early 1900's, most immigrants arrived from the Americas (Canada, Mexico). And the last few decades have seen a rise in migration from Asia. The same trends are clear looking at the history of New York City's foreign born population.

Here are the largest immigration "waves" charted over time, showing the progression.

While it may seem that immigration over the last few decades has been higher than ever before, the picture looks very different when viewed relative to the size of the U.S. population.

Here is the same chart, with the immigration shown as a percentage of the U.S. population.

Of my four grandparents, one is of Japanese descent, two are from Europe (a Polish Jew and an Italian Catholic), and one is native American. So genealogy and immigration flows have long been fascinations of mine.

What I think is particularly interesting about immigration to the U.S. is that each "wave" coming in from a particular country has a story behind it - usually escaping persecution (e.g. Jews escaping Russia after the May Laws were enacted, the Cuban Revolution) or major economic troubles (e.g. the Irish Potato Famine, the collapse of southern Italy after the Italian Unification).

There are plenty of dark spots on United States' history, but the role it has played as a sanctuary for troubled people across the world is a history I feel very proud to be a part of.

If you would like to read more about what caused each of these groups to come to the U.S., this graphic summarizes some of the major events.
If you liked this map, sign up to be notified of new Metrocosm posts Credit:

Here is everyone who's emigrated to the U.S. since 1820 (1 dot = 10,000 people) https://t.co/SaQFzv4Rgv https://t.co/CqijaH8a1n

- Max Galka (@galka_max) May 4, 2016

Embed as HD video:
My latest project, Elementus, aims to bring transparency to the cryptocurrency market. Check out our blog for some crypto-related data visualizations.

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Here's Everyone Who's Immigrated to the U.S. Since 1820

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Facebook Twitter Google+ LinkedIn34.7Kshares From 1820 to 2013, 79 million people obtained lawful permanent resident status in the United States. The interactive map below visualizes all of them based on their prior country of residence. The brightness of a country corresponds to its total migration to the U.S. at the given time.

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Nikkei Stories - First Immigrants - Bing video

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The Great Migration: Crash Course Black American History #24

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International Stock Food Factory, between 1900 and 1910
Detroit Publishing Company

In the decades following the Civil War, the United States emerged as an industrial giant. Old industries expanded and many new ones, including petroleum refining, steel manufacturing, and electrical power, emerged. Railroads expanded significantly, bringing even remote parts of the country into a national market economy.

Industrial growth transformed American society. It produced a new class of wealthy industrialists and a prosperous middle class. It also produced a vastly expanded blue collar working class. The labor force that made industrialization possible was made up of millions of newly arrived immigrants and even larger numbers of migrants from rural areas. American society became more diverse than ever before.

Not everyone shared in the economic prosperity of this period. Many workers were typically unemployed at least part of the year, and their wages were relatively low when they did work. This situation led many workers to support and join labor unions. Meanwhile, farmers also faced hard times as technology and increasing production led to more competition and falling prices for farm products. Hard times on farms led many young people to move to the city in search of better job opportunities.

Americans who were born in the 1840s and 1850s would experience enormous changes in their lifetimes. Some of these changes resulted from a sweeping technological revolution. Their major source of light, for example, would change from candles, to kerosene lamps, and then to electric light bulbs. They would see their transportation evolve from walking and horse power to steam-powered locomotives, to electric trolley cars, to gasoline-powered automobiles. Born into a society in which the vast majority of people were involved in agriculture, they experienced an industrial revolution that radically changed the ways millions of people worked and where they lived. They would experience the migration of millions of people from rural America to the nation's rapidly growing cities.

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Overview | Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the decades following the Civil War, the United States emerged as an industrial giant. Old industries expanded and many new ones, including petroleum refining, steel manufacturing, and electrical power, emerged. Railroads expanded significantly, bringing even remote parts of the country into a national market economy. Industrial growth transformed American society.

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Fifty years after Black Americans ended a period of unprecedented movement in the United States, their journeys reverberate through U.S. culture and demographics.

The Great Migration - which took place from 1916 to 1970 - saw 6 million African Americans move from the South to the North and West. It eclipsed the Gold Rush and the flight from the Dust Bowl in terms of population movement within the U.S., according to Allyson Hobbs, a Stanford University historian. Before this period, 90 percent of Black Americans lived in the South, and after, just 53 percent did, she says.

Black newspapers and other media touted a better life in the North and West. Northern factories were short on labor, and there were new opportunities in the West.

Black families were pulled by the lure of higher wages, educational opportunities and more personal freedom away from the segregation practices of the South.

As Richard Wright wrote: "I was leaving the South to fling myself into the unknown ... respond to the warmth of other suns and, perhaps, to bloom."

A book titled with that quote - The Warmth of Other Suns by Isabel Wilkerson - tells the stories of three ordinary individuals who uprooted their lives during the Great Migration (as did both of Wilkerson's parents) to explain this time in America.

Wilkerson links the migrants' actions to President Abraham Lincoln's decades-earlier Emancipation Proclamation, which paved the way for abolishing slavery in the United States. "By sheer force of will, they were able to make the Emancipation Proclamation live up to its name in their individual lives to the degree that they could," Wilkerson said in an interview with radio show host Krista Tippett in 2016.

In the South, Black people had been subject to what was essentially a caste system that left them without the chance to reach their potential, Wilkerson says.

The Great Migration was "an unleashing of this pent-up creativity and genius, in many cases, of people miscast in this caste system. It's about freedom and how far people are willing to go to achieve it," she says.

It was not necessarily easy, says Marcia Chatelain, history professor at Georgetown University. For some, there was a gap between the fantasy of moving and how they were treated when they got to new places.

Discrimination followed them north, with areas outside the South reacting to the influx with racial wage gaps and prohibitions on where Black people could live. Chatelain's own book on the topic, S outh Side Girls: Growing Up in the Great Migration, looks at the impact of the relocations on young females. "Girls embodied the poignancy - hoping migration would change everything and the reality they still had to deal with racism," Chatelain says.

But connections among family members split between the South and other areas increased the exchange of ideas among regions of the country. And many Northerners and Westerners sent money home to those who remained in the South.

Southern employers, meanwhile, Chatelain says, faced worker shortages and came to depend more heavily on prison convicts to do tasks during the 20th century.

The legacy of migration

Descendants of those who made the Great Migration include former first lady Michelle Obama, author Toni Morrison, playwright August Wilson, actor Denzel Washington and jazz musician Miles Davis.

Black people brought their music from the rural South to cities with more venues, recording studios and Black consumer markets. "A lot of roots of what we call popular culture today are a direct result of the migration," Chatelain says, citing blues, gospel and R&B music, which still influences hip-hop and rap.

The Great Migration brought a flourishing of literature and scholarship too - it informed famous novels like Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison.

The concentrations of Black Americans in the North, where they did not face poll taxes, literacy tests or other obstacles to voting imposed by Southern states, led to more Black elected officials, long before Barack Obama became the first Black U.S. president in 2009.

Chatelain says there are many books about the impacts of the South-to-North/West migration. Writers have found that "regardless of the thread you pull on, you'll find something new," she says. "We can all relate to the desire for change, the desire to help our families and the desire to imagine a better future."

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Fifty years after Black Americans ended a period of unprecedented movement in the United States, their journeys reverberate through U.S. culture and demographics. The Great Migration - which took place from 1916 to 1970 - saw 6 million African Americans move from the South to the North and West.

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Log onto Destiny Discover to find some online books about Immigration.

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Welcome to Manitowoc Public School District

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European Emigration to the U.S. 1891 - 1900

Italian emigration was fueled by dire poverty. Life in Southern Italy, including the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, offered landless peasants little more than hardship, exploitation, and violence. Even the soil was poor, yielding little, while malnutrition and disease were widespread.

Background
By 1870, there were about 25,000 Italian immigrants in America, many of them Northern Italian refugees from the wars that accompanied the Risorgimento—the struggle for Italian unification and independence from foreign rule. Between around 1880 and 1924, more than four million Italians immigrated to the United States, half of them between 1900 and 1910 alone—the majority fleeing grinding rural poverty in Southern Italy and Sicily. Today, Americans of Italian ancestry are the nation's fifth-largest ethnic group.

Italian-American workers shore up a subway tunnel under New York's East River.

Source: Destination America by Charles A. Wills

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Destination America . When did they come? | PBS

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European Emigration to the U.S. 1891 - 1900 Italian emigration was fueled by dire poverty. Life in Southern Italy, including the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, offered landless peasants little more than hardship, exploitation, and violence. Even the soil was poor, yielding little, while malnutrition and disease were widespread.

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Steamers carried Irish emigrants to Liverpool where their transatlantic voyage began

In the middle half of the nineteenth century, more than one-half of the population of Ireland emigrated to the United States. So did an equal number of Germans. Most of them came because of civil unrest, severe unemployment or almost inconceivable hardships at home. This wave of immigration affected almost every city and almost every person in America. From 1820 to 1870, over seven and a half million immigrants came to the United States - more than the entire population of the country in 1810. Nearly all of them came from northern and western Europe - about a third from Ireland and almost a third from Germany. Burgeoning companies were able to absorb all that wanted to work. Immigrants built canals and constructed railroads. They became involved in almost every labor-intensive endeavor in the country. Much of the country was built on their backs.

Letter to the London Times from an Irish Immigrant in America, 1850

I am exceedingly well pleased at coming to this land of plenty. On arrival I purchased 120 acres of land at $5 an acre. You must bear in mind that I have purchased the land out, and it is to me and mine an "estate for ever", without a landlord, an agent or tax-gatherer to trouble me. I would advise all my friends to quit Ireland - the country most dear to me; as long as they remain in it they will be in bondage and misery.

What you labour for is sweetened by contentment and happiness; there is no failure in the potato crop, and you can grow every crop you wish, without manuring the land during life. You need not mind feeding pigs, but let them into the woods and they will feed themselves, until you want to make bacon of them.

I shudder when I think that starvation prevails to such an extent in poor Ireland. After supplying the entire population of America, there would still be as much corn and provisions left us would supply the world, for there is no limit to cultivation or end to land. Here the meanest labourer has beef and mutton, with bread, bacon, tea, coffee, sugar and even pies, the whole year round - every day here is as good as Christmas day in Ireland.

Anti-Irish sentiment permeated the United States during the Industrial Revolution. The prejudice exhibited in advertisements like this one sometimes led to violent outbursts.

In Ireland almost half of the population lived on farms that produced little income. Because of their poverty, most Irish people depended on potatoes for food. When this crop failed three years in succession, it led to a great famine with horrendous consequences. Over 750,000 people starved to death. Over two million Irish eventually moved to the United States seeking relief from their desolated country. Impoverished, the Irish could not buy property. Instead, they congregated in the cities where they landed, almost all in the northeastern United States. Today, Ireland has just half the population it did in the early 1840s. There are now more Irish Americans than there are Irish nationals.

In the decade from 1845 to 1855, more than a million Germans fled to the United States to escape economic hardship. They also sought to escape the political unrest caused by riots, rebellion and eventually a revolution in 1848. The Germans had little choice - few other places besides the United States allowed German immigration. Unlike the Irish, many Germans had enough money to journey to the Midwest in search of farmland and work. The largest settlements of Germans were in New York City, Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis and Milwaukee.

With the vast numbers of German and Irish coming to America, hostility to them erupted. Part of the reason for the opposition was religious. All of the Irish and many of the Germans were Roman Catholic. Part of the opposition was political. Most immigrants living in cities became Democrats because the party focused on the needs of commoners. Part of the opposition occurred because Americans in low-paying jobs were threatened and sometimes replaced by groups willing to work for almost nothing in order to survive. Signs that read NINA - "No Irish Need Apply" - sprang up throughout the country.

The Know Nothing Party's platform included the repeal of all naturalization laws and a prohibition on immigrants from holding public office.

Ethnic and anti-Catholic rioting occurred in many northern cites, the largest occurring in Philadelphia in 1844 during a period of economic depression. Protestants, Catholics and local militia fought in the streets. 16 were killed, dozens were injured and over 40 buildings were demolished. "Nativist" political parties sprang up almost overnight. The most influential of these parties, the Know Nothings, was anti-Catholic and wanted to extend the amount of time it took immigrants to become citizens and voters. They also wanted to prevent foreign-born people from ever holding public office. Economic recovery after the 1844 depression reduced the number of serious confrontations for a time, as the country seemed to be able to use all the labor it could get.

But Nativism returned in the 1850s with a vengeance. In the 1854 elections, Nativists won control of state governments in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and California. They won elections in Maryland and Kentucky and took 45% of the vote in 5 other states. In 1856, Millard Fillmore was the American Party candidate for President and trumpeted anti-immigrant themes. Nativism caused much splintering in the political landscape, and the Republicans, with no platform or policies about it, benefited and rode to victory in the divisive election of 1860.

German Immigration to Texas
The first permanent German settlements in Texas date back to the early 1830's, and the upsurge in German immigration in the 1840's resulted in such towns as Fredericksburg and New Braunfels. By the mid 1850's, the populations of San Antonio, Houston, and Galveston were about one-third German.

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The Five Points Site: Rediscovery of a 19th-Century Neighborhood
The demolition of city buildings provides opportunities for archaeological investigation, and this website proves the value of digging into our past. Five Points was a mixed residential, commercial, and industrial neighborhood in New York City through several waves of immigration. The documentary record pictures Five Points as a frightening slum, but the archaeological record shows a thriving, working-class neighborhood. Both views are shown on this fascinating website.

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Views of the Famine
How did it feel to watch your children starve while your fields were barren? To get on a boat to a foreign land with little or no money because it was your only chance to survive? This website documents the Great Potato Famine of Ireland through contemporary articles from the Illustrated London Times, the Cork Examiner, and other publications. There is also a nicely organized master picture list and comprehensive list of online resources.

