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It works both ways. Scientists use their research and empirical work, professional views, and integrity, so they can help define what's considered acceptable within the natural science field. However, societal values, cultural norms, and public opinion usually have a bigger influence on those ethical standards.

For example, recently, the public's opinion and concern about climate change have caused to adding of regulations (making it stricter too) and ethical guidelines that scientists must listen to.

Sources: Iaccarino, M. (n.d.). Science and ethics - PMC. NCBI. Retrieved September 27, 2024, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084045/

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Natural science provides empirical evidence through the scientific method. First, they make a hypothesis based on observations, then they make experiments to test their hypotheses, and then analyze and finalize the data to reach a conclusion. Scientists then use models or theories to summarize and synthesize knowledge.

For example, the water cycle in biology.

Sources: Science Produces Explanations That Can Be Tested Using Empirical Evidence. (n.d.). NCBI. Retrieved September 27, 2024, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208858/

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There isn't a specific standard for methods in scientific progress, it can use many techniques, and different science fields can also have different approaches.

For example, in biology, scientists might use the scientific method to test a hypothesis about mesocosm by conducting controlled experiments with different light conditions. On the other hand, an astronomer studying distant galaxies would analyze existing data from telescopes without performing direct experiments because it's space.

Sources: Ellerton, P. (2016, September 15). What exactly is the scientific method and why do so many people get it wrong? School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://hpi.uq.edu.au/article/2016/09/what-exactly-scientific-method-and-why-do-so-many-people-get-it-wrong

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No, there isn't a single scientific method as scientific progress requires different kinds of scientific methods to reach a conclusion.

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1635141/#:~:text=There%20is%20no%20such%20unique,order%20to%20test%20those%20theories.

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Imagination and intuition are really important in the creation of hypotheses in natural science as they enable scientists to explore new possibilities, recognize patterns, and refine their hypotheses.

Dordi, K. (2023, November 5). Intuition and its Application in Natural Science - New Acropolis Library. New Acropolis Library. https://library.acropolis.org/intuition-and-its-application-in-natural-science/

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Scientific laws, are created empirically with little to mo bias (is objective) and are universally accepted even with different, in this case, that's gravity. However, human rights are effected, influenced (by cultural and societal context), interpreted and implemented differently.

Example: North Korea limits individual freedom but countries like Sweeden gives rights to each person.

Sources: Whitehouse, C. (n.d.). Science and Human Rights (9.4.2) | IB DP TOK Notes. TutorChase. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.tutorchase.com/notes/ib/tok/9-4-2-science-and-human-rights

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No there isn't a single scientific method. The scientific progress needs many methods for different fields like physics, biology, and psychology. However, at the beginning of a students' science journey, they are introduced to the "Scientific method".

Luis M. Camarinha-Matos. (n.d.). Scientific Research Methodology and Techniques. Universidade NOVA De Lisboa. https://www.geophysik.uni-muenchen.de/~valerian/Scientific_Working/SRMTunit2.pdf

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Natural scientists offer explanations that describe the rules that govern the natural world through scientific methods.

Guo, R. (2017). Studying borders, evaluating border effects. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 51–80). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-64002-4.00003-9

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Both imagination and intuition is important in the creation of hypothesis in natural science. With imagination and intuition we have the ability to imagine which helps in the process of hypothesis and then test it through experimentation.

Ahmad, & Khan. (2017). Dialectics of Imagination and Experimentation: Basic science research in developing countries. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5368320/

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Many of the laws in NS use the language of mathematics as it provides a powerful tool to describe and understand the different kinds of patterns and structures of the natural world.

Cosmos, D. (n.d.). Why mathematics explain the laws of nature? Dark Cosmos. https://darkcosmos.com/home/f/why-mathematics-explain-the-laws-of-nature#:~:text=Mathematics%20explains%20the%20laws%20of,is%20often%20incomplete%20and%20approximate.

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Natural scientists offer empirical evidence and they offer offer natural explanations for natural phenomena. These explanations describe how things work, why they happen, what they do, and what they are.

