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Flag of Germany

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Flag of Mexico

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The Mexican War of Independence was a war between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial government. It started on 16 September 1810 since Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians wanted their independence from Spain.

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Mexican War of Independence | 3 Minute History

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Flag of Italy

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The German Empire was founded on January 18, 1871, in the aftermath of three successful wars by the North German state of Prussia.

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The formation of the modern Italian state began in 1861 with the unification of most of the peninsula under the House of Savoy into the Kingdom of Italy.

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How did Italy Become a Country? | Animated History

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Realism

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Realism

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Realism

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Otto effectively ruled first Prussia and then all of Germany. A master strategist, Bismarck initiated decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France to unite 39 independent German states under Prussian leadership.

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Table of Contents

1. Otto von Bismarck: Early Years

2. Otto von Bismarck: The Iron Chancellor

3. Otto von Bismarck: Kulturkampf, Welfare State, Empire

4. Otto von Bismarck: Final Years and Legacy

Germany became a modern, unified nation under the leadership of the "Iron Chancellor" Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who between 1862 and 1890 effectively ruled first Prussia and then all of Germany. A master strategist, Bismarck initiated decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France to unite 39 independent German states under Prussian leadership. Although an arch-conservative, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms-including universal male suffrage and the establishment of the first welfare state-in order to achieve his goals. He manipulated European rivalries to make Germany a world power, but in doing so laid the groundwork for both World Wars.

Otto von Bismarck: Early Years

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck was born April 1, 1815, at his family's estate in the Prussian heartland west of Berlin. His father was a fifth-generation Junker (a Prussian landowning noble), and his mother came from a family of successful academics and government ministers. Throughout his life Bismarck would emphasize his rural Junker roots, underplaying his considerable intellect and cosmopolitan outlook.

Did you know? Although German leader Otto von Bismarck wore a general's uniform in public for much of his later life (and successfully prosecuted three wars as chancellor), his only prior military service was a brief, unwilling stint in a reserve unit.

Bismarck was educated in Berlin and after university took a series of minor diplomatic posts before retiring, at age 24, to run his family's estate at Kneiphof. In 1847 he married and was sent to Berlin as a delegate to the new Prussian parliament, where he emerged as a reactionary voice against the liberal, anti-autocratic Revolutions of 1848.

From 1851 to 1862 Bismarck served a series of ambassadorships-at the German Confederation in Frankfurt, in St. Petersburg and in Paris-that gave him valuable insight into the vulnerabilities of Europe's great powers.

Otto von Bismarck: The Iron Chancellor

William I became Prussia's king in 1861 and a year later appointed Bismarck as his chief minister. Though technically deferring to William, in reality Bismarck was in charge, manipulating the king with his intellect and the occasional tantrum while using royal decrees to circumvent the power of elected officials.

In 1864 Bismarck began the series of wars that would establish Prussian power in Europe. He attacked Denmark to gain the German-speaking territories of Schleswig-Holstein and two years later provoked Emperor Franz-Josef I into starting the Austro-Prussian War (1866), which ended in a swift defeat for the aging Austrian empire. At the time, Bismarck wisely declined to levy a war indemnity against the Austrians.

Bismarck was less circumspect in his conduct of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Seeing the opportunity to unify Germany's loose confederations against an outside enemy, Bismarck stirred political tensions between France and Prussia, famously editing a telegram from William I to make both countries feel insulted by the other. The French declared war, but the Prussians and their German allies won handily. Prussia levied an indemnity, annexed the French border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and crowned William emperor of a unified Germany (the Second Reich) in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles-a tremendous insult to the French.

Otto von Bismarck: Kulturkampf, Welfare State, Empire

With Germany unified, William I and Bismarck turned to entrenching their domestic power. For much of the 1870s Bismarck pursued a Kulturkampf (cultural struggle) against Catholics, who made up 36 percent of Germany's population, by placing parochial schools under state control and expelling the Jesuits. In 1878 Bismarck relented, allying with the Catholics against the growing socialist threat.

