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Background and more in-detail explanation of survey research and its characteristics:

Survey research is a form of quantitative research designs, specifically descriptive designs (Mertler, 2025, pp. 98–99).

1. The purpose of survey research, or descriptive research, is acquiring information from individuals representing one or more groups through specific questioning (Mertler, 2020, pp. 98). It is important to note that the data is going to be as it exists currently and cannot be deemed as constant data, but a "snap shot" of the data (Mertler, 2025, pp. 98–99).

There needs to be written questions that are direct for a large group or a portion of the large group (known as a subset/ sample). It is presented to those who are willing to participate, however the data of those who didn't is also added to aggregated data. For instance, if a principal wishes to survey the entire sophomore class he would aggregate data in mutlitudes of ways: ethnic groups, gender, or neighborhoods (my school would utilize parishes.)

The data must have direct questions that are not leading and cause the surveyee to not be able to provide an answer (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020, pp. 79–81, 146). It is also important that ambiguous wording is not included in the questioning such as opinion based question, since the data itself is opinions, attitudes , actions, and more (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020, pp. 79–81, 146). Therefore, having good questions are an essential characteristic of the data itself to make sure it is an accurate snapshot of the data (Mertler, 2025, pp. 98–99).

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS SNAPSHOT of Survey Research:

1. An idea of a sample group that represents a question.

2. Selecting a subgroup, large group, or sample set from a larger group.

3. Creating direct, non-biased, and non-ambiguous questions.

4. Asking the questions to the subset of willing participants (this can skew data as moods can change).

5. Collecting the data and aggregating or summarizing into a percentage of responses and non-responses.

6. With that data, creating an even smaller subgroup broken up by characteristics (for instance: 12% of students who live 3+ miles away believe that after school chartered bus would be beneficial. 28% of students who live 3+ miles away did not respond, 15 % of those who did not respond are in an after-school club etc.)

References

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2020). 100 Questions (And Answers) About Action Research (pp. 79–81, 146). Sage Publications, Inc.

Mertler, C. A. (2025). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (7th ed., pp. 98–99). Sage Publications, Inc.

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1. Ethnographies are a type of qualitative study that involve in depth study of an entire group, usually focusing on the culture of that group (Mertler, 2020).

2. Ethnographies examine people's interactions in their natural setting in which the researchers is immersed as a participant observer. They look at people's words and actions to create a narrative account of a given environment within a theoretical framework. Ethnographies have been called "deep hanging out" (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020).

3. In an ethnological study the researcher is very familiar with the environment and knows the "ins and outs" of the environment and participants. (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020).

4. The process of collecting data in an ethnographic study is reflective. The observer uses knowledge to create a theory and then tests it over time. This is referred to as grounded theory (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020).

5. Site based observations and interviews are key methods of data collection in this type of qualitative study (Mertler, 2020).

References:

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2020). 100 questions (and answers) about action research. Sage Publications.

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

By: Monica Ramagli

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Researched by Tim Rawlinson

Characteristics:

-Generally only one student is being examined and, since only involves one individual, no control group is possible (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020).

-Student should be observed in a normal school environment and it is important to collect data in variety of ways even though only one individual is examined (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020).

-Targeted questions are created and then data is collected about the individual in order to answer the pre-conceived questions (Mertler, 2020).

-Typically these can’t be replicated and researcher may run the risk of overanalyzing (CrashCourse, 2014)

References

Crash Course (2014, February 10). Psychological research: Crash course psychology #2 [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFV71QPvX2I

Duesbery, L. & Twyman, T. (2020). 100 questions (and answers) about action research. Sage Publications.

Mertler, C. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

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Researched by Tim Rawlinson

Characteristics:

-Defined as a research plan that observes and collects data about a single group and the outcome after introducing an intervention; however, it is completed quickly since there is only one measurement taken and there is no control group or pretest to measure the results against (McKee, 2024).

-The dependent variable is measured and evaluated only once after the intervention and, although causal relationships are not determined, it provides data about change based on an intervention that is useful (Educational Research, 2025).

-Typically yields questions that are posed for future studies (Mertler, 2020).

References

Educational Research. (2025, April 12). Understanding pre-experimental designs: Simple methods for educational research.

AdultEducation.Quest. https://adulteducation.quest/educational-research/pre-experimental-designs-educational-research/#google_vignette

McKee, A. (2024, October 30). One-shot case study. Doc’s Research Glossary. one-shot case study | Definition

Mertler, C. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

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In a quasi- experimental design you are comparing groups in a study, but it is not a true experiment.