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Irish and German Immigration [ushistory.org]

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Group of Immigrants Cabinet of American Illustration

In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States. Fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and famine, many came to the U. S. because it was perceived as the land of economic opportunity. Others came seeking personal freedom or relief from political and religious persecution, and nearly 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900. During the 1870s and 1880s, the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England - the principal sources of immigration before the Civil War. Even so, a relatively large group of Chinese immigrated to the United States between the start of the California gold rush in 1849 and 1882, when federal law stopped their immigration.

With the onset of hard economic times in the 1870s, European immigrants and Americans began to compete for the jobs traditionally reserved for the Chinese. With economic competition came dislike and even racial suspicion and hatred. Such feelings were accompanied by anti-Chinese riots and pressure, especially in California, for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from the United States. The result of this pressure was the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed by Congress in 1882. This Act virtually ended Chinese immigration for nearly a century.

Immigrants entered the United States through several ports. Those from Europe generally came through East Coast facilities, while those from Asia generally entered through West Coast centers. More than 70 percent of all immigrants, however, entered through New York City, which came to be known as the "Golden Door." Throughout the late 1800s, most immigrants arriving in New York entered at the Castle Garden depot near the tip of Manhattan. In 1892, the federal government opened a new immigration processing center on Ellis Island in New York harbor.

Although immigrants often settled near ports of entry, a large number did find their way inland. Many states, especially those with sparse populations, actively sought to attract immigrants by offering jobs or land for farming. Many immigrants wanted to move to communities established by previous settlers from their homelands.

Once settled, immigrants looked for work. There were never enough jobs, and employers often took advantage of the immigrants. Men were generally paid less than other workers, and women less than men. Social tensions were also part of the immigrant experience. Often stereotyped and discriminated against, many immigrants suffered verbal and physical abuse because they were "different." While large-scale immigration created many social tensions, it also produced a new vitality in the cities and states in which the immigrants settled. The newcomers helped transform American society and culture, demonstrating that diversity, as well as unity, is a source of national strength.

To find other documents in Loc.gov relating to this topic, use such key words as immigration or immigrants, or include the names of specific immigrant or ethnic groups, such as German, Irish, Scandinavian, Swedish, Norwegian, or Chinese.

Documents

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Immigration to the United States, 1851-1900 | Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States. Fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and famine, many came to the U. S. because it was perceived as the land of economic opportunity.

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Destination America . When did they come? | PBS

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European Emigration to the U.S. 1851 - 1860

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Italian - The Great Arrival - Immigration...- Classroom Presentation | Teacher Resources - Library of Congress

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Most of this generation of Italian immigrants took their first steps on U.S. soil in a place that has now become a legend-Ellis Island. In the 1880s, they numbered 300,000; in the 1890s, 600,000; in the decade after that, more than two million.

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History of German Immigration to America in the 1700's: The Redemption System
German Immigration to America increased in the 1700's due to the search for religious freedom and the opportunity to own land and create a new life in America. Many immigrants were poor and the only way to reach the New World was to sign contracts agreeing to work between five to seven years in exchange for transportation and the prospects of a job and a new life in America. The Germans used a form of indentured labor called the redemption system, the Germans who signed this type of contract were called redemptioners. An astonishing 50% to 70% of Germans coming to America in the 1700s, prior to the American Revolutionary War, came as redemptioners contracted via the redemption system.

History of German Immigration to America in the 1700's: 1721 - German Migrants in
The Mississippi Company held a business monopoly in French colonies in North America. In 1721 the Mississippi Company headed by John Law, settled thousands of German immigrants in French Louisiana. The migrants were Germans of the Alsace region that had recently fallen under French rule. The French Roman Catholics tried to eradicate heresy in the form of Protestantism in Upper Alsace and the Alsatians were forced to immigrate to America to escape religious persecution.

History of German Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Second Wave of German Immigration
The Second Wave of German immigration in the 1800's occurred following the period following American Civil War to 1873. During this period German farmers were hit by the influx of cheap American wheat leading to a massive decline in grain prices. German farms suffered and thousands of farm workers became unemployed. Over 1.3 million farmers and agricultural laborers left Germany for better farming prospects in the US. The Second Wave of German immigration was halted when the financial panic of 1873 hit the United States. Panic of 1873 led to the period in American history known as the Long Depression. The economic disaster lasted for six years and resulted in economic hardships, protests, demonstrations and the first nationwide strikes in the United States.

History of German Immigration to America in the 1800's: Restrictive Immigration Laws and Ellis Island
The 1880's had witnessed a massive increase in immigration to America - between 1881 - 1890 a total of 5,246,613 immigrants flooded into the US - the majority from Southern or Eastern Europe or Asia. There were calls for the government to restrict immigration and restrictive immigration laws were passed. The 1882 Immigration Act restricted immigrants from Europe and imposed a 'head tax' of 50 cents on all immigrants landing at US ports. The 1891 Immigration Act regulated immigration further introducing the inspection and deportation of immigrants. On January 1, 1892 Ellis Island immigration center (1892 - 1954) was opened. Preference was shown to the "Old Immigrants" and few Germans were turned away.

German Immigration to America Facts Sheet and Timeline for kids

Fact 1 - 1517: Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation in Germany

German Immigration to America Facts Sheet and Timeline

Push and Pull Factors of German immigration to America for kids
For specific examples and a list of political, economic, environmental and social reasons and push and pull factors of German immigration to America refer to:

Push and Pull Factors of German Immigration

German Immigration to America for kids
This article contains a brief overview of German Immigration to America from the first Immigrants through the 1800's and 1900's. Important historical events have been highlighted which had a significant impact on German Immigration to America. A brief description of the effect of the first immigrants from Germany. Our article on German Immigration to America also outlines subjects such as details the history of German immigration to America from the 1600's - 1900's.. A helpful educational resource for kids on the subject of German Immigration to America.

German Immigration to America for Kids, Schools and Homework

*** Interesting, brief, short, fun facts about German Immigration to America for kids, teachers and schools
*** Brief Facts about German Immigration to America - dates, numbers, law, history, reasons, impact and effect
*** Interesting facts about the history of German Immigration to America and brief reasons for the changes in migration patterns
*** German Immigration to America - important events in the history of America that impacted migrants from Germany
*** Fast, fun facts about German Immigration to America and the first migrants in the 1600's
*** Interesting, brief US Immigration History for kids and children, schools, homework projects on German Immigration to America
*** Brief overview of German Immigration to America for Kids, Teachers Schools and Homework - free, educational resource

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History of German Immigration to America in the 1700's: The Redemption System German Immigration to America increased in the 1700's due to the search for religious freedom and the opportunity to own land and create a new life in America.

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Background History of Chinese Immigration to America: The Opium Wars and Rebellion in China
The Opium Wars (1839- 1842) erupted which resulted in widespread opium addiction in China. The population explosion led to a labor surplus and an inadequate food production. The situation was made worse by several disastrous famines. The poverty stricken peasants were subjected to high taxation levels administered by a corrupt government that fuelled peasant unrest and rebellion throughout the 1800's. The country became engulfed in Civil War as the 1851 Taiping Rebellion in south-eastern China lasted over 14 years lead to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Chinese workers. The history of Chinese Immigration to America began during this turbulent period in the history of China.

History of Chinese Immigration to America: The Reasons for Chinese Immigration to America
This article contains interesting facts, statistics and the history of Chinese Immigration to America. Why did people want to leave China and why did they want to move to America? The reasons for the Chinese Immigration to America was to escape poverty, unemployment, political unrest, oppression, wars and natural disasters and to seek their fortune and a new life in America. Also refer to Examples of PUSH and PULL Factors of Chinese Immigration.

History of Chinese Immigration to America in the 1800's: The California Gold Rush
Chinese Immigration to America began with the California Gold Rush. Gold is discovered by James Marshall at Sutter's timber Mill on January 24, 1848. Word of the California Gold Rush quickly spread and American Merchant vessels took news of the 'Gam Saan', or gold mountain, to China. Chinese in the Canton area of China were lured by pamphlets distributed by opportunistic ship owners who wanted to fill their passenger vessels to America. The first small trickle of Chinese Immigration to America began as immigrants arrived at the San Francisco customs house during the summer of 1848. By 1851 2,716 had immigrated to California. Anti-immigrant sentiment began when the gold started to run out. In April 1850 the California legislature passed the Foreign Miners Tax, which charged foreign nationals $20 a month for the right to work their gold claims. Many Chinese migrants were forced to leave the area due to the Foreign Miners tax and threats of violence and intimidation from American prospectors. In 1854 the California Supreme Court limited the rights of racial minorities but by 1855 the California Gold Rush was all but over and the last of the Chinese miners sought different forms of employment, this time as shopkeepers and farmers.

History of Chinese Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Transcontinental Railroad
Chinese Immigration to America saw new opportunities for the employment of unskilled laborers with the building of the Transcontinental Railroad. The Transcontinental Railroad was originally known as the "Pacific Railroad" and construction started in 1863. Construction was disrupted by a labor shortage due to the 1865 Nevada silver rush. In January 1865 railroad owner Charles Crocker responded by hiring cheap Chinese immigrants and by the end of construction on May 10, 1869 over 11,000 railroad workers on the Transcontinental Railroad were Chinese. Work on the Transcontinental Railroad was hard, poorly paid and dangerous . In 1867 Chinese railroad laborers went on strike for better hours and wages but their protests failed and they returned to work within a week. During the Immigration timeline between 1850 and 1882 about 322,000 Chinese came to America.

History of Chinese Immigration to America in the 1800's: Prejudice and Discrimination
The increasing numbers of migrants led prejudice, discrimination and protests against Chinese Immigration to America. The United States was hit by a long period of economic depression. The Panic of 1873 led to riots, strikes and civil unrest and high levels of unemployment. Immigrants were blamed which led to violent clashes and there were calls for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants. By 1870, Chinese migrants constituted 25% of the labor force in California. In 1877 anti-Chinese riots occurred in San Francisco and in then Congress passed a law to ban Chinese immigration. It was called the Chinese Exclusion Act.

History of Chinese Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Burlingame Treaty
Chinese Immigration to America was initially encouraged by the 1868 Burlingame Treaty of friendship with China which guaranteed the right of Chinese immigration, but did not grant the right of naturalization. The Burlingame Treaty was subsequently revised in 1880 suspending the entry of Chinese labor, but not to ban immigration completely. The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed on May 6, 1882 suspending immigration of Chinese laborers for 10 years.

History of Chinese Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Chinese Exclusion Act
Chinese Immigration to America by unskilled workers was 'temporarily' halted by the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act. The law allowed "exempt" classes to enter the United States such as merchants, diplomats, teachers and students. The Chinese Exclusion Act was only intended to cover a period of 10 years later but additional laws were passed extending the period of exclusion. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act expired in 1892 but it was extended it for 10 years through the Geary Act on Immigration. The extensions continued and were eventually made permanent when the immigration law of 1924 excluded all classes of Chinese immigrants. The Chinese Exclusion Act was eventually repealed with the 1943 Magnuson Act that set an annual immigration quota and extended citizenship privileges to Chinese.

Facts Sheet: Chinese Immigration to America Facts Sheet and Timeline for Kids

Fact 27 - 1965: The Immigration and Nationality Act (Hart-Celler Law) abolished nation-of-origin restrictions

1965-Present: Open Chinese Immigration

Facts Sheet: Chinese Immigration to America Facts and Timeline

Push and Pull Factors of Chinese Immigration to America for kids
For specific examples and a list of political, economic, environmental and social reasons and push and pull factors of Chinese immigration to America refer to:
Push and Pull Factors of Chinese Immigration
Chinese Immigration to America for kids
This article contains a brief overview of Chinese Immigration to America from the first Immigrants through the 1800's and 1900's. Important historical events have been highlighted in the history timeline which had a significant impact on Chinese Immigration to America. A brief description of the effect of the first immigrants from China. Our article on Chinese Immigration to America also outlines subjects such as California Gold Rush, San Francisco Chinatown, Transcontinental Railroad, Chinese Exclusion Act and Angel Island. A helpful educational resource for kids on the subject of Chinese Immigration to America.

Chinese Immigration to America for Kids, Schools and Homework

*** Interesting, brief, short, fun facts and history timeline of Chinese Immigration to America for kids, teachers and schools
*** Brief Facts and history timeline of Chinese Immigration to America - dates, numbers, law, history, reasons, impact and effect
*** Interesting facts about the history of Chinese Immigration to America and brief reasons for the changes in migration patterns
*** Chinese Immigration to America Timeline - important events in the history of America that impacted migrants from China
*** Fast, fun facts about Chinese Immigration to America and the first migrants in the 1800's and 1900's
*** Interesting, brief US Immigration History for kids and children, schools, homework projects on Chinese Immigration to America
*** Brief overview of Chinese Immigration to America for Kids, Teachers Schools and Homework - free, educational resource

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Background History of Chinese Immigration to America: The Opium Wars and Rebellion in China The Opium Wars (1839- 1842) erupted which resulted in widespread opium addiction in China. The population explosion led to a labor surplus and an inadequate food production. The situation was made worse by several disastrous famines.

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Irish Immigration to America: History for kids ***

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Find facts and timeline of Irish Immigration to America for kids. Reasons and history of Irish Immigration to America. Statistics of Irish Immigration to America for kids, children, homework and schools.

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Ellis Island Interactive Tour With Facts, Pictures, Video | Scholastic.com

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Learn about immigration on Ellis Island in this interactive, virtual tour. Facts about immigration, pictures of Ellis Island, oral histories, and videos help explain the immigration process to kids.

