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Name - Priya Suman
Roll no. 38
Class - B.Ed Language
Semester - 2nd
Paper BEDEPC - 215 : Understanding and Application of ICT

What is Computer ?
In 1640, the term ‘Computer’ was initially referred to as ‘one who calculates’. Later in 1897, it was called the ‘Calculating Machine’. In 1945, it was indicated as ‘programmable digital electronic computer’ which is now called a ‘computer’.

Definition :  “A computer is a programmable electronic machine designed to take input, perform prescribed arithmetic and logical operations at fast speeds, and provide the output of these operations.”
The first mechanical computer was designed in 1837 by Charles Babbage. It was called 'Analytical Engine'. It was the first general-purpose computer. Charles Babbage is known as the father of computer.

Basic Functions of Computer
There are four basic functions of the computer: Input, Processing, Output, and Storage.

Input
The data is entered into the computer with the help of input devices. Like other electronic devices, a computer takes data in raw form (binary form). The user can enter the data in several formats such as the collection of letters, numbers, images, etc. The input devices convert the data in the binary form so that the computer can read the data.

Some of the main input devices of computer systems are listed below:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joystick
• Scanner

Processing
The processing is the core functionality of the computer system. It is the internal process where the data is processed according to the instructions given to the computer. The data is executed sequentially and sent for further processing.
The processing speed may vary in different computer systems as the speed mainly depends upon factors like which type of Motherboard, CPU (Central Processing Unit) or RAM (Random Access Memory) we are using.

Output
The output is the information provided by the computer after the entire processing. It is also known as the result that can be stored in the storage devices for further use. The output devices retrieve the processed data from the computer and convert the data into a human-readable form.

The widely used output devices of computer systems are listed below:
• Monitor
• Printer
• Projector
• Speakers

Storage
Storage is a crucial part of the computer system. It is used to store data or instructions before and after processing.
Generally, storage is divided into the following types:

Primary Storage
Primary storage devices store the inputted data and immediate calculation results. The data stored in primary storage is temporary and will be lost if they are disconnected from the power source. Random Access Memory is an example of primary storage.

Secondary Storage
Secondary storage devices are used to store the data permanently for future use. The data stored in the secondary storage devices is secure even if there is no power supply. Hard Disk Drive is the widely used secondary storage.

Computer Hardware and Software

Computer Software
Computer software is a group of programming instructions designed to instruct the computer to perform specific tasks. Typically, a computer system is useless without software.
There are two types of computer software, as mentioned below:

a ) System Software -
System software connect the user and the hardware of the computer to interact with each other. System software provide the basic functionalities required to operate the computer system. These type of software provide an environment or platform for the other software to work on. System software run in the background.

Example: Operating system

b ) Application Software -
Application software are customized software designed for personal use. These type of software help users for performing basic tasks such as online research, setting an alarm, designing, or even playing games. The application software runs in the frontend and mostly used by the end-users. Therefore, these are also called ‘end-user programs’.

Example: Word Processors, Web Browsers,Photoshop Software, etc.

Computer Hardware
Computer hardware are the physical components or parts that jointly form a computer system. There are different types of hardware. Depending on the structure of the computer system, hardware can be installed inside or outside of the computer physical body.

Components of the Computer Hardware
The basic components of the computer hardware are
• Monitor
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• Motherboard
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• Hard Disk Drive
• Printer, etc.

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Name - Sulochna kumari  Roll No.14 B.Ed (Humanities)

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What is computer hardware?

Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an analog or digital computer. The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device from software, which consists of written, machine-readable instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to execute the instructions.

Hardware and software are complementary. A computing device can function efficiently and produce useful output only when both hardware and software work together appropriately.

Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components. Generally, internal hardware components are those necessary for the proper functioning of the computer, while external hardware components are attached to the computer to add or enhance functionality.

What are internal computer hardware components?

Internal components collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program or operating system (OS). These include the following:

Motherboard. This is a printed circuit board that holds the central processing unit (CPU) and other essential internal hardware and functions as the central hub that all other hardware components run through.

CPU. The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital instructions from various programs; its clock speed determines the computer's performance and efficiency in processing data.

RAM. RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage that makes information immediately accessible to programs; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the computer powers off.

Hard drive. Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent and temporary data in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc.

Solid-state drive (SSD). SSDs are solid-state storage devices based on NAND flash memory technology; SSDs are non-volatile, so they can safely store data even when the computer is powered down.

Optical drive. Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the computer to read and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only memory or digital video discs.

Heat sink. This is a passive piece of hardware that draws heat away from components to regulate/reduce their temperature to help ensure they continue to function properly. Typically, a heat sink is installed directly atop the CPU, which produces the most heat among internal components.

Graphics processing unit. This chip-based device processes graphical data and often functions as an extension to the main CPU.

Network interface card (NIC). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that enables the computer to connect to a network; also known as a network adapter or local area network adapter, it typically supports connection to an Ethernet network.

Other computing components, such as USB ports, power supplies, transistors and chips, are also types of internal hardware.

What are external hardware components?

External hardware components, also called peripheral components, are those items that are often externally connected to the computer to control either input or output functions. These hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to the software (input) or render results from its execution (output).

Common input hardware components include the following:

• Mouse. A mouse is a hand-held pointing device that moves a cursor around a computer screen and enables interaction with objects on the screen. It may be wired or wireless.
• Keyboard. A keyboard is an input device featuring a standard QWERTY keyset that enables users to input text, numbers or special characters.
• Microphone. A microphone is a device that translates sound waves into electrical signals and supports computer-based audio communications.
Camera. A camera captures visual images and streams them to the computer or through a computer to a network device.
Touchpad. A touchpad is an input device, external or built into a laptop, used to control the pointer on a display screen. It is typically an alternative to an external mouse.
• USB flash drive. A USB flash drive is an external, removable storage device that uses flash memory and interfaces with a computer through a USB port.
Memory card. A memory card is a type of portable external storage media, such as a CompactFlash card, used to store media or data files.

Examples of output hardware components include the following:

• Monitor. A monitor is an output device similar to a TV screen that displays information, documents or images generated by the computing device.
• Printer. Printers render electronic data from a computer into printed material.
• Speaker. A speaker is an external audio output device that connects to a computer to generate a sound output.
• Headphones, earphones, earbuds. Similar to speakers, these devices provide audio output that's audible only to a single listener.