In a true experiment, people are randomly assigned to groups (for example, some students randomly get a new reading program and others don’t).

In a quasi-experiment, the groups already exist (like two different classrooms), and you compare them. You may randomly assign the group to a condition, but not individual students.

(Duesbery & Twyman, 2020)

There are 3 types of quasi-experimental desgins:

1. Descriptive (Least rigorous)

This just describes what is happening.

No comparisons

No predictions

No cause-and-effect

You might observe a classroom, give surveys, or interview students.
You are simply answering: What is going on?

2. Correlational (Middle level)

This looks at whether two things are related.

For example:

Do students who practice sight words more score higher on fluency?

As one thing increases, does the other increase or decrease?

Important:
Just because two things are related does NOT mean one caused the other.

Example from the passage (Duesbery & Tyman, 2020):

Bigger feet are related to higher intelligence.

But bigger feet don’t cause intelligence.

Age explains both (adults have bigger feet and know more than babies).

This is why we say:
Correlation does not mean causation.

3. Causal-Comparative (Most rigorous of the three)

This tries to figure out if one thing caused another, but without full experimental control.

Instead of asking:

“Are bigger feet related to intelligence?”

It asks:

“Do bigger feet cause higher intelligence?”

Researchers compare groups and use statistics to try to determine cause-and-effect, but since people weren’t fully randomly assigned like in a true experiment, it’s still not as strong as a true experimental study.

References:

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2019). 100 Questions (and Answers) About Action Research. SAGE Publications.

B‌y: Monica Ramagli

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Quantitative Research Design

Kristle Riehl

According to Mertler, (2020) there are three quantitative research that is appropriate for a lead teacher to use. The three research are descriptive designs, correlational design and group comparison design.

1) Descriptive design is by using a systematic approach that would describe a certain situation, event, behavior, or an outcome without using manipulating. Some examples of descriptive design can be observation, surveys, and case studies.

2) According to Mertler, (2020) correlational design is when a single group of people who are measured by two characteristics that have already happened to them. Some of those examples could be students' performance with study time, or class size with student engagement.

3) Group comparison design is to explore why there are differences between two or more groups. With the group comparison design at this point the issue has already happened, so the main focus is to find out why the groups are different. Some examples are comparative research, matched comparison group and utilizing comparison group in an evaluation.

References

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2020). 100 questions (and answers) about action research. Sage Publications.

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

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The Essential Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design

Joseph Adamski

“Qualitative research questions should be stated in an open-ended fashion” (Mertler, 2020, p. 90).

Less structured when compared to quantitative studies (Mertler, 2020, p. 94).

“Broad, holistic, and in-depth studies that are carried out over an extended period” (Mertler, 2020, p. 94).

May require preliminary data collection methods like observations and interviews (Mertler, 2020, p. 94).

Some common qualitative research methods include case studies, ethnographies, and document analysis or phenomenological studies (Duesberry & Twyman, 2020, p. 59; Mertler, 2020, p. 94).

Case studies focus on a specific single setting, subject, or event and the most common type of case study is the observational case study (Mertler, 2020, p. 94-95).

Case studies begin as a wide collection of data that focuses over time to address a specific observation or topic of interest (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020, p. 59; Mertler, 2020, p. 94-95).

Observational case studies focus on specific physical locations, specific groups of people, or a particular activity within the school setting (Mertler, 2020, p. 95).

“The goal of a document analysis is to learn about phenomena or events that happened in the past by exhaustively studying old documents, interviewing people instrumental in the event, and so on in an effort to capture the full range of perspectives on a given issue” (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020, p. 59).

Ethnographies are studies of specific groups of people of a particular culture and their lived experiences (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020, p. 59; Mertler, 2020, p. 94).

The key to quantitative research design is to identify the target variables and how you will collect your data (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020, p. 60).

The preferred way to structure your quantitative research is through pre-test/post-test or through non-equivalent control groups, but single measure or single-subject designs can be valid in certain circumstances (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020, p. 60-61).

References:

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2020). 100 questions (and answers) about action research. Sage Publications.

Mertler, C. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators, sixth edition. Sage publications.

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The Essential Characteristics of Observational Studies

Joseph Adamski

Observational studies are studies in which “the researcher becomes an integral part of the setting of the study” (Mertler, 2020, p. 95).