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Chinese Immigration to the United States Most of the early Chinese immigration to the United States can be traced to the mid-1800s. These early immigrants—some 25,000 in the 1850s alone—came seeking economic opportunity in America. The Chinese arriving in San Francisco, who came primarily from the Taishan and Zhongshan regions as well as Guangdong province […]

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Potato Famine

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Ireland in the 1800s

With the ratification of the Act for the Union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, Ireland was effectively governed as a colony of Great Britain (until the Irish War of Independence ended in 1921). Together, the combined nations were known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

As such, the British government appointed Ireland's executive heads of state, known respectively as the Lord Lieutenant and the Chief Secretary of Ireland, although residents of the Emerald Isle could elect representation to the British Parliament in London.

In all, Ireland sent 105 representatives to the House of Commons-the lower house of Parliament-and 28 "peers" (titled landowners) to the House of Lords, or the upper house.

Still, it's important to note that the bulk of these elected representatives were landowners of British origin and/or their sons. In addition, any Irish who practiced Catholicism-the majority of Ireland's native population-were initially prohibited from owning or leasing land, voting or holding elected office under the so-called Penal Laws.

Although the Penal Laws were largely repealed by 1829, their impact on Ireland's society and governance was still being felt at the time of the Potato Famine's onset. English and Anglo-Irish families owned most of the land, and most Irish Catholics were relegated to work as tenant farmers forced to pay rent to the landowners.

Ironically, less than 100 years before to the Famine's onset, the potato was introduced to Ireland by the landed gentry. However, despite the fact only one variety of the potato was grown in the country (the so-called "Irish Lumper"), it soon became a staple food of the poor, particularly during cold winter months.

Great Hunger Begins

When the crops began to fail in 1845, as a result of P. infestans infection, Irish leaders in Dublin petitioned Queen Victoria and Parliament to act-and, initially, they did, repealing the so-called " Corn Laws " and their tariffs on grain, which made food such as corn and bread prohibitively expensive.

Still, these changes failed to offset the growing problem of the potato blight. With many tenant farmers unable to produce sufficient food for their own consumption, and the costs of other supplies rising, thousands died from starvation, and hundreds of thousands more from disease caused by malnutrition.

Complicating matters further, historians have since concluded that Ireland continued to export large quantities of food, primarily to Great Britain, during the blight. In cases such as livestock and butter, research suggests that exports from Ireland may have actually increased during the Potato Famine.

In 1847 alone, records indicate that commodities such as peas, beans, rabbits, fish and honey continued to be exported from Ireland, even as the Great Hunger ravaged the countryside.

The potato crops didn't fully recover until 1852. By then, the damage was done. Although estimates vary, it is believed as many as 1 million Irish men, women and children perished during the Famine, and another 1 to 2 million emigrated from the island to escape poverty and starvation, with many landing in various cities throughout North America and Great Britain.

Legacy of the Potato Famine

With a population significant reduced by 2 to 3 million, and increased food imports after 1850, the Irish Potato Famine eventually ended around 1852. But for those who remained behind in a decimated Ireland, a renewed appreciation was ignited for Irish independence from British rule.

The exact role of the British government in the Potato Famine and its aftermath-whether it ignored the plight of Ireland's poor out of malice, or if their collective inaction and inadequate response could be attributed to incompetence-is still being debated.

However, the significance of the Potato Famine (in the Irish language, An Gorta Mor, or "the Great Hunger") in Irish history, and its contribution to the Irish diaspora of the 19th and 20th centuries, is beyond doubt.

Tony Blair, during his time as British Prime Minister, issued a statement in 1997 offering a formal apology to Ireland for the U.K. government's handling of the crisis at the time.

Irish Hunger Memorials

In recent years, cities to which the Irish ultimately emigrated during and in the decades after the event have offered various commemorations to the lives lost. Boston, New York City, Philadelphia and Phoenix in the United States, and Montreal and Toronto in Canada, have erected Irish hunger memorials, as have various cities in Ireland, Australia and Great Britain.

In addition, Glasgow Celtic FC, a soccer team based in Scotland that was founded by Irish immigrants, many of whom were brought to the country as a result of the effects of the Potato Famine, has included a commemorative patch on its uniform-most recently on September 30, 2017-to honor the victims of the Great Hunger.

A Great Hunger Museum was established at Quinnipiac University in Hamden, Connecticut as a resource for those seeking information on the Potato Famine and its impact, as well as for researchers hoping to explore the event and its aftermath.

Sources

"The Great Hunger: What was the Irish potato famine? How was Queen Victoria involved, how many people died and when did it happen?" TheSun.co.uk.
"Ireland's Representation in Parliament." North American Review (via JSTOR).
"Exports in Famine Times." Ireland's Great Hunger Museum.
"The Irish Famine." BBC.
"Blair issues apology for Irish Potato Famine." The Independent.
"Irish Famine Memorials." IrishFamineMemorials.com.
"Celtic to wear Irish Famine symbol on their Hoops to commemorate the Great Hunger." Irish Post.
"Mournful, Angry Views of Ireland's Famine: A Review of Ireland's Great Hunger Museum, in Hamden." New York Times.

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Irish Potato Famine: Date, Cause & Great Hunger - HISTORY

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The Irish Potato Famine was caused by a potato disease in Ireland in the mid-1800s. The "Great Hunger" killed about 1 million people, forcing another million to emigrate.

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After the depression of the 1890s, immigration jumped from a low of 3.5 million in that decade to a high of 9 million in the first decade of the new century. Immigrants from Northern and Western Europe continued coming as they had for three centuries, but in decreasing numbers. After the 1880s, immigrants increasingly came from Eastern and Southern European countries, as well as Canada and Latin America. By 1910, Eastern and Southern Europeans made up 70 percent of the immigrants entering the country. After 1914, immigration dropped off because of the war, and later because of immigration restrictions imposed in the 1920s.

The reasons these new immigrants made the journey to America differed little from those of their predecessors. Escaping religious, racial, and political persecution, or seeking relief from a lack of economic opportunity or famine still pushed many immigrants out of their homelands. Many were pulled here by contract labor agreements offered by recruiting agents, known as padrones to Italian and Greek laborers. Hungarians, Poles, Slovaks, Bohemians, and Italians flocked to the coal mines or steel mills, Greeks preferred the textile mills, Russian and Polish Jews worked the needle trades or pushcart markets of New York. Railroad companies advertised the availability of free or cheap farmland overseas in pamphlets distributed in many languages, bringing a handful of agricultural workers to western farmlands. But the vast majority of immigrants crowded into the growing cities, searching for their chance to make a better life for themselves.

Immigrants entering the United States who could not afford first or second-class passage came through the processing center at Ellis Island, New York. Built in 1892, the center handled some 12 million European immigrants, herding thousands of them a day through the barn-like structure during the peak years for screening. Government inspectors asked a list of twenty-nine probing questions, such as: Have you money, relatives or a job in the United States? Are you a polygamist? An anarchist? Next, the doctors and nurses poked

and prodded them, looking for signs of disease or debilitating handicaps. Usually immigrants were only detained 3 or 4 hours, and then free to leave. If they did not receive stamps of approval, and many did not because they were deemed criminals, strikebreakers, anarchists or carriers of disease, they were sent back to their place of origin at the expense of the shipping line.
For the newcomers arriving without family, some solace could be found in the ethnic neighborhoods populated by their fellow countrymen. Here they could converse in their native tongue, practice their religion, and take part in cultural celebrations that helped ease the loneliness. Often, though, life for all was not easy. Most industries offered hazardous conditions and very low wages--lowered further after the padrone took out his share. Urban housing was overcrowded and unsanitary. Many found it very difficult to accept. An old Italian saying summed up the disillusionment felt by many: "I came to America because I heard the streets were paved with gold. When I got here, found out three things: First, the streets weren't paved with gold; second, they weren't paved at all: and third, I was expected to pave them." In spite of the difficulties, few gave up and returned home.

References:
Kraut, Alan, The Huddled Masses: The Immigrant in American Society, 1880-1921 (1982); Handlin, Oscar, The Uprooted (1951).

How To Cite This Article:
"Immigration in the early 1900s," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2000).

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Kids learn about the history and timeline of the country of Italy including the Roman Republic, Roman Empire, Renaissance, Catholicism, World War II, and current events.

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Kids learn about the Geography of Germany. The history, capital, flag, climate, terrain, people, economy, and population.

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It's hard to say how old Chinese culture actually is, but it's one of the oldest that still has a presence in the modern world. Legends claim that the earliest rulers in China were the Xia Dynasty, from 2100 to 1600 B.C., with Yu as the first emperor, but there is little proof that the dynasty actually existed. Below is a timeline of one of the great cradles of civilization.

Shang Dynasty, Confucius

* 1600-1050 B.C.: Shang Dynasty -The earliest ruling dynasty of China to be established in recorded history, the Shang was headed by a tribal chief named Tan. The Shang era is marked by intellectual advances in astronomy and math.

* 551-479 B.C.: Confucius -The teacher, politician and philosopher was raised in poverty by his mother. He entered politics in 501 B.C. as a town governor after gaining attention as a teacher, but in 498 B.C. lived in exile to escape political enemies.

Returning to China around 483 B.C., Confucius devoted most of his time to teaching disciples his ideas (including, "Wheresoever you go, go with all your heart," and "It does not matter how slowly you go so long as you do not stop.") His ideas would become central to Chinese culture over time and endorsed by the government.

* 221-206 B.C.: Qin Dynasty -The Qin Dynasty, from which China derives its name (Qin is pronounced "Chin"), was the first official empire in its history. The Qins standardized regional written scripts into a single national one, establishing an imperial academy to oversee the translated texts.

The Qin Dynasty created the first Asian superhighway, the 500-mile Straight Road, along the Ziwu Mountain range, and began work on the Great Wall by expanding the northern border wall.

Qin Emperor Ying Zheng created an elaborate underground complex at the foot of the Lishan Mountain, famously featuring 13,000 terracotta statues of warriors and horses.

The Silk Road, Paper and Guns

* 125 B.C.: The Silk Road -Following capture and escape during a mission for Emperor Wu, Zhang Qian returned after 13 years with a map of the ground he had covered. Reaching as far as Afghanistan, his maps were accurate and led to the international trade route the Silk Road.

* 105 A.D.: Paper and books -Cai Lun developed paper by pounding together ingredients like bamboo, hemp, bark and others and spreading the pulp flat.

Paper use spread quickly across the empire, with the first Chinese dictionary, compiled by Xu Shen, and the first book of Chinese history, written by Sima Qian soon appearing.

* 850 A.D.: Gunpowder -Alchemists working with saltpeter for medicinal purposes mixed it with charcoal and sulfur. The explosive properties that resulted were used in warfare to propel arrows by the Tang Dynasty, as well as fireworks.

* 868 A.D.: Printing press -The earliest known printed book, The Diamond Sutra, was created during the Tang Dynasty. It was soon followed by calendars and educational material.

* 1260 A.D.: Kublai Khan -The grandson of Genghis conquered the Song Dynasty and established the Yuan Dynasty, unifying China and bringing Mongolia, Siberia and parts of the Middle East and even Europe into the Chinese Empire.

Kublai Khan introduced paper money, met with Marco Polo, brought the first Muslims to the country and attempted to conquer Japan.

* 1557: World trade -The Ming Dynasty expanded China's maritime trade to export silk and porcelain wares. A European presence was allowed within the empire and Chinese merchants emigrated to locations outside the realm for the first time.

* 1683: Taiwan -This Dutch-controlled island was seized by Ming Dynasty General Koxinga in 1662, and annexed by the Qing Dynasty 21 years later.

The Opium Wars

* 1840-1842: The First Opium War -Great Britain flooded the country with opium, causing an addiction crisis. The Qing Dynasty banned the drug, and a military confrontation resulted. British forces shut down Chinese ports, and Hong Kong was handed over to them.

* 1851-1864: The Taiping Rebellion -Self-proclaimed prophet Hong Xiuquan revolted against the Qing Dynasty with his Christian cult the God Worshipping Society. Spurred on by visions, Hong rampaged across China, taking Nanjing in 1852, which he governed for 12 years. Hong was found poisoned in 1864. The conflict claimed at least 20 million lives.

* 1856-1860: The Second Opium War - Britain and France demanded that China legalize opium, invading Guangzhou and advancing into Beijing. Desperate to end the conflict, China signed a treaty giving the west more business power and the control of ports.

* 18 94-1894: The First Sino Japanese War -The Qing Dynasty clashed with Japan over Korea. China's regional dominance plummeted after losing and influenced a series of internal clashes over the next 16 years. As part of the defeat agreement, Taiwan was handed over to Japan.

* 1899: The Boxer Rebellion -Under the rule of Empress Dowager Cixi, the secret society the Harmonious Fist began slaughtering foreigners. Known as the Boxers, they won Empress Dowager's support when eight European countries sent troops. China lost the conflict, and the West imposed sanctions that permanently weakened Qing rule.

* 1912: The Republic of China -Fueled by western-educated revolutionary Sun Yat-Sen, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 culminated in the Wuchang Uprising, and 15 provinces declared their independence from the Qing Dynasty. Sun took control in 1912, announcing the republic.

* 1921: The Communist Party of China -With its roots in the May Fourth Movement protesting the Chinese government response to the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the CPC officially formed.

* 1927: Shanghai Massacre -Millions of executions take place when Nationalist Party leader Chiang Kai-shek orders the massacre of Communists, which inadvertently causes the creation of the opposing Communist Red Army.

* 1928: Reunification -Elevated to head of the government, Chiang succeeded in reunifying China by seizing areas under the control of warlords.

* 1931: Civil War -Fighting between the Red Army and the Nationalist Party escalates into an 18-year-long conflict.

* 1937-1945: The Second Sino-Japanese War -Tensions started with the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria but exploded in 1937. After the Japanese captured Shanghai and Nanjing, a stalemate ensued until World War II and American support reframed the conflict into a theater in the larger war.