In the 1880s Bismarck set aside his conservative impulses to counter the socialists by creating Europe's first modern welfare state, establishing national healthcare (1883), accident insurance (1884) and old age pensions (1889). Bismarck also hosted the 1885 Berlin Conference that ended the "Scramble for Africa," dividing the continent between the European powers and establishing German colonies in Cameroon, Togoland and East and Southwest Africa.

Otto von Bismarck: Final Years and Legacy

William I died in 1888 and was succeeded by his son Frederick III and then his grandson William II, both of whom Bismarck found difficult to control. In 1890 the new king forced Bismarck out. William II was left in control of a flourishing unified state but was ill-equipped to maintain Bismarck's carefully manipulated balance of international rivalries. Respected and honored by the time of his death eight years later, Bismarck quickly became a quasi-mythic figure invoked by political leaders calling for strong German leadership-or for war.

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Otto von Bismarck - Biography, World Wars & Facts

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Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)-also known as the "Iron Chancellor"-was Chancellor of the newly-united German Empire from 1862 to 1890. During his tenure he modernized the nation and helped set the stage for World War I.

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Miguel is today remembered as the father of his country, the great hero of Mexico's War for Independence.  He was a charismatic leader and made a good team with the military man Ignacio Allende despite their mutual hatred.

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Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (May 8, 1753-July 30, 1811) is today remembered as the father of his country, the great hero of Mexico's War for Independence. His position has become cemented in lore, and there are any number of hagiographic biographies available featuring him as their subject.

The truth about Hidalgo is a little more complex. The facts and dates leave no doubt: his was the first serious insurrection on Mexican soil against Spanish authority, and he managed to get quite far with his poorly armed mob. He was a charismatic leader and made a good team with the military man Ignacio Allende despite their mutual hatred.

Fast Facts: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Born on May 8, 1753, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was the second of 11 children fathered by Cristóbal Hidalgo, an estate administrator. He and his elder brother attended a school run by the Jesuits, and both decided to join the priesthood. They studied at San Nicolás Obispo, a prestigious school in Valladolid (now Morelia).

Hidalgo distinguished himself as a student and received top marks in his class. He would go on to become rector of his old school, becoming known as a top theologian. When his elder brother died in 1803, Miguel took over for him as the priest of the town of Dolores.

Conspiracy

Hidalgo often hosted gatherings at his home where he would talk about whether it was the duty of the people to obey or overthrow an unjust tyrant. Hidalgo believed the Spanish crown was such a tyrant: a royal collection of debt had ruined the finances of the Hidalgo family, and he saw injustice daily in his work with the poor.

There was a conspiracy for independence in Querétaro at this time: The conspiracy felt that they needed someone with moral authority, a relationship with the lower classes and good connections. Hidalgo was recruited and joined without reservation.

El Grito de Dolores/The Cry of Dolores

Hidalgo was in Dolores on September 15, 1810, with other leaders of the conspiracy, including military commander Allende, when word came to them that the conspiracy had been found out. Needing to move immediately, Hidalgo rang the church bells on the morning of the sixteenth, calling in all of the locals who happened to be in the market that day. From the pulpit, he announced his intention to strike for independence and exhorted the people of Dolores to join him. Most did: Hidalgo had an army of some 600 men within minutes. This became known as the " Cry of Dolores."

The Siege of Guanajuato

Hidalgo and Allende marched their growing army through the towns of San Miguel and Celaya, where the angry rabble killed all Spaniards they could find and looted their homes. Along the way, they adopted the Virgin of Guadalupe as their symbol. On Sept. 28, 1810, they reached the mining city of Guanajuato, where the Spaniards and royalist forces had barricaded themselves inside the public granary.

The battle, which became known as the siege of Guanajuato, was horrific: The rebel horde, which by then numbered some 30,000, overran the fortifications and slaughtered the 500 Spaniards inside. Then the town of Guanajuato was looted: creoles, as well as Spaniards, suffered.

Monte de Las Cruces

Hidalgo and Allende, their army now some 80,000 strong, continued their march on Mexico City. The Viceroy hastily organized a defense, sending out Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and two cannons: all that could be found on such short notice. The two armies clashed on Monte de las Cruces (Mount of the Crosses) on Oct. 30, 1810. The result was predictable: The Royalists fought bravely (a young officer named Agustín de Iturbide distinguished himself) but could not win against such overwhelming odds. When the cannons were captured in combat, the surviving royalists retreated to the city.