Data can be collected in several ways of varying researcher participation, such as observer, observer-as-participant, participant-as-observer, or full participant (Mertler, 2020, p. 96).

Observer role: little to no interaction with the participants (Mertler, 2020, p. 96).

Observer-as-participant role: “researcher remains primarily an observer but has some level of interaction with the participants” (Mertler, 2020, p. 96).

Participant-as-observer role: researcher observes and takes notes, but significantly interacts with the participants in the study (Mertler, 2020, p. 96).

Full participant role: “simultaneously a full functioning member of the ‘community’ as well as a researcher” (Mertler, 2020, p. 96). This is likely the role we will take in our action research projects.

The Constant Comparative Method: “a research design for studies involving multiple data sources, where data analysis begins early in the study and is nearly completed by the end of data collection” (Mertler, 2020, p. 97).

References:

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2020). 100 questions (and answers) about action research. Sage Publications.

Mertler, C. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators, sixth edition. Sage publications.

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By: Taylor Witchey

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Mixed-methods research design combines both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data gives individuals the opportunity to express their own perceptions or preferences on the topic of interest, and the quantitative data provides information that can be analyzed statistically, especially for a large group of people. Some researchers might choose to begin their study with one type of data and then extend their data collection by using the other type of data. 

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Mixed-methods research design combines both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data gives individuals the opportunity to express their own perceptions or preferences on the topic of interest, and the quantitative data provides information that can be analyzed statistically, especially for a large group of people. Some researchers might choose to begin their study with one type of data and then extend their data collection by using the other type of data. 

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There are three types of mixed-methods designs: explanatory, exploratory, and triangulation. All these types involve the use of both qualitative and quantitative data.

Mertler, C. A. (2025). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (7th ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.

Laura Dinkel

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Explanatory mixed-methods design is when the researcher begins by collecting quantitative data and then gathers qualitative data in order to support, explain, or elaborate on the quantitative results. The main focus of the study is the quantitative data while the qualitative data expands on, or explains,  the quantitative findings. 

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Explanatory mixed-methods design is when the researcher begins by collecting quantitative data and then gathers qualitative data in order to support, explain, or elaborate on the quantitative results. The main focus of the study is the quantitative data while the qualitative data expands on, or explains,  the quantitative findings. 

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Mertler, C. A. (2025). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (7th ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.

Laura Dinkel

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What is a Correlational Study?

A correlational study is a type of research design widely used in various fields, including education, psychology, and social sciences. This design focuses on identifying and analyzing the relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Characteristics:

1. Nature of Relationship--> The primary aim of a correlational study is to determine whether a relationship exists between variables and the direction of this relationship - private, negative, or zero correlation.

2. Non-Manipulative--> Unlike experimental studies, correlational studies do not involve manipulation of variables, instead, researchers measure variables as they occur (Creswell, 2018).

3. Correlation Coefficients--> the strength and direction of the relationship between variables are quantified using correlation coefficients, commonly "r" for linear relationships (Field, 2017).

4. Data Collection--> Data for correlational studies can be collected using various methods such as surveys, observational data, or archival data. this flexibility in data collection makes correlational studies practical and versatile (Cohen, Manson, & Morrison, 2018).

Conclusion:

Correlational studies are a fundamental part of educational research, providing insights into relationships between variables without requiring experimental manipulation. They are valuable for generating hypotheses and guiding further experimental research.

References:

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge

Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Field, A. (2017). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Natalie O'Neill

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The one group pretest-posttest design is used to assess a single group of student scores over a period of time. This design uses a pretest and posttest to assess the effectiveness of instructional strategies for a topic. The pretest is used as the benchmark for teacher to use as the baseline that they aim to improve upon. The posttest is the measurement of the effectiveness of the intervention or change that was made to instruction to help improve student learning and scores. Different than some other designs, this study does not use a different group for a control group. The pretest serves that purpose for comparison. This design can be used to also inform instructional decision making depending on the posttest scores. (Mertler, 2020)

Reference

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.

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A triangulation mixed methods design is a research approach in which qualitative and quantitative data are collected during the same phase of a study, analyzed separately, and then compared or combined to interpret the results. The primary purpose of this design is to increase the validity and credibility of findings by examining whether different types of data lead to similar conclusions. In this design, both forms of data are given equal priority, and researchers look for areas of convergence, differences, or complementary insights. This design is commonly used in action research because it provides a more complete understanding of a problem by combining numerical trends with detailed participant perspectives.