* 1945: Taiwan returns to China -Following Japanese surrender in World War II, Taiwan returned to Chinese control. Tensions mounted between Chinese soldiers and Taiwanese citizens, erupting in violence in 1947, and ending with Chiang sending further troops.

* 1949: People's Republic of China -After a violent end stage to the civil war, the Communist Party declared the People's Republic of China. Two months later, two million soldiers followed Chiang Kai-shek into exile to Taiwan where he set up a provisional government claiming to be the legitimate ruling body of China. Communist party chairman Mao Zedong became China's new leader.

* 1958-1962: The Great Leap Forward -This campaign by Chairman Mao to transform the agricultural base of China's society into an industrial one imposed a commune system that organized peasants and forbade private farming. The plan failed to produce the necessary yield, and famine followed, leading to 56 million deaths, including 3 million by suicide.

* 1966: The Cultural Revolution -This campaign was initiated by Chairman Mao to erase Capitalist and traditional Chinese influences of the People's Republic and introduce the philosophy of Maoism to fill the ideological gaps. Schools were closed and Chinese youth directed to take the lead in change, resulting in youth gangs known as the Red Guards attacking undesirable citizens. Chaos led to martial law, Communist Party purges, and 1.5 million deaths.

* 1972: Richard Nixon visits China -The first American president to visit China while serving in office and the first diplomatic meeting between the countries since 1949, Nixon met with Mao and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai, discussing multiple topics, including trade and a U.S. troop withdrawal from Taiwan.

* April 5, 1975: Chiang Kai-shek dies -After 26 years steering Taiwan to legitimacy and attempting to take back mainland China, Chiang succumbs to a heart attack.

* September 9, 1976: Mao dies -Mao's death after several heart attacks effectively ends the Cultural Revolution and brought Deng Xiaoping to power for the next two decades, pushing out Mao's inner circle known as the Gang of Four. By the end of his reign, Mao would oversee the slaughter of some 40 million people.

* 1989: Tiananmen Square protests -These student-led protests grew from the '89 Democracy Movement demanding freedom of speech, freedom of the press and more. They gained worldwide attention when the government violently cracked down on the protesters and images of tanks rolling into students inspired universal condemnation. At least 300 died in the protests.

* 1993: Three Gorges Project -The construction of the world's largest hydroelectric dam began. Proposed as early as 1920, the project required flooding 1,500 cities and villages, displacing as many as 1.9 million people and destroying 1,200 archaeological and historical sites. The dam begins operation in 2015.

* July 1, 1997: Hong Kong returns to China -In a midnight ceremony with British Prime Minister Tony Blair in attendance, Hong Kong was given back to China after 156 years. China agreed to preserve the island's capitalist economy as part of the handover agreement.

* 2010: Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement -China and Taiwan begin officially speaking to each other for the first time, but following the 2016 election of Tsai Ing-wen as Taiwanese president, China rescinds these new ties.
SOURCES:
Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Patricia Buckley Ebrey.
The Dynasties of China. Bamber Gascoigne.
China Condensed: 5000 Years of History and Culture. Ong Siew Chey.
What's behind the China-Taiwan divide? BBC.
The Story of China. PBS.

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It's hard to say how old Chinese culture actually is, but it's one of the oldest that still has a presence in the modern world. Legends claim that the earliest rulers in China were the Xia Dynasty, from 2100 to 1600 B.C., with Yu as the first emperor, but there is little proof that the dynasty actually existed.

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Great Famine | Definition, Causes, Significance, & Deaths

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Great Famine, famine that occurred in Ireland in 1845–49 when the potato crop failed in successive years. The Irish famine was the worst to occur in Europe in the 19th century: about one million people died from starvation or from typhus and other famine-related diseases.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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Kids learn about the Geography of Italy. The history, capital, flag, climate, terrain, people, economy, and population.

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Kids History: Daily Life in Ancient China

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Kids learn about the daily life in Ancient China including jobs, food, life in the city, family, and school.

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The Great Famine, Great Hunger, or Great Famine is the name given to the famine in Ireland in the years 1845-1852. Outside Ireland, it is usually called the Irish Potato Famine. The famine was caused by "the potato blight", a fungus-like organism which quickly destroyed the potatoes in Ireland, and throughout Europe. The effect was particularly bad in Ireland because potatoes were the staple food for most Irish people at the time.

It is believed that between 1 million to 1.5 million people died in the three years from 1846 to 1849 because of hunger or disease. Another million became refugees because of the famine. Many people who left Ireland moved to Great Britain, (mostly to the nearby town of Liverpool), the United States, Canada and Australia.

In Ireland this time is referred to as "the starvation". The potato was the only crop affected, yet Ireland continued to produce corn, wheat, barley, and beef. However, the mostly English landlords made a bigger profit by selling these food products elsewhere.

By the late 17th century, potatoes had become common as a supplementary rather than a major food. The diet was mainly around butter, milk, and grain products. Potato became a base food of the poor, especially in winter. The lack of genetic variability among the potato plants in Ireland caused the emergence of Phytophthora infestans which had devastating effects in Ireland. Another factor is that holdings were so small that no crop other than potatoes would be able to feed a family.

Starting in 1801, Ireland had been directly governed, under the Act of Union as part of the United Kingdom. In the 40 years after the union, British governments grappled with the problems of governing the country. One historian calculated that, between 1801 and 1845, there had been 114 commissions and 61 special committees enquiring into the state of Ireland. "Without exception their findings prophesied disaster. Ireland was on the verge of starvation, her population rapidly increasing, three-quarters of her labourers unemployed, housing conditions appalling and the standard of living unbelievably low". It was caused by monoculture because they only planted one main crop and let its disease infest all other potatoes in the Irish territory.

Images for kids

An Irish Peasant Family Discovering the Blight of their Store by Cork artist Daniel MacDonald, c.  1847

Suggested paths of migration and diversification of P. infestans lineages HERB-1 and US-1

Rioters in Dungarvan attempt to break into a bakery; the poor could not afford to buy what food was available. ( The Pictorial Times, 1846).

An 1849 depiction of Bridget O'Donnell and her two children during the famine

Lord Palmerston, then British Foreign Secretary, evicted some 2,000 of his tenants.

The Emigrants' Farewell, engraving by Henry Doyle (1827-1893), from Mary Frances Cusack's Illustrated History of Ireland, 1868

Irish population in the United States, 1880

Political cartoon from the 1880s: "In forty years I have lost, through the operation of no natural law, more than Three Million of my Sons and Daughters, and they, the Young and the Strong, leaving behind the Old and Infirm to weep and to die. Where is this to end?"

In Spanish: Gran hambruna irlandesa para niños

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Learn Irish Potato Famine facts for kids

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a comprehensive suite of e-learning resources designed for all ages and abilities with articles

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A comprehensive suite of e-learning resources designed for all ages and abilities with articles, videos, educator tools, eBooks, research guides and more.

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Italian Immigration to America: History for kids ***

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Find factsand timeline of Italian Immigration to America for kids. History of Italian Immigration to America, Ellis Island, discrimination and prejudice. Statistics of Italian Immigration to America for kids, children, homework and schools.

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Famine and political revolution in Europe led millions of Irish and German citizens to immigrate to America in the mid-nineteenth century.

From the 1820s to the 1840s, Germans and Irish were the two largest groups of immigrants to the United States.

The Germans and Irish were frequently subjected to anti-foreign prejudice and discrimination.

Ultimately, the Germans and Irish assimilated into US culture and society and became two of the most successful immigrant groups in the country.

An immigrant nation

The United States, as an immigrant nation, has always faced the challenge of incorporating new demographic groups into its society and culture. Throughout the history of the United States, this has resulted in fierce national debates over what it means to be an American. Successive waves of immigration diversified the country from its origins in white, Anglo-Saxon Protestantism, while enlarging and expanding upon the definition of the term American.

Irish immigration

From the 1820s to the 1840s, approximately 90 percent of immigrants to the United States came from Ireland, England, or Germany. Among these groups, the Irish were by far the largest. In the 1820s, nearly 60,000 Irish immigrated to the United States. In the 1830s, the number grew to 235,000, and in the 1840s-due to a potato famine in Ireland-the number of immigrants skyrocketed to 845,000. The Great Irish Famine, as it became known, resulted from a five-year blight that turned potato crops black. Between 1845 and 1850, one million Irish died of starvation and another two million fled the country.

Recent Irish immigrants, especially Irish Catholics, were frequent targets of xenophobic-anti-foreign-prejudice. The arrival of so many Irish Catholics almost doubled the overall number of Catholics living in the United States. Anti-Catholic prejudice was still very common at this time, and many Americans perpetuated stereotypes of Catholics as superstitious and blindly obedient to the Vatican in Rome. Many questioned the loyalty of Catholic immigrants to the United States, fearing that in time of war, their loyalty would be not to their country but to the Pope. Catholicism was viewed as a threat to democracy, and many feared that it would undermine the strength of Protestantism in the United States.

Despite these challenges, the Irish were resilient and assimilated effectively into US culture and society. They lived in both rural and urban areas, settling the western frontier, working the land as farmers, and establishing a major presence in cities like New York, Chicago, and San Francisco. They built powerful political machines in major metropolitan areas, the most famous of which was undoubtedly Tammany Hall in New York City. These political machines, typically run by the Democratic Party, helped recent immigrants assimilate into American society by providing them with training, employment opportunities, and sometimes even cash handouts, in exchange for their votes at election time.

William "Boss" Tweed, fourth-generation Scottish-Irish, was the most infamous of the Tammany Hall political bosses; he dominated the politics of New York City from the mid-1850s until his arrest in 1871 on charges of embezzlement, corruption, and fraud. Though Tweed was certainly guilty of these charges, there is no doubt that Tammany Hall and other political machines like it performed a valuable service in helping recent immigrants, especially the Irish, to assimilate into US culture and society. By the mid-20th century, the Irish had become one of the most successful, prosperous, and well-educated immigrant groups in the country.

German immigration

From the 1820s to the 1840s, Germans were the second largest group of immigrants to the United States after the Irish. They came to the United States seeking political and religious freedom and greater economic opportunities than could be found in Europe. In 1848, when revolutions erupted in the German states of Europe, Germans became the largest immigrant group to the United States.

Although Germans created settlements in nearly every state of the Union, the so-called German belt stretches from Pennsylvania to Oregon, all along the North and Midwest. Many of the Germans who settled these areas were farmers who developed innovative techniques such as crop rotation and soil conservation. Other Germans settled in metropolitan areas, pursuing education, establishing industrial enterprises, and entering the ranks of the middle and upper classes. Today, over 50 million Americans have full or partial German ancestry, making German-Americans the largest white ethnic group in the United States.

What do you think?

Why is immigration such a contentious issue in US history?

Do you think Boss Tweed and the Democratic Party political machines did more harm than good? What was the purpose of machine politics?

Why do you think the Germans and Irish were able to overcome anti-foreign prejudice and become two of the largest and most successful immigrant groups in the country?

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Irish and German immigration (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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A famine is when there is not enough food to feed all the people in a country or region. Many people may become ill or die because of famine. During the Famine of 1845-49 in...

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There is virtually no other population group that has shaped the past of the USA quite as strongly as German emigrants, with almost seven million of them making their way to the New World over the course of four centuries. Currently 40 to 60 million Americans cite "German" as their primary origin and thus represent the largest immigrant group - even greater than those descended from Irish and Italians.

German emigration to the USA began at the end of the 17th century when Germany was suffering from the after-effects of the bloody religious conflicts of the Thirty Years' War, and Christian minorities were being persecuted. Many farmers lived in poverty, their very existence threatened by failed harvests and land shortages, so many decided to leave for a country that appeared to offer both freedom and prosperity. That country was America.

In 1683 a group of 13 orthodox Quaker families from Krefeld left for New England, where they founded Germantown, the first closed German settlement, which is now a suburb of Philadelphia. They were followed in 1709 by 13,000 peasant farmers from the Palatinate, hence they were known as the Palatines. Rumour had it that the Queen of England would gift them land, but this proved to be just that - a rumour. In the end, 3,000 made it across the Atlantic and settled in what is now Albany, New York.

A new life in "the land of the free"

The situation in Germany worsened when the start of industrialisation caused the population to grow dramatically. In the mid-19th century, around three quarters of farmers did not have enough land to make a living, hence they began migrating in huge numbers from 1816 - the start of official German mass emigration to the USA. The opportunities seemed too good to be true: A peasant farmer who had to survive on half a hectare of land in Germany could acquire 64 hectares after just ten years in the United States.

A lack of political prospects was also a motivational factor behind emigration. For many people, the failure of the Revolution of 1848 represented proof that common people were unlikely to gain any rights to freedom in Germany anytime in the near future, and as a result, many members of the left-wing liberal middle classes and their supporters emigrated to the USA - the so-called "48ers".

Mobile and well-integrated

Once in the USA, the Germans initially established themselves as a respected immigrant group, classic "hyphen-Americans" with dual identity. Countless communities developed with schools, churches and clubs, in which the German language and culture was preserved and cultivated. As advanced industrialisation took hold in the USA, German-Americans were among the most established groups of the population, both in farming and among the new blue-collar professions.

Their early presence among the new industries also led to Germans becoming more mobile than virtually any other group. They were less tightly concentrated in individual regions than other immigrants and spread across the country working as foremen in railway construction, for example.

The image of those with German roots changed abruptly upon the outbreak of the First World War. All of a sudden, they came under pressure to cast off their ethnic identity. Full-blown anti-German hysteria meant that the German language and culture were ostracised.

Thus, a process was set in motion which made German immigrants unique among all the major immigrant groups, and which was further fuelled by the Second World War - the almost complete erosion of their original identity. No other group lost its public visibility to quite the extent of the German-Americans during the course of the 20th century.