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Name:-Shweta kumari
Roll no.:- 52
B.Ed(Maths)

What is Computer?

Computer is electronic Device, Which can converts Data into Information

A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of programs and represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result of processing. The components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors, circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called software.

It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented by Charles Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles Babbage is also known as the father of the computer.

●Processor:
It executes instructions from software and hardware.
●Memory:
It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
●Motherboard:
It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a computer.
●Storage Device:
It permanently stores the data.
e.g. hard drive.
●Input Device:
It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data.
e.g.a keyboard.
●Output Device:
It enables you to see the output.
e.g. monitor.

Computers are divided into different types based on different criteria. Based on the size, a computer can be divided into five types:

1.Micro Computer
2.Mini Computer
3.Mainframe Computer
4.Super Computer
5.Workstations

1.Micro Computer:-

It is a single-user computer which has less speed and storage capacity than the other types. It uses a microprocessor as a CPU. The first microcomputer was built with 8-bit microprocessor chips. The common examples of microcomputers include laptops, desktop computers, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets, and smartphones. Microcomputers are generally designed and developed for general usage like browsing, searching for information, internet, MS Office, social media, etc.

2.Mini Computer:-

Mini-computers are also known as “Midrange Computers.” They are not designed for a single. They are multi-user computers designed to support multiple users simultaneously. So, they are generally used by small businesses and firms. Individual departments of a company use these computers for specific purposes. For example, the admission department of a University can use a Mini-computer for monitoring the admission process.

3. Mainframe Computer:

It is also a multi-user computer capable of supporting thousands of users simultaneously. They are used by large firms and government organizations to run their business operations as they can store and process large amounts of data. For example, Banks, universities, and insurance companies use mainframe computers to store the data of their customers, students, and policyholders, respectively.

4.Super Computer:-

Super-computers are the fastest and most expensive computers among all types of computers. They have huge storage capacities and computing speeds and thus can perform millions of instructions per second. The super-computers are task-specific and thus used for specialized applications such as large-scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines including applications in electronics, petroleum engineering, weather forecasting, medicine, space research and more. For example, NASA uses supercomputers for launching space satellites and monitoring and controlling them for space exploration.

5.Work station:-

It is a single-user computer. Although it is like a personal computer, it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor than a microcomputer. In terms of storage capacity and speed, it comes between a personal computer and minicomputer. Work stations are generally used for specialized applications such as desktop publishing, software development, and engineering designs.

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Mansi Kumari
Roll No.: 36
B.Ed. Languages

An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and hardware. It is responsible for the execution of all the processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management, File Management and many other tasks.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs in convenient and efficient manner.

Structure of a Computer System

A Computer System consists of:

Users (people who are using the computer)

Application Programs (Compilers, Databases, Games, Video player, Browsers, etc.)

System Programs (Shells, Editors, Compilers, etc.)

Operating System ( A special program which acts as an interface between user and hardware )

Hardware ( CPU, Disks, Memory, etc)

What does an Operating system do?

Process Management

Process Synchronization

Memory Management

CPU Scheduling

File Management

Security

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History of Computers :-GenerationThe word ‘computer’ has a very interesting origin. It was first used in the 16th century for a person who used to compute, i.e. do calculations. The word was used in the same sense as a noun until the 20th century. Women were hired as human computers to carry out all forms of calculations and computations.By the last part of the 19th century, the word was also used to describe machines that did calculations. The modern-day use of the word is generally to describe programmable digital devices that run on electricity.History of ComputersEarly History of ComputerSince the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for thousands of years. One of the earliest and most well-known devices was an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles Babbage began developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer. It contained an ALU, some basic flow chart principles and the concept of integrated memory.Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first electronic computer for general purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The inventors of this computer were John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert.And with times the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the processing got faster. We got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by Adam Osborne and EPSON.

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History of Computers :-GenerationThe word ‘computer’ has a very interesting origin. It was first used in the 16th century for a person who used to compute, i.e. do calculations. The word was used in the same sense as a noun until the 20th century. Women were hired as human computers to carry out all forms of calculations and computations.By the last part of the 19th century, the word was also used to describe machines that did calculations. The modern-day use of the word is generally to describe programmable digital devices that run on electricity.History of ComputersEarly History of ComputerSince the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for thousands of years. One of the earliest and most well-known devices was an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles Babbage began developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer. It contained an ALU, some basic flow chart principles and the concept of integrated memory.Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first electronic computer for general purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The inventors of this computer were John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert.And with times the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the processing got faster. We got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by Adam Osborne and EPSON.

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Ankita Yadav roll no.01

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Gunja vishwakarma , roll no. 33, B.ED LANGUAGE 

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COMPUTER IN EDUCATION

Gaining basic knowledge as well as skills to operate computers to perform better jobs. Computer in  education is all about extending to its various branches of study in different fields & sectors.

Computer, along with internet facility is the most powerful device that children can use to learn new skills & abilities in education. Computer plays a significant role in each n every field of life. They help us in several ways.

For example, they find applications in medicine, industrial process, aviation industry, making bills in various big shops & malls, creating presentation slides in application software for making notes & delivering lectures in colleges, universities and a lot more. In short, not only in just one, but the Computer plays an all-rounded role in the field of education of students.
2. Quick Processing Of Data

Speed is the fundamental attributes of a computer. We can easily find information with just a single touch of a button.

3. Audio-Visual Guides in Teaching Process For A Viable Learning

One of the primary uses of computers in education is ‘the Access to the Internet’ for information search about any topic.

Appealing and Better introduction (presentation) of data through applications programming software like Microsoft PowerPoint to introductions for creating splendid presentations for lectures & notes.

4. Parents Can Know Their Ward’s Progress

The Computer has helped parents & guardians a lot as they can likewise know by checking every minute progress of their children through computers and the web by browsing the school’s website. They can check different assessment results, attendance reports, participation in curricular and co-curricular activities, and significantly more.

5. Quick Communication & Correspondence

Another main advantage of using computers in the education field is the improvement in the quality of teaching-learning process and communication between students & teachers. For this, they use Microsoft PowerPoint to prepare electronic presentations about their lectures.