Citations:

(Mertler, 2020; Duesbery & Twyman, 2020)

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A group comparison design is a quantitative research approach used to examine differences between two or more groups. In this design, researchers compare outcomes across groups that may differ based on instructional methods, interventions, or participant characteristics. Participants are typically not randomly assigned, meaning researchers observe naturally existing differences rather than fully controlling variables. The purpose of this design is to determine whether measurable differences exist between groups and to identify possible relationships between variables. This design is frequently used in action research to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching strategies or educational interventions.

Citation:

(Mertler, 2020)

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The essential characteristics of this design include:

·         Casual-comparative design is nonexperimental research, meaning “the researcher has no direct control over any variable in the study” (Mertler, 2020, p. 12).

·         Also known as “ex post facto studies” (Mertler, 2020, p. 12).

·         Casual-comparative design compares groups that already have some kind of data or identifier with other groups that do not, allowing researchers to deduce information based on the groups. For example, Mertler writes “Do teachers who completed a stand-alone preservice course in classroom assessment use performance-based assessment more than teachers who did not complete such a course?” (2020, p. 12).

·         Additionally, casual-comparative design is “used to explore reasons behind existing differences between two or more groups.” (Mertler, 2020, p. 105).

·         Researchers only use this design when attempting to identify a difference that exists in groups already, since ex post facto literally translates to “after the fact” (Mertler, 2020, p. 105).

References

Mertler, C. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

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Quantitative Research Design - Maggie Coyle

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Quantitative Research Design - Maggie Coyle

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Quantitative research is useful when there is a single reality that can be objectively measured and the research question is specific, confirmatory, or predictive (Mertler, 2020, p. 89). It works well in shorter time frames and when the goal is a highly structured approach, relying on deductive reasoning, statistics, and numerical data such as test scores or rating scales (Mertler, 2020, pp. 9, 89).

Common quantitative design categories include:

Descriptive designs

Correlational designs

Group comparisons

Single-subject designs (Mertler, 2020, p. 89)

Although quantitative research can feel detached, it is often efficient in terms of time and resources. Mixed methods can help create structure and context by blending quantitative and qualitative approaches (Duesbery & Twyman, 2019, p. 62).

Quantitative designs in action research may include:

Single measure: Implement an action with one group and collect data (Duesbery & Twyman, 2019, p. 60)

Single subject: Collect baseline data, introduce changes with repeated data collection, then remove the intervention (Duesbery & Twyman, 2019, p. 60)

Pretest/posttest: Collect baseline data, implement a change, then collect data again (Duesbery & Twyman, 2019, p. 61)

Non-equivalent control group: Compare two groups receiving different interventions with pre- and post-data collection (Duesbery & Twyman, 2019, p. 61)

References

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2019). 100 Questions (and answers) about action research. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://sagepub.vitalsource.com/books/9781544305424

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (Sixth Edition). SAGE Publications.

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Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design - Maggie Coyle

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Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design - Maggie Coyle

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In a pretest-posttest design, the researcher collects baseline data, implements a solution/treatment, and then collects data again to measure change (Duesbery & Twyman, 2019, p. 61). A non-equivalent or control group design is an extension of this approach by using two groups: Group A receives the intervention, while Group B receives no treatment (or a different treatment), with both groups completing pre and posttests (Duesbery & Twyman, 2019, p. 61).

This design is similar to a one-group pretest-posttest, but adds a control group that is not exposed to the treatment for comparison purposes (Mertler, 2020, p. 105). Including a control group helps researchers determine whether the treatment had an effect, how effective it was, and whether changes could be explained by confounding variables or other factors rather than the intervention itself (Mertler, 2020, p. 106).

References

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2019). 100 Questions (and answers) about action research. SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://sagepub.vitalsource.com/books/9781544305424

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (Sixth Edition). SAGE Publications.

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Mixed Methods combining a correlational approach-

This type of approach uses surveys to identify correlations, the interviews or focus groups to explore the reasoning behind the numbers. The primary purpose here is to explain quantitative relationships with qualitative insights to build better and comprehensives measures for the study.

The advantages of this approach are reduces limitations of using just one method, offering higher validity through triangulation and better understanding of complex problems. On the other hand, the challenges require labor-intensive, requires know how in both methods and a team approach.