After the Second World War, the USA remained an important destination country for new groups of German emigrants. These included the fiancées and wives of American soldiers who had been stationed in Germany, as well as an increasing number of academics and highly qualified professionals. They still form the most important group of German immigrants in the USA today. In 2017, around 12,500 Germans emigrated to America.

© www.deutschland.de

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There is virtually no other population group that has shaped the past of the USA quite as strongly as German emigrants, with almost seven million of them making their way to the New World over the course of four centuries.

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Chinese Americans are Americans of Chinese descent. Chinese Americans constitute one group of Overseas Chinese and also a subgroup of East Asian American.

The first Chinese immigrants arrived in 1820 according to U.S. government records. Fewer than 1,000 are known to have arrived before the 1848 California Gold Rush which drew the first significant number of laborers from China who performed menial work for the gold prospectors.

Chinese people were some of the early immigrants to live in the U.S., but then were banned from emigrating between 1885 and 1943 - when the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed. Immigration of Chinese was heavily restricted until 1965.

Chinese immigration to the United States has come in great numbers. Similar to other American immigration experiences, Chinese immigration has resulted in both hardship and success.

Citizenship

Legally all ethnic Chinese born in the United States are American citizens as a result of the Fourteenth Amendment and the 1898 United States v. Wong Kim Ark Supreme Court decision. Upon naturalization, immigrants are must take an oath of loyalty to the United States but are not required to formally renounce their former citizenship. The People's Republic of China does not recognize dual citizenship and considers naturalization of an person as an American citizen to implying a renunciation of PRC citizenship.

Major contributions

The Chinese who immigrated to America in the earlier decades were mainly from the area of Guangdong (Canton) and later Hong Kong. However, recently, more Chinese from mainland began to arrive to perform skilled jobs. Most of these Chinese Americans hold high educational degrees and value education.

Chinese, mostly of the Cantonese variety, is the third most-spoken language spoken in the United States, almost completely spoken within Chinese American populations and by immigrants or the descendants of immigrants, especially in California. Over 2 million Americans speak some variety of Chinese.

Although Chinese Americans grow up learning English, some teach their children Chinese for a variety of reasons such as of pride in their cultural ancestry.

Notable Chinese Americans

Images for kids

Chinese-American miners in the Colorado School of Mines' Edgar Experimental Mine near Idaho Springs, Colorado, c.  1920

Percentage of Chinese population in the United States, 2000

New York City is home to the largest Chinese American population of any city proper, over 600,000 as of 2017. Multiple large Chinatowns in Manhattan, Brooklyn (above), and Queens are thriving as traditionally urban enclaves, as large-scale Chinese immigration continues into New York, with the largest metropolitan Chinese population outside Asia, comprising an estimated 893,697 uniracial individuals as of 2017.

San Francisco is home to the second largest Chinese community in the United States in number and the largest in percentage.

Technology conglomerates such as eBay located within technology centers across the United States, including California's Silicon Valley, are attractive employers for Chinese Americans and foreign-born Chinese entrepreneurs.

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Chinese Americans are Americans of Chinese descent. Chinese Americans constitute one group of Overseas Chinese and also a subgroup of East Asian American. The first Chinese immigrants arrived in 1820 according to U.S. government records.

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A New Surge of Growth | German | Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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German immigrants boarding a ship for America European Reading Room
German immigration boomed in the 19th century. Wars in Europe and America had slowed the arrival of immigrants for several decades starting in the 1770s, but by 1830 German immigration had increased more than tenfold. From that…

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Push and Pull Factors for Chinese Immigrants

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Push and Pull Factors for Chinese Immigrants

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Like Native Americans, Mexican Americans and Chinese immigrants suffered harsh consequences due to relentless westward expansion by whites in the nineteenth century.

In the nineteenth century, Mexican American, Chinese, and white populations of the United States collided as white people moved farther west in search of land and riches.

Neither Chinese immigrants nor Mexican Americans could withstand the assault on their rights by the tide of white settlers. Ultimately, both ethnic groups retreated into urban enclaves, where their language and traditions could survive.

Las Gorras Blancas, the White Caps, were a rebel group of Mexican Americans who fought back against the appropriation of their land by white settlers; in 1889 and 1890, they burned farms, homes, and crops.

Manifest Destiny and minorities

As white Americans pushed west, they not only collided with Native American tribes but also with Mexican Americans and Chinese immigrants. Mexican Americans in the Southwest had been given the opportunity to become American citizens at the end of the Mexican-American War, but their status was markedly second-class. Chinese immigrants arrived en masse during the California Gold Rush and numbered in the hundreds of thousands by the late 1800s; the majority lived in California, working menial jobs.

These distinct cultural and ethnic groups strove to maintain their rights and way of life in the face of persistent racism, but the large number of white settlers and government-sanctioned land acquisitions left them at a profound disadvantage. Ultimately, both groups withdrew into homogenous communities in which their language and culture could survive.

Chinese immigrants in the American West

The initial arrival of Chinese immigrants to the United States began as a slow trickle in the 1820s; barely 650 Chinese immigrants lived in the United States by the end of 1849. But as gold rush fever swept the country, Chinese immigrants-like others-were attracted to the notion of quick fortunes. By 1852, over 25,000 Chinese immigrants had arrived in the United States, and by 1880, over 300,000 Chinese people were living in the United States, most in California.

Although they had dreams of finding gold, many Chinese immigrants instead found employment building the first transcontinental railroad. Some even traveled as far as the South, where they helped farm former cotton plantations after the Civil War.

Several thousand of these immigrants booked their passage to the United States using what was known as a "credit-ticket," an arrangement in which their passage was paid in advance by US businessmen to whom the immigrants were then indebted for a period of work. Most Chinese immigrants were men; few Chinese women or children traveled to the United States in this time period. As late as 1890, less than five percent of the Chinese population in the United States was female. Regardless of gender, few Chinese immigrants intended to stay permanently in the United States, although many were forced to do so when they realized they lacked the financial resources to return home.

Prohibited by law in 1790 from obtaining US citizenship through naturalization, Chinese immigrants faced harsh discrimination and violence from American settlers in the West. Despite hardships like the special tax that Chinese miners had to pay to take part in the Gold Rush and their subsequent forced relocation into Chinese districts, these immigrants continued to arrive in the United States seeking a better life for the families they left behind.

The Chinese community banded together in an effort to create social and cultural centers in cities such as San Francisco. They sought to provide services ranging from social aid to education, places of worship, and health facilities to their fellow Chinese immigrants. But, as Chinese workers began competing with white Americans for jobs in California cities, anti-Chinese discrimination increased. In the 1870s, white Americans formed "anti-coolie clubs"-coolie was a racial slur directed towards people of Asian descent-through which they organized boycotts of Chinese-produced products and lobbied for anti-Chinese laws. Some protests turned violent. In 1885 in Rock Springs, Wyoming, tensions between white and Chinese immigrant miners erupted into a riot, resulting in over two dozen Chinese immigrants being murdered and many more injured.

Racism and discrimination became law. The new California constitution of 1879 denied naturalized Chinese citizens the right to vote or hold state employment. Additionally, in 1882, the US Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which was the first significant law restricting immigration into the United States. It restricted immigration from China for ten years. The ban was later extended on multiple occasions until its repeal in 1943.

Mexican Americans in the American West

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War in 1848, promised US citizenship to the nearly 75,000 Mexicans living in what had just become the American Southwest. Approximately 90 percent of them accepted the offer and chose to stay in the United States.

Despite promises made in the treaty, these Mexican Americans quickly lost their land to white settlers who displaced the rightful landowners-by force if necessary. Mexican Americans in California-or Californios, as they came to be known-found that their demands for legal redress mostly fell upon deaf ears. In some instances, judges and lawyers would permit legal cases to proceed through an expensive legal process only to the point where Mexican American landowners who insisted on holding their ground were rendered penniless for their efforts.

Much like Chinese immigrants, Mexican American citizens were relegated to the worst-paying jobs under the worst working conditions. They worked as peóns (manual laborers similar to slaves), vaqueros (cattle herders), and cartmen, transporting food and supplies, on the cattle ranches that white landowners possessed, or they undertook the most hazardous mining tasks.

In a few instances, frustrated Mexican American citizens fought back against the white settlers who dispossessed them. In 1889 to 1890 in New Mexico, several hundred Mexican Americans formed las Gorras Blancas -the White Caps-to try to reclaim their land and intimidate white Americans in order to prevent further land seizures. White Caps conducted raids of white farms, burning homes, barns, and crops to express their growing anger and frustration. However, their actions never resulted in any fundamental changes. Several White Caps were captured, beaten, and imprisoned, and others eventually gave up, fearing harsh reprisals against their families. Some White Caps adopted a more political strategy, gaining election to local offices throughout New Mexico in the early 1890s, but growing concerns over the potential impact upon the territory's quest for statehood led several citizens to heighten the repression of the movement.

Other laws passed in the United States intended to deprive Mexican Americans of their heritage as much as their lands. "Sunday Laws" prohibited "noisy amusements" such as bullfights, cockfights, and other cultural gatherings common to Mexican American communities at the time. "Greaser Laws" permitted the imprisonment of any unemployed Mexican American on charges of vagrancy.

In California and throughout the Southwest, a massive influx of Anglo-American settlers overran the Mexican American populations that had been living there for generations. Despite being US citizens with full rights, Mexican Americans quickly found themselves outnumbered, outvoted, and-ultimately-outcast. Corrupt state and local governments favored white settlers in land disputes. Mining companies and cattle barons discriminated against Mexican Americans-as they did against Chinese workers-in terms of pay and working conditions. In growing urban areas such as Los Angeles, barrios, neighborhoods of working-class homes, grew more isolated from white neighborhoods. Mexican Americans, like Native Americans and Chinese immigrants, suffered the fallout of white settlers' relentless push west.

What do you think?

The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first significant law restricting immigration into the United States. Why do you think the US government singled out Chinese immigrants in particular for exclusion?

How does the experience of Mexican Americans in the West compare to the experience of African Americans in the South in the late nineteenth century? In what ways were their lives similar? In what ways were their lives different?

What strategies did Chinese immigrants and Mexican Americans use to resist discrimination and build strong communities?

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Chinese immigrants and Mexican Americans in the age of westward expansion (article) | Khan Academy

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Like Native Americans, Mexican Americans and Chinese immigrants suffered harsh consequences due to relentless westward expansion by whites in the nineteenth century. In the nineteenth century, Mexican American, Chinese, and white populations of the United States collided as white people moved farther west in search of land and riches.

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Famine and political revolution in Europe led millions of Irish and German citizens to immigrate to America in the mid-nineteenth century.

From the 1820s to the 1840s, Germans and Irish were the two largest groups of immigrants to the United States.

The Germans and Irish were frequently subjected to anti-foreign prejudice and discrimination.

Ultimately, the Germans and Irish assimilated into US culture and society and became two of the most successful immigrant groups in the country.

An immigrant nation

The United States, as an immigrant nation, has always faced the challenge of incorporating new demographic groups into its society and culture. Throughout the history of the United States, this has resulted in fierce national debates over what it means to be an American. Successive waves of immigration diversified the country from its origins in white, Anglo-Saxon Protestantism, while enlarging and expanding upon the definition of the term American.

Irish immigration

From the 1820s to the 1840s, approximately 90 percent of immigrants to the United States came from Ireland, England, or Germany. Among these groups, the Irish were by far the largest. In the 1820s, nearly 60,000 Irish immigrated to the United States. In the 1830s, the number grew to 235,000, and in the 1840s-due to a potato famine in Ireland-the number of immigrants skyrocketed to 845,000. The Great Irish Famine, as it became known, resulted from a five-year blight that turned potato crops black. Between 1845 and 1850, one million Irish died of starvation and another two million fled the country.

Recent Irish immigrants, especially Irish Catholics, were frequent targets of xenophobic-anti-foreign-prejudice. The arrival of so many Irish Catholics almost doubled the overall number of Catholics living in the United States. Anti-Catholic prejudice was still very common at this time, and many Americans perpetuated stereotypes of Catholics as superstitious and blindly obedient to the Vatican in Rome. Many questioned the loyalty of Catholic immigrants to the United States, fearing that in time of war, their loyalty would be not to their country but to the Pope. Catholicism was viewed as a threat to democracy, and many feared that it would undermine the strength of Protestantism in the United States.

Despite these challenges, the Irish were resilient and assimilated effectively into US culture and society. They lived in both rural and urban areas, settling the western frontier, working the land as farmers, and establishing a major presence in cities like New York, Chicago, and San Francisco. They built powerful political machines in major metropolitan areas, the most famous of which was undoubtedly Tammany Hall in New York City. These political machines, typically run by the Democratic Party, helped recent immigrants assimilate into American society by providing them with training, employment opportunities, and sometimes even cash handouts, in exchange for their votes at election time.

William "Boss" Tweed, fourth-generation Scottish-Irish, was the most infamous of the Tammany Hall political bosses; he dominated the politics of New York City from the mid-1850s until his arrest in 1871 on charges of embezzlement, corruption, and fraud. Though Tweed was certainly guilty of these charges, there is no doubt that Tammany Hall and other political machines like it performed a valuable service in helping recent immigrants, especially the Irish, to assimilate into US culture and society. By the mid-20th century, the Irish had become one of the most successful, prosperous, and well-educated immigrant groups in the country.

German immigration

From the 1820s to the 1840s, Germans were the second largest group of immigrants to the United States after the Irish. They came to the United States seeking political and religious freedom and greater economic opportunities than could be found in Europe. In 1848, when revolutions erupted in the German states of Europe, Germans became the largest immigrant group to the United States.