Computer revolutionizes the way of study while making education smoother and quicker. It also connects us to different sources, which show us different ways to understand a particular topic or idea. In general, a computer has helped the education world and also has changed the way we work & learn.

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Riya Roy
B.Ed. Languages
Roll No.: 39

Computer memory is of two basic types:

Primary memory (RAM and ROM)

Secondary memory (Hard Drive, CD, etc).

Data that is now being used or processed by the computer is temporarily stored in Random Access Memory (RAM), a sort of computer memory. RAM is a type of volatile memory, which means that when the power is switched off, the data stored inside is gone. The operating system, application software, and data that the computer is now using are often stored in RAM.

Data that doesn't need to be edited is stored permanently in Read Only Memory (ROM), a type of computer memory. Since ROM is non-volatile memory, the information saved inside is kept even if the power is switched off. The computer's BIOS (basic input/output system), which includes the instructions, is often stored in ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM) benefits:

1. Speed: Since RAM is much faster than other forms of storage, such a hard drive or solid-state drive, the computer can access the information stored in RAM more quickly.

2. Flexibility: RAM is a volatile memory, which allows for simple data deletion or modification. The computer can use it to store data that is currently being used or processed.

3. RAM's capacity can be easily increased, allowing the computer to store more information in memory and so function better.

4. Power management: RAM is the best memory for portable devices because it uses less power than solid-state drives and hard drives.

Random Access Memory (RAM) drawbacks

1. Volatility: RAM is a volatile memory, which means that when the power is switched off, the information stored inside is gone. Important data that needs to be retained, including unsaved work or files that haven't been backed up, may have a difficulty because of this.

2. RAM has a limited amount of storage space, and even while it may be updated, it might not be enough for some programmers or complicated tasks.

3. Cost: RAM can be more expensive than other memory types, including hard drives or solid-state drives, making it more expensive to upgrade the memory of a computer or other device.

Read-only memory (ROM) benefits:

1. Non-volatility: Since ROM is a non-volatile memory, the information contained inside is kept even when the power is switched off. This makes it perfect for storing information that cannot be changed, such the BIOS or firmware for other hardware components.

2. Reliability: ROM data is less prone to corruption or errors than other types of memory since it cannot be easily altered.
Power management: ROM uses less power than other types of memory, making it the perfect memory for portable devices.

Read-Only Memory (ROM) drawbacks:

1. Limited Flexibility: Because ROM is a read-only memory, it cannot be used to modify data. For programmers or firmware that has to be updated or changed, this could be a problem.

2. Limited Capacity: ROMs typically have a limited storage capacity, and updating them can be challenging or expensive.

3. Cost: ROM can be more expensive than other memory types, including hard drives or solid-state drives, making memory upgrades for computers and other devices more expensive.

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By Anjali Verma
Roll No: 24

Generation of computers are mainly divided according to the development of computer technology. Each generation defines the major technological developments on which computer systems were/are based. As of now, there are five generations of the computer.

First Generation of Computers- (the 1940s-1950s)
The main electronic component used in the computers of the 1940s to 1950s era were vacuum tubes.
The main memory storing units were magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.
The machine language was used as the programming language.
The sizes used to be very large which could take up entire rooms and the speed was very slow.
The only input/output devices were paper tape and punched cards.
Around 100 different vacuum tubes were used in order to produce the computers.
Examples are UNIVAC1, ENIAC, IBM 701 and IBM 650, etc.

The Second Generation of Computers- (the 1950s-1960s)
The main electronic component used in the computers of the 1950s to 1960s era were transistors.The main memory storing units were magnetic tape or disk and magnetic core.The machine language was used as the programming language.The sizes were smaller as compared to those of the first generation and they used to consume low power and generate less heat.
Examples are IBM 1401, IBM 7094 AND IBM 7090, UNIVAC 1107, and so on.

The Third Generation of Computers- (the 1960s-1970s)
The main electronic components used in the computers of the era 1060s to 1970s were integrated circuits ICs.The memory storing units were the magnetic disk or take and a large magnetic core.High-level languages such as BASIC, COBOL, Pascal were used as the programming language.The sizes were smaller and efficient and the computers were called minicomputers.The input/output devices were keyboards, magnetic tape monitor, printer, etc.
Examples are IBM 370, IBM 360, UNIVAC 1108 and so on.
The Fourth Generation of Computers- (1970s-present)
The main electronic components used in the fourth generation of computers are microprocessors and very large scale integration (VLSI).When thousands of transistors are attached to a single microchip, it is known as VLSI. Semiconductor memory storage units such as RAM, ROM, etc were introduced.RAM (random-access memory)- Temporarily stores the programs and data and the contents are lost when the computer is shut down. ROM (read-only memory)- Permanently stores the data and programs and the contents are retained even after shutting down the computer. High-level languages such as C#, JAVA, Python, JavaScript are used as programming languages. The sizes are smaller and the speed has improved. The input/output devices are a monitor, mouse, keyboard, printer, and so on. Examples are STAR 1000, APPLE II, IBM PC, and so on.

The Fifth Generation of Computers- (present and the future)
The main electronic components that are used in the present generation of computers is Artificial Intelligence which uses the parallel processing method and the Ultra-Large Scale Integration (ULSI). The fifth generation of computers understands the natural human language. The speeds are really fast and the sizes are also small. The fifth-generation computers are portable and have a huge storage capacity. The input/output devices are keyboards, monitors, touchscreen pens, printers, light scanners, and so on.
Examples are laptops, desktops, tablets, smartphones, etc.

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CPU जिसे Central processing unit कहते है यह कंप्यूटर का सबसे महत्वपूर्ण भाग होता है जोकि इनपुट के रूप में दिखता है CPU को प्रोसेसर या माइक्रोप्रोसेसर भी कहते है
CPU को computer का दिमाग कहा जाता हैं कंप्यूटर के सभी डिवाइस में मेमोरी ,इनपुट डिवाइस ,आउटपुट डिवाइस, arithmetic logical को नियंत्रित करता है

CPU computer का hardwate device होता है जोकि motherboard मे लगा होता है यह एक चकोर chip होती हैजिसमे कई सारी पिन लगी होती हैं

CPU के मुख्य 3 भाग होते हैं
Memory
Control unit
Arithmetic logic unit

CPU ke प्रकार
Single core CPU
Dual core CPU
Quard core CPU
Hexa core CPU
Octa core CPU
Deva core CPU

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ICT (Information and Communication Technology) has revolutionized the field of education, transforming the way students learn and teachers teach. Here are some ways ICT is used in education.