Characteristics:

1-Intergration

The defining feature is the intentioal merging of qualitative and quantitative rather than using them separately

2-Timing & Priority

data collection can be concurrent or sequential

3-Convergent parallel

Both methods used together for triangulation

4-Relationship Assessment

focuses on detect relationship between variables

5-Goal is Association, Not Causation

-Identifies patterns and relationships but cannot establish that one variable causes changes in another

In closing, the mixed methods research design with a correlational approach integrates numbers and stories by employing qualitative data and add meaning to quantitative information. Convergent. Survey data and qualitative data at the same time to see if they validate or paint the same pictures.

References

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action Research Improving Schools and Empowering Educators (6th ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.

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Phenomenological Study: Essential Characteristics

By: Ireland Smith

Phenomenological research is an exploratory method that seeks to explore people's lived experiences with a specific topic. The goal is to investigate how individuals perceive, narrate, and make sense of their experiences rather than measure or predict outcomes.

One essential characteristic is the focus on first-person perspectives. Researchers collect rich, detailed data through methods such as in-depth interviews, open-ended questions, and personal narratives to fully capture participants' experiences (Patten & Newhart, 2017).

Another important feature is bracketing (epoché), in which the researcher intentionally sets aside personal biases and assumptions to understand participarticipants'ints better. This helps ensure that the findings accurately reflect the participants' lived experiences rather than the researcher's interpretations (Mertler, 2020).

Phenomenological studies also use small, purposive samples of individuals who have directly experienced the phenomenon under study. This allows researchers to explore the experience in depth and identify shared meanings and common themes across participants.

Data analysis involves identifying patterns and themes that reveal the essence of the experience. The final results are typically presented as a rich, descriptive narrative that explains how participants experience the phenomenon (Duesbery & Twyman, 2020).

Overall, phenomenological research is descriptive and interpretive, aiming to deepen understanding of human experiences, which can be especially valuable in educational settings.

Example

A teacher interested in student engagement could use a phenomenological study to explore how students experience technology in the classroom. For example, the teacher could interview students about their feelings and reactions when using tools like interactive apps or digital learning platforms. By analyzing responses, the teacher may identify themes such as increased motivation, collaboration, or distraction, which can help improve instructional practices.

Duesbery, L., & Twyman, T. (2020). 100 questions (and answers) about action research. Sage Publications.

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). Sage Publications.

Patten, M. L., & Newhart, M. (2017). Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials (10th ed.). Routledge.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Concise guide to APA style: The official guide for students (7th ed.). Author.

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Essential Characteristics

Experimental research is a type of research used to find out if one thing causes another thing to happen. In this design, the researcher changes one variable (called the independent variable) to see how it affects another variable (called the dependent variable) (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The goal is to see if the treatment or strategy directly causes a change.

One important part of experimental research is random assignment. This means participants are placed into groups by chance. One group, called the experimental group, receives the treatment. The other group, called the control group, does not receive the treatment. Random assignment helps make sure the results are fair and not biased (Mertler, 2019).

Another key feature is the control group. The control group allows researchers to compare results and see if the treatment really made a difference. Without a control group, it is harder to prove that the change was caused by the treatment.

Experimental research also tries to control other variables. This means researchers try to keep everything else the same so that the only difference between the groups is the treatment being tested.

Many experimental studies use pretests and posttests. A pretest measures students before the treatment, and a posttest measures them after. Comparing these results helps show whether improvement happened.

In schools, true experimental research can sometimes be hard to do because students cannot always be randomly assigned. However, when done correctly, experimental research gives strong evidence that one thing causes another.

-Brandon Garrett

References

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Mertler, C. A. (2019). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.

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Triangulation is a strategy used in research to make results stronger and more trustworthy. It means using more than one type of data, method, or source to study the same problem. When researchers collect different kinds of information and the results support each other, the findings are more reliable (Mertler, 2019).

One important feature of triangulation is using multiple data sources. For example, a teacher might collect test scores, student surveys, and classroom observation notes. If all three sources show improvement, it increases confidence in the results.

Another key part of triangulation is combining qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative data includes numbers, such as test scores or survey ratings. Qualitative data includes descriptions, such as student reflections or interviews. Using both types of data provides a fuller understanding of the problem (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

Triangulation helps reduce bias because it does not rely on only one source of information. If one data source has weaknesses, another source can help support or clarify the findings. This makes the research stronger and more accurate.

In action research, triangulation is especially important because teachers are studying their own classrooms. Using different types of data helps ensure the results are fair and meaningful.

-Brandon Garrett

References

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Mertler, C. A. (2019). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.

If you’d like, I can also prepare a shorter version that fits better in a small Padlet text box.