Although Germans created settlements in nearly every state of the Union, the so-called German belt stretches from Pennsylvania to Oregon, all along the North and Midwest. Many of the Germans who settled these areas were farmers who developed innovative techniques such as crop rotation and soil conservation. Other Germans settled in metropolitan areas, pursuing education, establishing industrial enterprises, and entering the ranks of the middle and upper classes. Today, over 50 million Americans have full or partial German ancestry, making German-Americans the largest white ethnic group in the United States.

What do you think?

Why is immigration such a contentious issue in US history?

Do you think Boss Tweed and the Democratic Party political machines did more harm than good? What was the purpose of machine politics?

Why do you think the Germans and Irish were able to overcome anti-foreign prejudice and become two of the largest and most successful immigrant groups in the country?

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Irish and German immigration (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Throughout the Famine years, nearly a million Irish arrived in the United States. Famine immigrants were the first big wave of poor refugees ever to arrive in the U.S. and Americans were simply overwhelmed. Upon arrival in America, the Irish found the going to be quite tough. With no one to help them, they immediately settled into the lowest rung of society and waged a daily battle for survival.

The roughest welcome of all would be in Boston, Massachusetts, an Anglo-Saxon city with a population of about 115,000. It was a place run by descendants of English Puritans, men who could proudly recite their lineage back to 1620 and the Mayflower ship. Now, some two hundred thirty years later, their city was undergoing nothing short of an unwanted "social revolution" as described by Ephraim Peabody, member of an old Yankee family. In 1847, the first big year of Famine emigration, the city was swamped with 37,000 Irish Catholics arriving by sea and land.

Proper Bostonians pointed and laughed at the first Irish immigrants stepping off ships wearing clothes twenty years out of fashion. They watched as the newly arrived Irishmen settled with their families into enclaves that became exclusively Irish near the Boston waterfront along Batterymarch and Broad Streets, then in the North End section and in East Boston. Irishmen took any unskilled jobs they could find such as cleaning yards and stables, unloading ships, and pushing carts.

And once again, they fell victim to unscrupulous landlords. This time it was Boston landlords who sub-divided former Yankee dwellings into cheap housing, charging Irish families up to $1.50 a week to live in a single nine-by-eleven foot room with no water, sanitation, ventilation or daylight.

In Boston, as well as other American cities in the mid-1800s, there was no enforcement of sanitary regulations and no building or fire safety codes. Landlords could do as they pleased. A single family three-story house along the waterfront that once belonged to a prosperous Yankee merchant could be divided-up room by room into housing for a hundred Irish, bringing a nice profit.

The overflow Irish would settle into the gardens, back yards and alleys surrounding the house, living in wooden shacks. Demand for housing of any quality was extraordinary. People lived in musty cellars with low ceilings that partially flooded with every tide. Old warehouses and other buildings within the Irish enclave were hastily converted into rooming houses using flimsy wooden partitions that provided no privacy.

A Boston Committee of Internal Health studying the situation described the resulting Irish slum as "a perfect hive of human beings, without comforts and mostly without common necessaries; in many cases huddled together like brutes, without regard to age or sex or sense of decency. Under such circumstances self-respect, forethought, all the high and noble virtues soon die out, and sullen indifference and despair or disorder, intemperance and utter degradation reign supreme."

The unsanitary conditions were breeding grounds for disease, particularly cholera. Sixty percent of the Irish children born in Boston during this period didn't live to see their sixth birthday. Adult Irish lived on average just six years after stepping off the boat onto American soil.

Those who were not ill were driven to despair. Rowdy behavior fueled by alcohol and boredom spilled out into the streets of Boston and the city witnessed a staggering increase in crime, up to 400 percent for such crimes as aggravated assault. Men and boys cooped up in tiny rooms and without employment or schooling got into serious trouble. An estimated 1500 children roamed the streets every day begging and making mischief.

There were only a limited number of unskilled jobs available. Intense rivalry quickly developed between the Irish and working class Bostonians over these jobs. In Ireland, a working man might earn eight cents a day. In America, he could earn up to a dollar a day, a tremendous improvement. Bostonians feared being undercut by hungry Irish willing to work for less than the going rate. Their resentment, combined with growing anti-Irish and anti-Catholic sentiment among all classes in Boston led to 'No Irish Need Apply' signs being posted in shop windows, factory gates and workshop doors throughout the city.
Irish in New York
New York, three times the size of Boston, was better able to absorb its incoming Irish. Throughout the Famine years, 75 percent of the Irish coming to America landed in New York. In 1847, about 52,000 Irish arrived in the city which had a total population of 372,000. The Irish were not the only big group of immigrants arriving. A substantial German population totaling over 53,000 also arrived in 1847.

In New York, the Irish did not face the degree of prejudice found in Boston. Instead, they were confronted by shifty characters and con artists. Confused Irish, fresh off the farm and suffering from culture shock, were taken advantage of the moment they set foot on shore.

Immediately upon arrival in New York harbor, they were met by Irishmen known as 'runners' speaking in Gaelic and promising to 'help' their fellow countrymen. Many of the new arrivals, quite frightened at the mere prospect of America, gladly accepted. Those who hesitated were usually bullied into submission. The runner's first con was to suggest a good place to stay in New York; a boarding house operated by a friend, supposedly with good meals and comfortable rooms at very affordable rates, including free storage of any luggage.

The boarding houses were actually filthy hell-holes in lower Manhattan. Instead of comfortable rooms, the confused arrivals were shoved into vermin-infested hovels with eight or ten other unfortunate souls, at prices three or four times higher than what they had been told. They remained as 'boarders' until their money ran out at which time their luggage was confiscated for back-rent and they were tossed out into the streets, homeless and penniless.

During the entire Famine period, about 650,000 Irish arrived in New York harbor. All incoming passenger ships to New York had to stop for medical inspection. Anyone with fever was removed to the quarantine station on Staten Island and the ship itself was quarantined for 30 days. But Staten Island was just five miles from Manhattan. Runners were so aggressive in pursuit of the Irish that they even rowed out to quarantined ships and sneaked into the hospitals on Staten Island despite the risk of contracting typhus.

Another way to take advantage of the Irish was to sell them phony railroad and boat tickets. Runners working with 'forwarding agents' sold bogus tickets that had pictures of trains or boats the illiterate immigrants wished to board to leave Manhattan for other U.S. cities. The tickets were either worthless, or if they were valid, had been sold at double the actual price or higher. On the boats, the immigrant were shoved into jam-packed steerage sections, although they thought they had paid for better accommodations. Sometimes, halfway to their destination, they were told to pay more or risk being thrown overboard.

The penniless Irish who remained in Manhattan stayed crowded together close to the docks where they sought work as unskilled dock workers. They found cheap housing wherever they could, with many families living in musty cellars. Abandoned houses near the waterfront that once belonged to wealthy merchants were converted into crowded tenements. Shoddy wooded tenements also sprang up overnight in yards and back alleys to be rented out room by room at high prices. Similar to Boston, New York experienced a high rate of infant mortality and a dramatic rise in crime as men and boys cooped-up in squalid shanties let off steam by drinking and getting in fights.
Anti-Irish Sentiment
U.S. immigration records indicate that by 1850, the Irish made up 43 percent of the foreign-born population. Up to ninety percent of the Irish arriving in America remained in cities. New York now had more Irish-born citizens than Dublin. Those who did not stay in New York or Boston traveled to places such as Albany, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Chicago, and out west to Butte, Montana, and San Francisco. Upon arrival, the Irishman and his family would usually go straight to the 'Irish quarter,' locate people from County Mayo, County Cork, or wherever they had come from, and settle in among them.

Unlike other nationalities that came to America seeking wide open spaces, the Irish chose to huddle in the cities partly because they were the poorest of all the immigrants arriving and partly out of a desire to recreate the close-knit communities they had cherished back in Ireland. Above all, the Irish loved each other's company, enjoying a daily dose of gossip, conversation, poetry and story telling, music and singing, and the ever-present jokes and puns.

But the daily pressures of living in America at the bottom rung of society also brought out the worst in them. Back home, the Irish were known for their honesty, law-abiding manners, and chastity. In America, old social norms disintegrated and many of the Irish, both men and women, behaved wildly. In the hopeless slums of New York, prostitution flourished and drunkenness occurred even among children.

Wherever they settled, the Irish kept to themselves to the exclusion of everyone else, and thus were slow to assimilate. Americans were thus slow to accept the Irish as equals, preferring instead to judge them by the cartoon stereotypes of drunken, brawling Irishmen published in newspapers of the day. Irish immigrants were also derided in the press as 'aliens' who were mindlessly loyal to their Catholic leaders in place of any allegiance to America.

The sheer numbers of Irish pouring into the U.S. meant that Catholicism was on the verge of becoming the single largest Christian denomination in America. Many American Protestants held the simplistic view that if the numbers of Roman Catholics were increasing then the power and influence of the Papacy in America was also increasing, threatening America's political independence. Fear of the Papacy thus became fear of the Irish and resulted in outright violence.

In Boston, a mob of Protestant workmen burned down a Catholic convent. Protestant mobs in Philadelphia rioted against Irish Catholics in 1844. The Irish in Philadelphia promptly gathered into mobs of their own and fought back, with the violence lasting over three days. Two Catholic churches were burned down along with hundreds of Irish homes and a dozen immigrants killed. In New York, Archbishop John Hughes, on hearing of the Philadelphia attacks, deployed armed Irishmen to protect his own churches. Then he paid a visit to New York's mayor and warned him that if just one Catholic church was touched, the Irish would burn all of Manhattan to the ground. Other cities that experienced anti-Catholic violence included; Baltimore, St. Louis, New Orleans and Louisville, Kentucky.

Militant anti-Catholics formed a third political party nicknamed the 'Know-Nothings' seeking to curtail Irish immigration and keep them from becoming naturalized Americans in order to prevent them from ever gaining any political power. The movement was most successful in Massachusetts which elected Know-Nothing candidates to every statewide office in 1854, including governor. Throughout America, anti-Irish sentiment was becoming fashionable. Newspaper advertisements for jobs and housing in Boston, New York and other places now routinely ended with "Positively No Irish Need Apply."

Photo Gallery

During the Civil War, members of New York's 'Fighting 69th' attend a battlefield Mass.

Members of the famous Irish Brigade of the Confederate Army.

But American concerns over Irish immigration soon took a back seat to the tremendous issue of slavery which was about to rip the young nation apart. For Irish Americans, the turning point of their early years in the U.S. would be the American Civil War. Over 140,000 enlisted in the Union army while others in the South enrolled in the Confederate ranks. Irish units, including the all-Irish 69th New York Regiment, participated in the monumental battles at Bull Run, Antietam, and Gettysburg, earning a reputation for dependability and bravery. At Fredericksburg, the 'Fighting 69th' repeatedly charged a well-entrenched Confederate position on Marye's Heights to the astonishment of all who observed.

However, during the Civil War, Irish civilians were heavily involved in the notorious New York draft riots in which African Americans were singled out for violence. Relations between Irish immigrants and African Americans in New York had never been good. From their earliest arrival in the U.S. the Irish had competed with freed slaves for the most menial jobs and cheapest housing. Decades of frustration and pent-up emotions finally erupted on the streets over three hot summer days in July 1863 resulting in numerous beatings and 18 blacks murdered. Federal troops from Gettysburg had to be called in to quell the violence. Hundreds of buildings, including a black orphanage, were destroyed along with $5 million in property damage.
Rise of the Irish
Following the Civil War, Irish laborers once again provided the backbreaking work needed for the enormous expansion of rapidly industrializing America. They ran factories, built railroads in the West, and worked in the mines of Pennsylvania, Virginia and Montana. They were carpenter's assistants, boat-builders, dock-hands, bartenders and waiters. In an era when there were virtually no governmental constraints on American capitalism, the Irish organized the first trade unions and conducted strikes when necessary for higher wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions.

Single Irish women found work as cooks and maids in houses belonging to wealthy families on Beacon Hill in Boston and along Fifth Avenue in New York, and in most other big cities. Many lived inside the homes in the servants' quarters and enjoyed a standard of living luxurious by comparison to the life they had known in Ireland or in the tenements. These women were cheerful, kind-hearted, hard working and thrifty, always managing to save a little money out of their salary for those back in Ireland. From 1850 to 1900 an estimated $260 million poured into Ireland from America, bringing over more family members and helping out those remaining behind.

The women also donated generously to their local Catholic parishes for new parochial schools and the construction of stained-glass churches with marble statues and altars. The beautiful cathedral-like buildings became great sources of pride among the Irish, making the statement that Catholics had 'arrived' in America. Catholic parishes became the center of family life, providing free education, hospitals, sports and numerous social activities, recreating to some degree the close-knit villages the Irish had loved back home while at the same time protecting them from unfriendly Americans.

Catholics in Ireland had endured centuries of discrimination at the hands of a dominant culture ruled by English and Anglo-Irish Protestants. They arrived in America only to find they were once again facing religious discrimination by the dominant culture; this time American Protestants. Eventually the Irish discovered the path to changing things in their new home lay in the local ballot box.

The large numbers of Irishmen now eligible to vote in cities such as New York and Boston meant they could no longer be politically ignored. The sons and grandsons of Famine immigrants joined the Democratic Party in droves, organized themselves by every ward and precinct into political 'machines' then became candidates for office, first getting elected to city councils, later to the mayor's office itself.

In Boston, newly elected Mayor James Michael Curley boldly announced in 1914: "The day of the Puritan has passed; the Anglo-Saxon is a joke; a new and better America is here." Curley dominated Boston politics for nearly forty years. He freely used patronage as a way to reward loyalty and get Irish votes, filling various city departments with his supporters. The Irish delighted in taking civil service jobs with their steady paychecks and long-term security. In cities with big Irish populations, police and fire departments often became staffed by Famine descendants.