Access to information: ICT provides students and teachers with access to a vast amount of information and resources. The internet allows for instant access to educational materials, research papers, e-books, online libraries, and educational websites. This enables students to gather information beyond the limitations of traditional textbooks.

Interactive learning: ICT tools such as educational software, multimedia presentations, and simulations make learning interactive and engaging. Students can participate in virtual experiments, explore 3D models, and interact with digital content, enhancing their understanding of complex concepts.

Collaboration and communication: ICT facilitates collaboration and communication among students and teachers. Online platforms, discussion forums, and social media enable students to connect, share ideas, and work on group projects regardless of their physical location. Teachers can provide feedback and support remotely, fostering a collaborative learning environment.

Personalized learning: ICT allows for personalized learning experiences tailored to individual student needs. Adaptive learning software can assess students' strengths and weaknesses, providing customized learning paths and content. This personalized approach helps students learn at their own pace and addresses their specific learning styles.

Distance learning and online education: ICT has played a crucial role in the rise of distance learning and online education. With the availability of online courses, webinars, and virtual classrooms, students can access education remotely, overcoming geographical barriers. This flexibility enables individuals to pursue education while balancing other commitments.

Assessment and feedback: ICT tools offer various ways to assess student progress and provide timely feedback. Online quizzes, exams, and automated grading systems streamline the assessment process. Digital portfolios and learning management systems enable teachers to track student performance, identify areas for improvement, and provide personalized feedback.

Professional development for teachers: ICT provides teachers with opportunities for professional development and continuous learning. Online courses, webinars, and educational resources enable teachers to enhance their subject knowledge, learn new teaching strategies, and stay updated with the latest educational trends.

Administrative tasks and record-keeping: ICT simplifies administrative tasks in educational institutions. Digital systems for attendance, grading, and record-keeping streamline administrative processes, saving time and reducing paperwork. This allows teachers and administrators to focus more on teaching and student support.

While ICT offers numerous benefits in education, it's important to ensure equitable access to technology and digital literacy for all students, as the digital divide can create disparities in educational opportunities.

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Name- Anjali Bharati                                                                     Roll no. 42

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Hardware refers to the physical and visible components of the computer system such as a monitor, CPU, keyboard and mouse.

Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For e.g. Monitor, CPU, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we can control computer operations like input and output. These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:

Input Devices

Output Devices

Storage Devices

Internal Components

1. Input Devices

Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In other words, with the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the computer.
Now we discuss some input devices:

1. Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well.

2. Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just click of a mouse.

3. Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them into digital form that can be further edited and used. It works just like a Xerox machine.

4. Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much space for a movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various directions, it affects the screen movements directly

5. Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it can detect, raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw anything like lines, figures or any objects.

6. Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system which can be attached to a computer system to record sounds. It converts human speech or voice into electrical signals.

2. Output Devices

These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in human-readable form.

Now we discuss some output devices:

1. Monitor: Monitor is the main output device. It is also called a VDU(visual display unit) and it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc.

2. Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format by using text or images on paper. There are both colored and black & white printers. Further, there are also different types of printers, like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers.

3. Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings and large in size.

4. Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. It is generally used to play music or anything having sound.

3. Storage Devices

There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as secondary storage devices. Some of them were discussed below:

1. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and plastic polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data. It has a standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness.

2. DVD(Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is same like a CD but with some more features. A DVD comes in single and dual-layer format. It has much greater storage capacity in comparison to CD. The storage capacity of a DVD with one sided single layer is – 4.7 GB, one sided double layer – 8.5 GB, double sided single layer – 9.4 GB, double sided double layer – 17 GB.

3. Hard Disk: A hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write heads to store digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5 inches in size for desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops.

4. Internal Components

Some important hardware devices known as the internal components are discussed below:

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit): CPU is also known as the heart of the computer. It consists of three units, in general known as the control unit, Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU), and the memory unit.

2. Motherboard: It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic components together. All the components of the computer are directly or indirectly connected to the motherboard. It includes RAM slots, controllers, system chipset, etc.

3. RAM (Random Access Memory): It is also known as temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data, which are currently in process or processing. All the data is erased as soon as the computer is turned off or in case of a power

<< Difference between Hardware and Software >>

1. Hardware is further divided into four main categories: Input DevicesOutput DevicesSecondary Storage DevicesInternal Components | Software is further divided into two main categories:Application SoftwareSystem Software
2. Developed using electronic and other materials | Developed writing using instructions using a programming language
3. When damaged, it can be replaced with a new component | When damaged it can be installed once more using a backup copy
4. Hardware cannot be infected by Viruses | The software can be infected by Viruses
5. Hardware will physically wear out over time | Software does not wear out but it can be affected by bugs and glitches
6. Hardware is tangible and physical. | Software is non-tangible and logical.
7. An example of Hardware is hard drives, monitors, CPU, scanners, printers etc. | An example of software is Windows 10, Adobe Photoshop, Google Chrome etc.

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Top 9 Trends in Education Technology -
Collaborative Learning

Learning Outside the Classroom Environment

Social Media in Learning

Interactivity in Classroom

Data Management & Analytics

Immersive Learning with AR and VR

Gamification in Education

Online Data and Cybersecurity

Personalized Learning

1. Collaborative Learning
The innovative trends in educational technology have made it possible for everyone to stay connected. The impact of the current trends of ICT in the field of education has paved multiple options. We connect, discuss and enact upon situations collaboratively. This collaborative approach has gained importance in the learning process as well. In a classroom learning model, teachers encourage collaboration by assigning group activities and tasks.
2. Learning Outside the Classroom Environment
Various technology trends in education keep changing the digital world. Mobile-based devices have taken learning outside of the classroom. With mLearning and eLearning growing in popularity, students can learn at their own pace and time.
3. Social Media in Learning
Who would have ever thought that social media would one day be accepted as part of the learning process? The technological trends in teaching and learning are rapidly changing every day
4. Interactivity in Classroom
Bringing technology into the classroom has made classrooms lively and interactive. With eBooks, the course content can be embedded with videos, augmented reality, audio files etc
5. Data Management & Analytics
Managing data has become ever so convenient and important with the advent of technology in the education system. Teachers can now have complete analytics of a student’s performance, such as the number of tests attempted, chapters completed etc.
6. Immersive Learning with AR and VR
With the introduction of augmented reality and virtual reality into the education system, the classroom learning experience has undergone a tremendous change.
7. Gamification in Education
The latest trends in educational technology have been gaining popularity for the simple reason that it increases student engagement. We have seen gamification being used in classrooms in different forms such as leaderboards, reward points.
8. Online Data and Cybersecurity
The need for data security is at an all-time high. While cloud storage has become the norm these days, it could prove disastrous at times. People and institutions prefer cloud storage.