Although his army had the advantage and could easily have taken Mexico City, Hidalgo retreated against the counsel of Allende. This retreat when victory was at hand has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. Some feel that Hidalgo feared that the largest Royalist army in Mexico, some 4,000 veterans under the command of General Félix Calleja, was nearby (it was, but not close enough to save Mexico City had Hidalgo attacked). Others say Hidalgo wanted to spare the citizens of Mexico City the inevitable sacking and plunder. In any event, Hidalgo's retreat was his greatest tactical error.

The Battle of Calderon Bridge

The rebels split for a while as Allende went to Guanajuato and Hidalgo to Guadalajara. They reunited, although things were tense between the two men. Spanish General Félix Calleja and his army caught up with the rebels at Calderón Bridge near the entrance to Guadalajara on Jan. 17, 1811. Although Calleja was vastly outnumbered, he caught a break when a lucky cannonball exploded a rebel munitions wagon. In the ensuing smoke, fire, and chaos, Hidalgo's undisciplined soldiers broke.

Betrayal and Capture

Hidalgo and Allende were forced to head north to the United States in the hope of finding weapons and mercenaries there. Allende was by then sick of Hidalgo and placed him under arrest: he went north as a prisoner. In the north, they were betrayed by local insurrection leader Ignacio Elizondo and captured. In short order, they were given to Spanish authorities and sent to the city of Chihuahua to stand trial. Also captured were insurgent leaders Juan Aldama, Mariano Abasolo, and Mariano Jiménez, men who had been involved in the conspiracy since the start.

All of the rebel leaders were found guilty and sentenced to death, except for Mariano Abasolo, who was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence. Allende, Jiménez, and Aldama were executed on June 26, 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial as well as a visit from the Inquisition. He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on July 30. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez were preserved and hung from the four corners of the granary of Guanajuato as a warning to those who would follow in their footsteps.

After decades of abusing Creoles and poor Mexicans, there was a vast well of resentment and hatred that Hidalgo was able to tap into: even he seemed surprised by the level of anger released on the Spaniards by his mob. He provided the catalyst for Mexico's poor to vent their anger on the hated "gachipines" or Spaniards, but his "army" was more like a swarm of locusts, and about as impossible to control.

His questionable leadership also contributed to his downfall. Historians can only wonder what might have happened had Hidalgo pushed into Mexico City in November 1810: history certainly would be different. In this, Hidalgo was too proud or stubborn to listen to the sound military advice offered by Allende and others and press his advantage.

Finally, Hidalgo's approval of the violent sacking and looting by his forces alienated the group most vital to any independence movement: middle-class and wealthy Creoles like himself. Poor peasants and Indigenous peoples only had the power to burn, pillage, and destroy: They could not create a new identity for Mexico, one that would allow Mexicans to psychologically break from Spain and craft a national conscience for themselves.

Still, Hidalgo became a great leader: After his death. His timely martyrdom allowed others to pick up the fallen banner of freedom and independence. His influence on later fighters such as José María Morelos, Guadalupe Victoria, and others is considerable. Today, Hidalgo's remains lie in a Mexico City monument known as "the Angel of Independence" along with other Revolutionary heroes.

Harvey, Robert. "Liberators: Latin America's Struggle for Independence." 1st Edition, Harry N. Abrams, September 1, 2000.

﻿Lynch, John. "The Spanish American Revolutions 1808-1826." Revolutions in the modern world, Hardcover, Norton, 1973.

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Biography of Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Mexico's Founder

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Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (May 8, 1753-July 30, 1811) is today remembered as the father of his country, the great hero of Mexico's War for Independence. His position has become cemented in lore, and there are any number of hagiographic biographies available featuring him as their subject.

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He was a military leader who led a movement that united Italy in the mid-1800s. He stood in opposition to the oppression of the Italian people, and his revolutionary instincts inspired people on both sides of the Atlantic.

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Biography of Giuseppe Garibaldi, Revolutionary Hero Who United Italy

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Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi became an international celebrity even before he succeeded in uniting Italy. Learn about his life.