In New York, the political machine was known as Tammany Hall, a powerful but corrupt organization that traded favors and jobs for votes and money. Out of Manhattan's fourth ward emerged Al Smith, the grandson of Irish immigrants, who rose from the tenements of the Lower East Side to seek the American presidency. As governor of New York in the 1920s, Smith originated ground-breaking social reform programs that later became the model for Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal. But as the Democratic candidate for president in 1928, Smith was relentlessly bashed by anti-Catholic activists and was resoundingly defeated, losing to incumbent President Herbert Hoover.

The most extraordinary Famine descendant was John Fitzgerald Kennedy, great-grandson of Patrick Kennedy, a farmer from County Wexford who had left Ireland in 1849. Although other Presidents, including Andrew Jackson and Woodrow Wilson had Irish roots, John Kennedy became the first Roman Catholic. To millions of Irish Catholic Americans, Kennedy's election in 1960 as the 35th President of the United States signaled an end to the century-long struggle for full acceptance in the U.S.

By the time of Kennedy's victory, descendants of the Famine immigrants were steadily leaving the old Irish working-class neighborhoods of Boston, New York and other cities and settling into the new suburbs sprouting across America. Irish Americans, three or four generations removed from their Famine forebears, now preferred a more generic middle-class American lifestyle complete with manicured lawns and backyard barbecues. Some of them even converted to Republicanism and wound up voting for another 'Irishman' named Ronald Reagan for president.

The Irish, the first big group of poor refugees ever to come to the United States, had born the brunt of American resentment and prevailed. They could now count on the fact that their children might be educated at Harvard University or perhaps rise to a top position in any corporation or business, based on their talent and ability. And they had paved the way for the waves of immigrants from Europe and other places that followed in their footsteps.

Hard work and sheer determination had allowed the Irish in America to overcome countless obstacles and find success and happiness. But their country of origin remained a very sad place in the decades following the Famine.

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The History Place - Irish Potato Famine: Gone to America

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Throughout the Famine years, nearly a million Irish arrived in the United States. Famine immigrants were the first big wave of poor refugees ever to arrive in the U.S. and Americans were simply overwhelmed. Upon arrival in America, the Irish found the going to be quite tough.

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Italian Immigration to America: History for kids ***

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Find factsand timeline of Italian Immigration to America for kids. History of Italian Immigration to America, Ellis Island, discrimination and prejudice. Statistics of Italian Immigration to America for kids, children, homework and schools.

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The first German immigrants came to America to avoid the Thirty Years' war in Germany, which started in 1618 A.D. due to religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics. It is estimated that somewhere between 65,000 to 100,000 German-speakers emigrated into the United States during the colonial era. One of the earliest German settlements was a location called Germantown, which was in Pennsylvania.

Germantown's history began in October of 1683 A.D. when 13 German-speaking families arrived on the Concord in Pennsylvania. The 13 families came from the region of Krefeld in Rhineland. These first German settlers were led by Francis Daniel Pastorius, who obtained land from William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania. Most of these early German settlers were Mennonites.

In Germantown, the first settlers consisted of farmers and craftsmen. They initially survived in the colonies by selling their farm produce in Philadelphia. A linen-weaving business was later established in the location. By 170 A.D., the population of Germantown grew to 3,000.

The large wave of German immigration into Pennsylvania continued through the colonial era, and by the time of the American Revolution in 1775, approximately one-third of the region's population was made up of people of German descent and background.

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Why Did German Immigrants Come to America?

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The first German immigrants came to America to avoid the Thirty Years' war in Germany, which started in 1618 A.D. due to religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics. It is estimated that somewhere between 65,000 to 100,000 German-speakers emigrated into the United States during the colonial era.

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Early Twentieth Century Mexican Immigration to the U.S. · SHEC: Resources for Teachers

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Primary resources, classroom activities, graphic organizers and lesson plans produced by the American Social History Project designed for use in K-12 classrooms.

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Japanese Immigration to the United States - Minidoka National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)

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1880s to Early 20th Century
Japanese immigration began during the 1880s. They came to Hawai’i as contract laborers to work on the sugar plantations. Many immigrations then went to the mainland finding manual labor work on the railroads, in the fields, at sawmills, or clearing mines. Due to the Chine…

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Finding Your Ancestors in Japanese Immigration and Emigration * FamilySearch

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The history of Japanese immigration and emigration is interesting and complex. Do you have Japanese ancestors? Learn how to find them!

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As a young America began to receive immigrants from other countries, it began to achieve its "melting pot" status. It wasn't until May 7, 1843, that the first Japanese immigrant would arrive on the scene. A young 14-year-old fisherman, named Manjiro in America by way of a whaling ship. It wasn't really an intentional immigration, because the boy and his fellow crew members were caught in a violent storm that caused their ship to wash up on a desert island 300 miles away from their coastal Japanese village. It was rather a "Gilligan's Island" kind of situation, except that it didn't last nearly as long as the famous sitcom.

After five months on the island, an American whaling ship showed up and rescued Manjiro, who was later adopted by American Captain William Whitfield, who renamed him John Mung and brought him back to the states to his home in Massachusetts. While he was grateful for his rescue, Manjiro always felt drawn to his own country, and eventually returned to Japan. He then became a samurai and worked as a political emissary between his home country and the West, according to reports, but it would be another 20 years...around 1860, before Japanese immigrants really began coming to the United States. At that point, groups of Japanese immigrants began arriving in the Hawaiian Islands. The Japanese immigrants were hired to help keep the production of the plantations fluid and progressive. These immigrants worked mainly in the sugarcane fields or with pineapple production. Many of these immigrants later relocated to areas of California, Washington, and Oregon. These people did not come over as slaves, but were rather, hired to work these fields.

Things really picked up after 1886, and between then and 1911, over 400,000 Japanese men and women immigrated to America...mostly to Hawaii and the West Coast. Unfortunately, as was the case with the Chinese immigration movement, the Japan immigration movement brought with it a heightened level of agitation with people living in the United States. The new immigrants were viewed as interlopers, taking the jobs of the citizens, and so they were. As a result, in 1907 there was an agreement between the nation of Japan and the United States to have Japan stop issuing worker's passports to come into the United States. Of course, immigration was not completely stopped. There were exceptions, like the exceptions for Japanese immigration for the spouses of those who were already working in the United States, and a select group of individuals who were requested to move to America. However, in 1924 a formal act called the Immigration Act of 1924 helped to tighten the banning of individuals. Nevertheless, it is Manjiro who is credited with getting the whole Japanese immigration started, and in 1992, he was commemorated for his early arrival when Congress dedicated the month of May as Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month.

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As a young America began to receive immigrants from other countries, it began to achieve its "melting pot" status. It wasn't until May 7, 1843, that the first Japanese immigrant would arrive on the scene. A young 14-year-old fisherman, named Manjiro in America by way of a whaling ship.

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The Mexican immigration generation in the early 1900s provided a strong definition of how colonized labor, the Mexicans categorized as a minority group, and immigration's social and economic consequence on the advent of Latin Americans. The Mexicans, for instance, is an established minority group in America and has experienced various changes in their lives as well as in how society treats them after immigration. The historical implication of migration often relates to social, economic, and political issues that affected the immigrants' way of life, causing discrepancies, especially in the attribution of rights and freedoms in the United States. The Mexican immigration generation in the early 1900s depicts how colonized labor, which has captured the interest of Mexicans to low-paying jobs and low-income communities have come to happen, as well as its social, economic and political impact on the minority group.
The Railroad Attraction
During the start of the 20 th century, America is increasingly becoming a popular country for immigration simply because of the abundance of work and employment opportunities. As a rising capitalist country, America continues to use innovation and advancement to integrate a wealthy and democratic society. This is observed in a highly prosperous national economy, the stock trade is good, and businesses are flourishing in the country (Gonzalez 10). Moreover, the integration of faster transportation enables the transport of goods from one place to another important in expanding American businesses towards wealth and success in the social and economic dimensions of the society.

New and emerging businesses in the U.S. southwest, particularly around mining and agriculture, as well as the development of railroad tracks, increased the flow of Mexican migration in America. Despite the half-century annexation of Texas in 1945, Mexicans were reluctant to migrate into America. This changed in the turn of the 20 th century when Mexican political leaders sought exile in America to avoid violence, and this expanded even to rural Mexicans who want to have a different life (Gonzalez 12). Moreover, the attraction to low-paying jobs to avoid poverty in Mexico also prompted the first wave of Mexican immigration in the early 1900s (Gonzalez 12). Stable employment, peaceful communities, and protection from violence were the main attractions that the Mexicans have become interested in, thus showing a sharp rise in immigration to the U.S.

The development of the railroad in the southwest has opened new channels for economic development and employment in the region, which further made the area attractive for immigration. This enabled more Mexicans to seek stable employment and income by working in the railroad tracks, despite the rather low-paying labor that resulted in low-income communities. The issue of colonized labor, for instance, has become an issue in the first wave of Mexican migration. The railroad development also prompted male Mexicans to migrate to the U.S. and establish colonias in areas such as Kansas City, Chicago, Utah, Detroit, Oklahoma, Minneapolis, San Francisco and in Washington (Gonzalez 23). These areas provided a strong wave of Mexican immigration in the early 1900s and caused the influx of Mexicans in America.

The attraction to stable employment and protection from violence prompted the Mexicans to migrate to the U.S. during the early 1900s, but this is not without social and political issues. For instance, the issue of colonized labor is one of the primary concepts that were established regarding the huge wave of Mexican immigrants who work in the development of the American railroads in the turn of the century. According to Gonzalez, colonized labor was fully established among Mexican immigrants because they are not paid properly and were given unsanitary living conditions while working in America (45). What is worse is that there is the concept of indentured labor, wherein the Mexican immigrants were paid according to their projects but were never regularized or given proper compensation (Gonzalez 78). The concept of colonized labor thus made a strong social, economic, and political implication on how the current problems faced by Mexican Americans continue to experience.

Implications of Immigration

To avoid the violence of the Mexican Revolution and to gain stable employment, Mexicans chose to migrate to the United States. However, this action created dimensions of social, economic, and political issues, which made the current placement of Mexican Americans in the U.S. problematic. One instance is the diverse and contradictory stereotypes of Mexican immigrants. The simplified definition of Mexican Americans for labor and for protection has created a variety of social problems within the American society regarding the Mexicans such as low-income communities that affects poverty, lack of education opportunities and health benefits, as well as the extension of violence that they once tried to avoid in their own country (Munoz 12). This caused significant issues relating to the Chicano history in America and thus reveals that there is a deep social problem that was created over America's oversimplification of the Mexican immigration for lower labor that only benefitted them.

Another implication of Mexican immigration to the current society is the political implications that immigration policies have against the minority group. Latinos currently experience various discrepancies in how American immigration policies make it difficult for them to acquire the benefits they have worked for and are in constant threats of being deported despite having generations of immigrants living in America (Bada and Gleeson 37). The case of undocumented Mexicans in the American workforce and market causes policies and enforcement that may endanger the lives of these workers as well as the threat of being deported (Bada and Gleeson 38). The issue is part of the social and political dimension that has often made immigrants gain less benefit and lesser treatment in American society just because of discriminatory policies against the minorities.

The Mexican migrants also experience a wide array of vulnerabilities that make them easy targets for racial profiling and labeling in the American law enforcement. Together with other minority groups, the Mexican community suffers from social discrimination and prejudice because of their identity (Bustamante 101). This identity, however, originated from how they were treated as they settled and migrated in the U.S. in the first wave of immigration. Taking note that Mexicans were given low-paying jobs for hard labor, resulting in the creation of low-wage colonias which has become a ground for violence because of poverty and because of the lack of better living conditions and education opportunities (Macias 119). Thus, their identity has made them vulnerable since they were not given proper conditions to achieve better lifestyles. Thus, the cycle of violence and poverty continues within such low-income communities.
Conclusion
It is evident that Mexican immigration has led to various issues that the current society experiences. The establishment of the railroad and its effect on the Mexican immigration prompted the changes in social, economic, and political experiences that the migrants experienced and made an implication in the current society. It is also evident that the conditions which the first wave of Mexican immigrants experienced continues to make implications on how the Mexican American community is treated in American society today. This shows that the effect of Mexican immigration for stable work and protection from violence caused a myriad of other problems which resulted in current social issues. From this perspective, the Mexican immigration in the 1900s not only enabled Mexicans to enter the U.S. for work and for protection but also received negative implications such as discrimination and prejudice within the society.
Works Cited
Bada, Xochitl, and Gleeson, Shannon. "A New Approach to Migrant Labor Rights Enforcement: The Crisis of Undocumented Worker Abuse and Mexican Consular Advocacy in the United States." Labor Studies Journal, vol. 40, iss. 1 (2015), 32-53. doi: 10.11770160449X14565112.

Bustamante, Jorge A. "Extreme Vulnerabilities of Migrants: The Cases of the United States and Mexico." Migraciones Internacionales, vol. 6, iss. 20 (2017), 97-118.

Gonzalez, Gilbert G. Guest Workers or Colonized Labor? Mexican Labor Migration to the United States. Routledge, 2006.

Macias, Thomas. "Environmental Risk Perception Among Race and Ethnic Groups in the United States." Ethnicities, vol. 16, iss. 1 (2016), 111-129. doi: 10.1177/1468796815565382.

Munoz, Carolina Bank. Transnational Tortillas: Race, Gender, and Shop-Floor Politics in Mexico and the United States. Cornell University Press, 2016.

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The Mexican Immigrant Generation of the Early 1990s

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The Mexican immigration generation in the early 1900s provided a strong definition of how colonized labor, the Mexicans categorized as a minority group, and immigration's social and economic consequence on the advent of Latin Americans. The Mexicans, for instance, is an established minority group in America and has experienced various changes in their lives as well as in how society treats them after immigration.