9. Personalized Learning
Personalized learning is an approach to education that tailors teaching and learning to individual students’ needs and preferences. In 2023, personalized learning could become even more prevalent thanks to advances in artificial intelligence and data analytics.

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Himanshi Tripathi
Roll no.- 30

Introduction- A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

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Swati Gupta
Roll number - 24
Introduction :- Computer fundamentals encompass the basic principles and concepts underlying the operation and functionality of computers. At its core, a computer is an electronic device that processes and stores information. It operates on the basis of binary digits, or bits, which represent data as either a 0 or a 1. The central processing unit (CPU) serves as the brain of the computer, executing instructions and performing calculations. Computers use various input devices, such as keyboards and mice, to receive data, while output devices like monitors and printers display or produce the results. Data storage is crucial, with primary memory (RAM) providing temporary storage for data and secondary memory (hard drives, solid-state drives) offering long-term storage. Computers communicate through networks, allowing for the exchange of information and resources. Software, comprising operating systems and applications, provides instructions for the hardware to follow. Understanding these fundamentals lays the foundation for delving into more complex computer systems and technologies.

Input device - In computing, an input device is a piece of equipment used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system, such as a computer or information appliance. Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, cameras, joysticks, and microphones.

Input devices can be categorized based on:

1. modality of input (e.g., mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.)
2. whether the input is discrete (e.g., pressing of key) or continuous (e.g., a mouse's position, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous)
3. the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g., two-dimensional traditional mice, or three-dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications).

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Srishti Tripathi
Roll no. 22

Introduction:
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software −

System Software

Application Software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE:

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

Close to the system
Fast in speed
Difficult to design
Difficult to understand
Less interactive
Smaller in size
Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language

APPLICATION SOFTWARE:

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

Payroll Software
Student Record Software
Inventory Management Software
Income Tax Software
Railways Reservation Software
Microsoft Office Suite Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft PowerPoint
Application Software

Features of application software are as follows −

Close to the user
Easy to design
More interactive
Slow in speed
Generally written in high-level language
Easy to understand
Easy to manipulate and use
Bigger in size and requires large storage space

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Name: Sonam Kumari
Roll no.: 53

Introduction:

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is often referred to as the "brain" of a computer. It is a crucial component responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations necessary for the operation of a computer system. The CPU acts as the primary interpreter and controller of the machine's internal functions.

In simple terms, the CPU carries out the instructions provided by computer programs, including operating systems, applications, and user commands. It performs arithmetic operations, logical comparisons, data movement, and control flow operations. The CPU interacts with other hardware components, such as memory, storage, and input/output devices, to perform these tasks.

The typical architecture of a CPU includes several key components. The Control Unit (CU) manages the execution of instructions, coordinating the activities of other components. It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and controls the flow of data between different parts of the CPU.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs mathematical calculations (arithmetic operations) and logical operations, such as comparisons and bitwise operations. It operates on binary data, manipulating and transforming it according to the instructions.

The CPU also includes registers, which are small, high-speed memory units used for storing intermediate results, data, and addresses. Registers enable faster access to frequently used information, improving the overall performance of the CPU.

Over the years, CPU technology has evolved significantly, leading to improvements in performance, power efficiency, and capabilities. Manufacturers like Intel, AMD, and ARM produce CPUs for various computing devices, including desktop and laptop computers, servers, smartphones, and embedded systems.

CPU performance is often measured by factors such as clock speed (the frequency at which the CPU executes instructions), the number of cores (in multi-core CPUs, which allow for parallel execution of tasks), cache size (fast memory for storing frequently accessed data), and instruction set architecture (the set of instructions the CPU can execute).

• HISTORY OF CPU:

The history of CPUs dates back to the early days of computing when the concept of electronic digital computers was first realized. Here's a brief overview of the key milestones in the history of CPUs:

Early Computers: In the 1940s, early electronic computers like ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) and EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) used vacuum tubes to perform calculations. These machines were large, cumbersome, and had limited processing capabilities.

Transistors: In the late 1940s and early 1950s, transistors were invented, which replaced the power-hungry and unreliable vacuum tubes. Transistors were smaller, more reliable, and consumed less power, leading to the development of more compact and efficient computers.

Integrated Circuits: In the 1960s, integrated circuits (ICs) were introduced, which further revolutionized computer technology. ICs combined multiple transistors, resistors, and capacitors on a single chip, making computers smaller, more powerful, and more affordable.

Microprocessors: In 1971, Intel introduced the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004. It was a 4-bit processor designed for calculators and other specialized devices. Microprocessors integrated the CPU onto a single chip, which was a significant advancement. Subsequent generations of microprocessors, such as the Intel 8008, Intel 8080, and Intel 8086, introduced more powerful capabilities and became the foundation for early personal computers.

x86 Architecture: The Intel 8086 processor, released in 1978, introduced the x86 instruction set architecture, which became a dominant standard in the PC industry. The x86 architecture formed the basis for subsequent Intel processors, including the popular 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, and the modern Intel Core series.

RISC Architecture: In the 1980s, Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures emerged as an alternative to the complex and power-hungry x86 architecture. RISC processors, such as the ARM (Advanced RISC Machines) family, focused on simplified instructions and improved performance per clock cycle, making them popular in mobile devices and embedded systems.

Multicore Processors: As CPU clock speeds reached their limits, manufacturers turned to multicore processors to boost performance. Instead of increasing the clock speed further, multiple processor cores were integrated onto a single chip, allowing for parallel processing and improved performance in multitasking scenarios.

Advancements in Performance and Power Efficiency: Over the years, CPU manufacturers have continued to refine and enhance processor architectures, introducing new technologies like branch prediction, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, and improved cache systems. These advancements have led to significant improvements in performance and power efficiency.

CPU COMPONENTS

There are two primary parts of a CPU:
•Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
The ALU of a CPU executes mathematical, logical, and decision-making operations in your PC. It can execute four kinds of mathematical operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The logical operations it performs are usually in the form of comparisons that involve numbers, letters, or special characters. This comparison operation is what allows your computer to discern whether or not your credit card has reached its credit limit or whether there are empty seats on an airplane, for instance.
•Control Unit (CU):
The control unit of your CPU directs all the processor’s operations and fetches instructions from memory.

How a CPU processes data:

If you’re curious about how all of these different components work together to perform an action on your computer, let’s run through the steps involved.
Before your CPU can do anything, program instructions and data need to go into memory via an input or storage device. Once the data and instructions are available, the CPU goes through the following steps for each instruction it retrieves.
I-TIME, E-TIME, AND MACHINE CYCLE
The CU fetches the instruction from the memory.
The CU decides what the instruction means and directs the relevant data to be moved from memory to the ALU. These first two steps combined are called instruction time or I-time.
The ALU executes the arithmetic or logical instruction.
The ALU stores the result of this operation in the memory. Steps 3 and 4 together are referred to as execution time or E-time.
The control unit directs memory to release the result to an output device or storage. I-time and E-time together are called the machine cycle.

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Rima Bharti
Roll no - 11
CPU

A central processing unit (CPU)—also called a central processor or main processor—is the most important processor in a given computer. Its electronic circuitry executes instructions of a computer program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations. This role contrasts with that of external components, such as main memory and I/O circuitry,[1] and specialized coprocessors such as graphics processing units (GPUs).
The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic–logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory), decoding and execution (of instructions) by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers, and other components.

Most modern CPUs are implemented on integrated circuit (IC) microprocessors, with one or more CPUs on a single IC chip. Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are multi-core processors. The individual physical CPUs, processor cores, can also be multithreaded to create additional virtual or logical CPUs.[2]

An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC).

Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. Virtual CPUs are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.[3]

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Name : Varsha
Roll No. : 26

External hardware components, also called peripheral components, are those items that are often externally connected to the computer to control either input or output functions.These hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to the software (input) or render results from its execution (output).

All external hardware components require additional external power in order to function properly.

All external hardware components must also be compatible with both the computer itself and any other external hardware components that may be attached. For example, a printer must be compatible with both the computer and the type of paper being used. A microphone must be compatible with both the sound card and the recording software.

A common list of external hardware components is used with a computer.

Mouse

Keyboard

Display monitor

Speakers

Microphone

USB flash drive

Printer

Scanner

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Ekta Vishwakarma
B.Ed. Mathematics
Roll no. 46

Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into a large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory

A. Cache Memory:

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

B. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor devices. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories.

It is known as the main memory.

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is the working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

C. Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories.

It is known as the backup memory.

It is a non-volatile memory.

Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

It is used for storage of data in a computer.

Computers may run without the secondary memory.

Slower than primary memories.

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By Nidhi Sharma
Roll no.- 48
B.Ed 2nd sem.

Central Processing Unit(CPU)
CPU is the brain of the computer. All types of data processing operations and all the important functions of a computer are performed by the CPU. It helps input and output devices to communicate with each other and perform their respective operations. It also stores data which is input, intermediate results in between processing, and instructions.
the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:

1.Memory or Storage Unit
2.Control Unit
3.ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

As the name suggests this unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. The memory unit is responsible for transferring information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as an internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are storage devices.

Its size affects speed, power, and performance. There are two types of memory in the computer, which are primary memory and secondary memory. Some main functions of memory units are listed below:

Data and instructions are stored in memory units which are required for processing.

It also stores the intermediate results of any calculation or task when they are in process.

The final results of processing are stored in the memory units before these results are released to an output device for giving the output to the user.

All sorts of inputs and outputs are transmitted through the memory unit.

Control Unit
main functions of the control unit are
1.Controlling of data and transfer of data and instructions is done by the control unit among other parts of the computer.
2.The control unit is responsible for managing all the units of the computer.
3.The main task of the control unit is to obtain the instructions or data which is input from the memory unit, interprets them, and then directs the operation of the computer according to that.
4.The control unit is responsible for communication with Input and output devices for the transfer of data or results from memory.
5.The control unit is not responsible for the processing of data or storing data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical functions or operations. It consists of two subsections, which are:
Arithmetic Section
Logic Section
Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and all these operation and functions are performed by ALU. Also, all the complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the mentioned operations by ALU.
Logic Section: By Logical operations, we mean operations or functions like selecting, comparing, matching, and merging the data, and all these are performed by ALU.

Computer Memory

Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store both the input and output can be stored here.
Characteristics of Main Memory:
1.It is faster computer memory as compare to secondary memory.
2.It is semiconductor memories.
3.It is usually a volatile memory.
4.It is the main memory of the computer.
5.A computer system cannot run without primary memory.

In general, memory is of three types:

Primary memory

Secondary memory

Cache memory

1. Primary Memory: It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data and programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology and hence is commonly called semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two types:
1. RAM(random access memory)
2.ROM(read only memory)
2. Secondary Memory: It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Types of secondary memory
1.Magnetic tapes
2.Magenetic disk
3. Cache Memory: It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster. Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer. It is used to store the data and programs that the CPU uses the most frequently.

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By Astha Pathak
Roll no. 16

The computer consists 4 main units-

Input unit

All the data received by the computer goes through the input unit. The input unit comprises devices like a mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. Each of these input devices of the computer acts as a mediator between the users and the computer.

CPU

Control Processing Unit or the CPU, is the brain of the computer. It works the same way a human brain works. The brain controls all the activities performed by humans.
Similarly, the CPU controls all the functions/tasks performed by the computer. The CPU further consists of two parts – ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit).

Memory Unit

All the data that has to be either processed or has been processed is stored in the memory unit. The memory unit acts as a hub of all the data and transmits it to the required part of the computer whenever necessary.