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The Hmong migrated from southern China in the nineteenth century to the mountainous areas of Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. During the Vietnam War the Hmong worked with the American CIA in the "secret war" in Laos, and therefore were forced to flee their homeland after the victory of the communists. After spending time in refugee camps in Thailand, many Hmong settled in a third country including Australia, France, Canada, Germany and the United States.

Have you ever wondered what life was like for a typical Hmong family in Laos? The Hmong people were farmers, most living in small villages high in the mountains. After helping the American CIA during the Vietnam War, the Hmong people were forced to flee for their lives. The old way of life was very different from their new way of life.

There are only two seasons in Laos, the rainy season and the dry season. It is warm year around. Homes and other buildings are made of bamboo and wood. There is no electricity for the mountain people, no machinery, and no roads. The Hmong walk to their farms and carry home the produce. All work is done by hand. They grow and make everything needed to sustain the family. They were independent self-sufficient people.

The Hmong In Wisconsin
Who are the Hmong?
The Hmong are an ethnic group of people with specific language and culture. The Hmong originally came from China with over 4,000 years of history. Some Hmong left China to Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Burma beginning in the early 1800's as a result of land expansion by the Chinese government. Since 1975, after the U.S. pulled out of South Vietnam, thousands of Hmong have moved out of Laos to seek asylum in many European and Western countries including Australia, France, Canada, Germany, and the United States. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, there were about 260,000 Hmong Americans living in the United States, with the majority living in the states of California, Minnesota and Wisconsin.
What were the Hmong's roles with the U.S. during the Vietnam War?
In the early 1960's, the U.S. CIA sought out the Hmong and recruited them to fight a "secret war" against the North Vietnamese and the communist Pathet Lao. The Hmong played many critical roles under the directions of the U.S. CIA, including harassing the communists on the Ho Chi Minh Trail, providing intelligence about enemy operations, guarding U.S. strategic radar installation, and rescuing down American pilots.

After the war in 1973, the Hmong were singled out by the victorious communist governments of Laos and Vietnam. The Hmong were hunted down, taken to concentration camps, put into hard labor and persecuted. Their villages were sprayed with chemical weapons and bombed with napalm. It is estimated that more than 10% (35,000) of the entire Hmong population in Laos died as a result of the war and its aftermath. Many who survived suffered physically, mentally, and emotionally until this day.
Why are the Hmong in Wisconsin?
Unlike past immigrant groups, the Hmong were political refugees who fled their country because of war and persecutions. The Hmong refugees were legally admitted to the United States by the U.S. government and were initially resettled by church organizations such as Catholic Charities and Lutheran Social Service. Area churches sponsored Hmong families here in Wisconsin and other states in the U.S. The 2010 U.S. Census has shown that there are 49,240 Hmong Americans living in Wisconsin. Community with significant Hmong population include: Milwaukee, Wausau, Sheboygan, La Crosse, Madison, Eau Claire, Green Bay, Appleton, Oshkosh, Manitowoc, Stevens Point, Wisconsin Rapids, Menomonie, and Fond du Lac.

Hmong culture places great importance on the family. Most Hmong move to Wisconsin from other states to join with families, relatives, and clan leaders. Wisconsin also provides opportunities for Hmong families struggling to create a new life in the United States. Wisconsin cities offer a peaceful and healthy lifestyle as well as educational opportunities for both children and adults. Furthermore, Wisconsin provides agricultural opportunities such as farming and gardening for many Hmong families.
Do the Hmong want to integrate into American society?
The Hmong are integrating into American society. They are making great strides during the past 37 years. A significant number of Hmong are graduating from high schools and colleges. 95% of all able body Hmong-Americans are participating in the local workforce. Nearly 70% of all Hmong families have become homeowners. In addition, a growing number of Hmong families are starting businesses such as grocery stores, restaurants, specialty stores, and small manufacturing companies.

For the most part, Hmong children are doing well in schools. An increasing number of Hmong high school graduates have gone on to colleges or universities. Many have graduated from college and are returning to the community to work and serve as bridges between the Hmong and the larger communities.

The majority of Hmong have become U.S. citizens. The Hmong-Americans are getting more involved in the community, and generally doing the varied things that one would expect in any community. In essence, they have become productive and contributing members of the community.
How are the Hmong involved in hunting and the outdoors?
Traditionally, Hmong have always enjoyed the outdoors. Hunting and fishing have always been a part of the Hmong's way of life. In Wisconsin, there are thousands of Hmong participating in fishing, hunting and other outdoor activities each year. Hmong are friendly and respectful people. They will treat other people with courtesy and respect and expect the same treatment from others.
Are there more Hmong coming to the United States?
There are no more Hmong coming to Wisconsin or the U.S. The last group of Hmong refugee families that came to the United States was between 2004 and 2006. The U.S. government has no plan to bring additional Hmong refugees to this country. The Thai government has repatriated most Hmong refugees in Thailand back to Laos. In December 2009, more than 4,500 Hmong refugees in Thailand were returned to Laos. There was fear that the Lao communist government might imprison or even persecute Hmong leaders and men who were returned because of their roles during the Vietnam War under the U.S. CIA and their resistance against the communist Lao government after the war.
How can Wisconsin residents learn more about their Hmong neighbors?
The best way to know more about the Hmong is to learn more about them and why they came to Wisconsin. Local Hmong organizations can provide more information and presentations about the Hmong to community groups or businesses.

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The Hmong migrated from southern China in the nineteenth century to the mountainous areas of Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. During the Vietnam War the Hmong worked with the American CIA in the "secret war" in Laos, and therefore were forced to flee their homeland after the victory of the communists.

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During the 1960s, the Hmong in Laos aided the United States in the Vietnam War, providing intelligence, monitoring Communist forces that used the Ho Chi Minh T…

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Immigrants from Africa constitute a highly diverse and rapidly growing group in the United States. As Census data demonstrate, the African foreign-born population doubled in size between 2000 and 2010. Nearly half of African immigrants are naturalized U.S. citizens, and seven-in-ten speak only English or speak it "very well." Just under three-quarters of African immigrants are black, while roughly one-fifth are white. The largest numbers of African immigrants are found in California, New York, Texas, Maryland, and Virginia. The top countries of origin for African immigrants are Nigeria, Ethiopia, Egypt, Ghana, and Kenya. Two-fifths of African immigrants have at least a bachelor's degree, and more than one-third work in professional jobs.

Between 2000 and 2010, the African foreign-born population doubled in size.

The number of African immigrants in the United States grew from 881,300 in 2000 to 1.6 million in 2010 {Figure 1}.
Figure 1: African Foreign-Born Population in the U.S., 2000 & 2010
Source: Census 2000 Special Tabulations (STP-159), Table FBP-1; 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0504.

The number of male African immigrants increased from 484,790 to 845,237 between 2000 and 2010, while the number of females increased from 396,510 to 761,677 {Figure 2}.
Figure 2: African Foreign-Born Population in the U.S. by Sex, 2000 & 2010
Source: Census 2000 Special Tabulations (STP-159), Table FBP-1; 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0504.

In 2010, African immigrants comprised 4% of the foreign-born population {Figure 3}.
Figure 3: African Share of the Foreign-Born Population, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0504: "Selected Characteristics of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: Africa, Northern America, and Oceania."

Nearly half of African immigrants are naturalized U.S. citizens.

46.1% of African immigrants were naturalized U.S. citizens in 2010, compared to 43.7% of the foreign-born population as a whole {Figure 4}.
Figure 4: African Foreign-Born Population by Citizenship, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0504: "Selected Characteristics of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: Africa, Northern America, and Oceania."

Nearly seven-in-ten African immigrants speak only English or speak it "very well."

As of 2010, more than one-fifth (21.8%) of African immigrants spoke only English, while just under half (49.1%) reported speaking it "very well" {Figure 5}.

Nearly three-quarters of immigrants from Africa are black, while one-fifth are white.
Figure 5: African Foreign-Born Population (Age 5 and Older) by English-Language Proficiency, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0201: "Selected Population Profile in the United States."

As of 2010, 74.3% of African immigrants were black, while 20% were white and 2.7% Asian {Figure 6}.
Figure 6: African Foreign-Born Population by Race, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0504: "Selected Characteristics of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: Africa, Northern America, and Oceania."

The largest numbers of African immigrants are found in California, New York, Texas, Maryland, and Virginia.

As of 2010, the largest African foreign-born populations were in California (158,953), New York (158,878), Texas (136,112), Maryland (125,470), and Virginia (89,290) {Figure 7}.
Figure 7: States With Largest African Foreign-Born Populations, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table DP02: "Selected Social Characteristics in the United States."

Between 2000 and 2010, the African foreign-born population increased in size by 111.1% in Texas, 110% in Virginia, 100.1% in Maryland, 40.3% in California, and 35.9% in New York {Figure 8}.
Figure 8: Increase in African Foreign-Born Populations in Top-Five States, 2000-2010
Source: Census 2000 Summary File 3, Table DP-2; 2010 American Community Survey, Table DP02.

Most African immigrants come from Western and Eastern Africa.

As of 2010, 573,791 African immigrants came from Western Africa and 475,832 from Eastern Africa {Figure 9}.
Figure 9: African Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table B05006: "Place of Birth for the Foreign-Born Population in the United States." n.e.c. = "not elsewhere classified."

The numbers of immigrants from Middle Africa and Eastern Africa are growing the fastest.

Between 2000 and 2010, the number of immigrants from Middle Africa grew by 229.8% and the number from Eastern Africa by 123.1% {Figure 10}.
Figure 10: Growth of African Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth, 2000-2010
Source: Census 2000 Summary File 3, Table QT-P15; 2010 American Community Survey, Table B05006.
n.e.c. = "not elsewhere classified."

The African immigrant groups with the largest presence in the United States as of 2010 were Nigerians (219,309), Ethiopians (173,592), Egyptians (137,799), Ghanaians (124,696), and Kenyans (88,519) {Figure 11}.
Figure 11: Top Countries of Origin for African Foreign-Born Population, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table B05006: "Place of Birth for the Foreign-Born Population in the United States."

Two-fifths of African immigrants have a bachelor's degree or more education.

Just under one-fifth (16.1%) of African immigrants age 25 and older had a graduate degree (in addition to a bachelor's degree) in 2010. In comparison, 10.4% of the U.S. population as a whole age 25 and over had a graduate degree in 2010 {Figure 12}.

Nearly one-quarter (24.2%) of African immigrants age 25 and older had a bachelor's degree only in 2010. In comparison, 17.7% of the U.S. population as a whole age 25 and over had a bachelor's degree only in 2010 {Figure 12}.

Figure 12: Educational Attainment of African Foreign-Born Population & Total U.S. Population, Age 25 & Over, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0504: "Selected Characteristics of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: Africa, Northern America, and Oceania"; Table DP02: "Selected Social Characteristics in the United States."

More than one-third of African immigrants work in professional jobs.

37.7% of employed African immigrants age 16 and over worked in management, business, science, and arts occupations in 2010 {Figure 13}.

One-quarter (24.8%) of employed African immigrants age 16 and over worked in service occupations in 2010, while one-fifth (19.8%) worked in sales and office occupations {Figure 13}.

Figure 13: Occupations of African Foreign-Born Workers Age 16 & Over, 2010
Source: 2010 American Community Survey, Table S0504: "Selected Characteristics of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: Africa, Northern America, and Oceania."

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African Immigrants in America: A Demographic Overview

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Immigrants from Africa constitute a highly diverse and rapidly growing group in the United States. As Census data demonstrate, the African foreign-born population doubled in size between 2000 and 2010. Nearly half of African immigrants are naturalized U.S. citizens, and seven-in-ten speak only English or speak it "very well."

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Struggle for Mexican Independence - War, Causes & Effects

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Mexico was first populated more than 13,000 years ago before the Spanish conquered and colonized the country in the 16th century. In 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, launched the Mexican War of Independence when he issued his Grito de Dolores, or "Cry of Delores."

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MONOVISIONS - Black & White Photography Magazine

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Under the rule of Porfirio Díaz, Mexico City experienced a massive transformation. Díaz's goal was to create a city which could rival the great European cities. He and his government came to the conclusion that they would use Paris as a model, while still containing remnants of Amerindian and Hispanic elements. This style of Mexican-French fusion architecture became colloquially known as Porfirian Architecture. Porfirian architecture became very influenced by Paris' Haussmannization.

During this era of Porfirian rule, the city underwent an extensive modernization. Many Spanish Colonial style buildings were destroyed, replaced by new much larger Porfirian institutions and many outlying rural zones were transformed into urban or industrialized districts with most having electrical, gas and sewage utilities by 1908. While the initial focus was on developing modern hospitals, schools, factories and massive public works, perhaps the most long-lasting effects of the Porfirian modernization were creation of the Colonia Roma area and the development of Reforma Avenue. Many of Mexico City's major attractions and landmarks were built during this era in this style.

Diaz's plans called for the entire city to eventually be modernized or rebuilt in the Porfirian/French style of the Colonia Roma; but the Mexican Revolution began soon afterward and the plans never came to fruition, with many projects being left half-completed. One of the best examples of this is the Monument to the Mexican Revolution. Originally the monument was to be the main dome of Diaz's new senate hall, but when the revolution erupted only the dome of the senate hall and its supporting pillars were completed, this was subsequently seen as a symbol by many Mexicans that the Porfirian era was over once and for all and as such, it was turned into a monument to victory over Diaz.

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Vintage: Everyday Life of Mexico City (1900s)

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Under the rule of Porfirio Díaz, Mexico City experienced a massive transformation. Díaz's goal was to create a city which could rival the great European cities. He and his government came to the conclusion that they would use Paris as a model, while still containing remnants of Amerindian and Hispanic elements.