Output Unit

All the information sent to the computer once processed is received by the user through the output unit. Output devices of computers like printers, monitors, projectors, etc. all come under the output unit.

The output unit displays the data either in the form of a soft copy like that in the monitor or the form of a hard copy, through a printer.

For details, check – block diagram of Computer.

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COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

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By -
ANAMIKA , Roll - 29

Historically computers were classified according to processor types because development in processor and processing speeds were the developmental benchmarks. Earliest computers used vacuum tubes for processing, were huge and broke down frequently. However, as vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors and then chips, their size decreased and processing speeds increased manifold.

All modern computers and computing devices use microprocessors whose speeds and storage capacities are skyrocketing day by day. The developmental benchmark for computers is now their size.

Computers are now classified on the basis of their use or size −

Desktop

Laptop

Tablet

Server

Mainframe

Supercomputer

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Optical Input Devices

Optical input devices allow computers to use light as a source of input. Scanner is an example of optical input device. Other common optical input devices are magnetic ink character reader used for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR), optical mark reader used for Optical Mark Recognition(OMR), optical character reader for Optical Character Recognition(OCR) and barcode reader.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device that accepts paper document as an input. It is used to input data directly into the computer from the source document without copying and typing the data.

Scanner accepts the source paper document, scans the document and translates it into a bitmap image to be stored on the computer. The denser the bitmap, the higher is the resolution of the image.

Hand-held scanner and flat-bed scanner are the two common types of scanner.

Optical character recognition (OCR)

OCR is a technique for the scanning of a printed page, translating it and then using the OCR software to recognise the image ASCII text that is editable.

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

MICR is used in banks to process large volumes of cheques. It is used for recognising the magnetic encoding numbers printed at the bottom of a cheque.

Optical mark recognition (OMR)

OMR uses and optical mark reader to detect marks on a paper. OMR is widely used to read answers of objective type tests, questionnairs, etc.

Barcode reader

Barcodes are adjacent vertical lines of different width that are machine readable. Barcode reader reads the barcode. They are used to read labels in departmental stores and in libraries.

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By Pragya Dwivedi
Roll No. - 21

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer. Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device.

Computer software examples include operating systems, which allow for easy use of a computer's processing power, as well as applications like Notepad and Firefox. Software can be physically stored on the hard drive or at another location such as a USB drive, or it can be cloud-based and hosted over the internet.

There are different types of software that can run on a computer: system software, utility software, and application software.

1. System Software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's hardware and application programs.
Examples of System Software ~
•Windows.
•Mac OS.
•Chrome OS.
•Ubuntu.
•Android.
•iOS.
•Blackberry.
•PlayStation System Software.

2. Utility Software
Utility software is a program specifically designed to help manage and tune system or application software. It is used to support the computer infrastructure - in contrast to application software, which is aimed at directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.
Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation, and uninstallation, data backup, deletion of unwanted files, etc.
Some examples are ~
•AntiVirus software
•File Management Tools
•Compression Tools
•Disk Management Tools.

3. Application Software
An application program is a computer program designed to carry out a specific task other than one relating to the operation of the computer itself, typically to be used by end-users. Word processors, media players, and accounting software are examples.

Types of Application Software
Web browsers~
•Presentation software.
•Spreadsheet software.
•Graphic software.
•Word processors.
•Database software.
•Multimedia software.
•Education software.

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By : Anjali Pal
Roll no.- 43

Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an analog or digital computer. The term hardware distinguish the tangible aspects of a computing device from software ,which consists of written , machine - readable instructions or programs that tells physical components what to do and when to execute the instructions.

Hardware parts
1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse
1.Motherboard
The motherboard is generally thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a computer except input and output devices.

2.Monitor
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data,such as text,images,etc is displayed.

3. Keyboard
It is the most important device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text, character,and other command into a computer, desktop, tablet etc.

4.Mouse
It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer in a GUI. It allows you to point to or select object on a computers display screen.

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By Jaya Tiwari
Roll No. -47

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific tasks.Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device.

The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is designed to run a computer's hardware and provides a platform for applications to run on top of.

Examples and types of software
Among the various categories of software, the most common types include the following:
1. Application software: The most common type of software, application software is a computer software package that performs a specific function for a user, or in some cases, for another application. An application can be self-contained, or it can be a group of programs that run the application for the user. Examples of modern applications include office suites, graphics software, databases and database management programs, web browsers, word processors, software development tools, image editors and communication platforms.

2. System software: These software programs are designed to run a computer's application programs and hardware. System software coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and software. In addition, it controls the operations of the computer hardware and provides an environment or platform for all the other types of software to work in. The OS is the best example of system software; it manages all the other computer programs. Other examples of system software include the firmware, computer language translators and system utilities.

3. Driver software: Also known as device drivers, this software is often considered a type of system software. Device drivers control the devices and peripherals connected to a computer, enabling them to perform their specific tasks. Every device that is connected to a computer needs at least one device driver to function. Examples include software that comes with any nonstandard hardware, including special game controllers, as well as the software that enables standard hardware, such as USB storage devices, keyboards, headphones and printers.

4. Middleware: The term middleware describes software that mediates between application and system software or between two different kinds of application software. For example, middleware enables Microsoft Windows to talk to Excel and Word. It is also used to send a remote work request from an application in a computer that has one kind of OS, to an application in a computer with a different OS. It also enables newer applications to work with legacy ones.

5.Programming software: Computer programmers use programming software to write code. Programming software and programming tools enable developers to develop, write, test and debug other software programs. Examples of programming software include assemblers, compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

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Anshu kumari
Roll no.-44

Nowadays, the computer is one of the essential parts of our day to day activities. Computers are so smart that they can also do many tasks automatically according to the data given to them. However, computers were not like this before. There were constant developments and innovations in computer technology that made computers so powerful and useful. All such developments are divided into different generations of computers.

What are the generations of computers?
Generations of computers are mainly divided according to the development of computer technology. Each generation defines the major technological developments on which computer systems were/are based.
In the early days of development, the 'generation of computers' was intended solely to illustrate the differences between hardware technologies. However, nowadays the term is the conclusion of both hardware and software changes involved in the path of computer development. In particular, the term 'generation' refers to development that changes the way computers work. Moreover, frequent improvements were made to make computer devices more compact in size, cheaper in price, more powerful and smarter, etc.
How many generations of computers are there?
Although the development of computer technology was started in around 1940, the evolution of this technology began around 1946 with the first generation of computer and continuously evolving ever since. As of now, there are five generations of the computer.
What are the five generations of computers?
The five generations of computers are listed below:

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CPU
By JYOTIKA SHASTRI
ROLL NO: 04
A central processing unit (CPU)—also called a central processor or main processor—is the most important processor in a given computer. Its electronic circuitry executes instructions of a computer program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations. This role contrasts with that of external components, such as main memory and I/O circuitry, and specialized coprocessors such as graphics processing units (GPUs).

The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic–logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory), decoding and execution (of instructions) by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers, and other components.

Most modern CPUs are implemented on integrated circuit (IC) microprocessors, with one or more CPUs on a single IC chip. Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are multi-core processors. The individual physical CPUs, processor cores, can also be multithreaded to create additional virtual or logical CPUs.

An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC).

Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. Virtual CPUs are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.

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By Muskan Maurya
Roll no- 06

What is Computer Fundamentals: It can be described as the learning or studying of some basic functions of computers starting from their origin to the modern day. Study of basic computer types to their characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages are included in the Learning of fundamentals of computers.
Computer fundamentals refer to the foundational concepts and principles that form the basis of understanding computers and their operations. These fundamentals encompass a broad range of topics related to computer hardware, software, data processing, networking, and the overall functioning of computer systems.

On the basis of size, computer has 5 types:

Supercomputer:
• Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process a huge amount of data.
• It can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.
• it is particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research.
• First supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Mainframe computer:
• Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
• They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes simultaneously.
• These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data.

Mini frame computer:
• It is a midsize multiprocessing computer.
• It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at one time.
• Mini frame computers are used in institutes and departments for the tasks such as billing, accounting, and inventory management.

Workstation:
• Workstation is a single-user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications.
• It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM, and high-speed graphic adapters.
• It generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstations, music workstations, and engineering design workstations.

Microcomputer:
• It is also known as a personal computer.
• It is a general-purpose computer that is designed for individual use.
• It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit, and output unit.
• Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers.

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B.Ed. ICT -215
01. Jyotsana
02. Muskan Maurya
03. Anshu kumari
04. Jyotika Shastri
05. Tanya kumari
06.Ankita Yadav
07. Anjali Pal
08. Pragya Dwivedi
09. Jaya Tiwari
10.kajal kumari
11. Varsha
12.Sonam Kumari
13.Rima Bharti
14. Swati Gupta
15. Nidhi Sharma
16.Astha Pathak
17.Anamika
18. Riya Roy
19. Mansi Kumari
20.Sulochna kumari
21. Priya Suman

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Write your name, and roll number with the content.

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Write about computer fundamentals, hardware, software, memory., parts of computer , cpu etc.

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By: Kajal Kumari
Roll number - 31
Computer Hardware :--Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an analog or digital computer. The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device from software, which consists of written, machine-readable instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to execute the instructions.
Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components.
Internal components:-
Internal components collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program or operating system (OS). These include the following.:--

Motherboard:- This is a printed circuit board that holds the central processing unit (CPU) and other essential internal hardware and functions as the central hub that all other hardware components run through.

CPU:- The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital instructions from various programs; its clock speed determines the computer's performance and efficiency in processing data.

RAM:- RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage that makes information immediately accessible to programs; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the computer powers off.

Hard drive:-Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent and temporary data in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc.

Optical driver:-Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the computer to read and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only memory or digital video discs.

External hardware components:-
External hardware components, also called peripheral components, are those items that are often externally connected to the computer to control either input or output functions.
Common input hardware components include the following:---

Mouse:- A mouse is a hand-held pointing device that moves a cursor around a computer screen and enables interaction with objects on the screen. It may be wired or wireless.

Keyboard:-A keyboard is an input device featuring a standard QWERTY keyset that enables users to input text, numbers or special characters.

Microphone:- A microphone is a device that translates sound waves into electrical signals and supports computer-based audio communications.

Camera:-A camera captures visual images and streams them to the computer or through a computer to a network device.

Touchpad:- A touchpad is an input device, external or built into a laptop, used to control the pointer on a display screen. It is typically an alternative to an external mouse.

Other input hardware components include joysticks, styluses and scanners.

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BY- JYOTSNA, ROLL-19

COMPUTER MEMORY

used to store data/information and instructions.

a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

CPU ACTS AS A COMPUTER MEMORY
1.Units of Memory
A computer system uses binary numbers to store and process data. The binary digits 0 and 1, which are the basic units of memory, are called bits. Further, these bits are grouped together to form words. A 4-bit word is called a Nibble. Examples of nibble are 1001, 1010, 0010, etc. A two-nibble word, i.e., 8-bit word is called a byte, for example, 01000110, 01111100, 10000001, etc. Like any other standard unit, bytes are grouped together to make bigger chunks or units of memory.

2. Types of Computer Memories
There are three types of memory in the computer-
A. Primary memory
B. Secondary memory,
C. Cache

A. Primary Memory:

Only the data and instructions on which the computer is presently working are stored in primary memory.

It gives quick access to the CPU, allowing active applications to provide the best possible performance to the end-user.

It has a limited storage capacity, and data is lost when the power is turned off.

The data and instructions that must be processed are stored in the main memory.

It is further subdivided into RAM and ROM.

B. Secondary Memory:

This form of memory is also known as non-volatile memory or external memory.

It operates at a slower rate than the main memory.

These are used to permanently store data/information.

It has a vast storage capacity, allowing us to permanently store enormous amounts of data such as films, photos, audio, files, and so on. Some auxiliary devices are detachable and portable.

The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, where they may then be accessed by the CPU.

For example, disc, CD-ROM, DVD, Pen drive and so on.

C.Cache Memory:

Cache memory is a type of high-speed memory that can help the CPU run faster.

It serves as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.

It is used to store data and program segments that are often accessed by the CPU.

It required a shorter access timer than the main memory.

The operating system transfers data and programme fragments from the disc to cache memory, where the CPU may access them.