What kinds of explanations do natural scientists offer? (n.d.). Quora. https://www.quora.com/What-kinds-of-explanations-do-natural-scientists-offer

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Many natural science laws use mathematical language because math helps describe and understand patterns and regularities in nature. Mathematics provides a precise and concise way to express complex ideas, making it an ideal tool for scientists to formulate and test hypotheses.

Why has mathematics worked so far to describe the laws of nature ? (2007, July 19). Physics Forums: Science Discussion, Homework Help, Articles. https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/why-has-mathematics-worked-so-far-to-describe-the-laws-of-nature.177521/

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Inductive and deductive reasoning are really important in scientific inquiry, prediction, and explanation as they are the ones that lead to creating predictions and explanations in science.

DeCarlo, M. (2018, August 7). 6.3 Inductive and deductive reasoning. Pressbooks. https://pressbooks.pub/scientificinquiryinsocialwork/chapter/6-3-inductive-and-deductive-reasoning/#:~:text=The%20inductive%20approach%20begins%20with,data%20to%20test%20those%20hypotheses.

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The scientific method is not a one-size-fits-all process; rather, it consists of various approaches tailored to specific disciplines and questions. For instance, while experiments in chemistry follow rigorous protocols, fields like astronomy often rely on observational data. This diversity implies that scientific inquiry can adapt to different contexts and complexities.

Balucani, N., Ceccarelli, C., Vazart, F., Dulieu, F., Skouteris, D., Rosi, M., Pirani, F., Bianchi, E., Caselli, P., & Codella, C. (2024). Can astronomical observations be used to constrain crucial chemical reactions? The methoxy case. SOLIS XVIII. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 528(4), 6706–6719. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stae232

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Imagination and intuition are crucial for formulating hypotheses, as they allow scientists to envision possibilities beyond existing knowledge. For example, Albert Einstein's thought experiments about relativity emerged from intuitive insights rather than purely empirical data. This highlights how creativity can drive scientific progress.

Fatima, A. (2023, November 5). “Imagination is more important than knowledge”. - Amna Fatima - Medium. Medium. https://amnafatimajanjuaa.medium.com/imagination-is-more-important-than-knowledge-898cdcb8a12c

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Natural scientists provide explanations that can be descriptive, predictive, or prescriptive, depending on the question at hand. For instance, Newton's laws not only describe motion but also allow for predictions about future actions of objects in motion. This multifaceted approach enhances our understanding of the natural world.

Essam, N., & Essam, N. (2024, April 3). Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion in Daily Life. PraxiLabs. https://praxilabs.com/en/blog/2021/02/24/applications-of-newtons-laws-of-motion-in-daily-life/

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Inductive reasoning makes generalizations from specific observations. It's used to formulate hypotheses, identify relationships, and make predictions. Deductive reasoning uses a general principle to arrive at a specific conclusion. It's used to test hypotheses, explain phenomena, and evaluate evidence. Scientists use both inductive and deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning to formulate hypotheses, which are then tested using deductive reasoning.

Raimo Streefkerk. (2023, June 22). Inductive vs. Deductive Research Approach | Steps & Examples. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/inductive-deductive-reasoning/

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Scientific language can be seen as having multiple functions. It's true that the scientific language mainly aims to explain phenomena, express relationships, and communicate findings, it can also have a descriptive function, as it describes the natural world and the results of experiments.

Pelz, P. B. (n.d.). Chapter 1 Science and Scientific Research | Research Methods for the Social Sciences. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-research-methods/chapter/chapter-1-science-and-scientific-research/

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Yes, natural sciences rely on assumptions. Three key assumptions are: natural causes (natural explanations for events), evidence from the natural world (learning through experiments and observations), and consistency in causes (same causes operate in related situations, making them predictable and applicable).

Understanding Science. (2022a, August 26). Basic assumptions of science - Understanding Science. Understanding Science - How Science REALLY Works. . . https://undsci.berkeley.edu/basic-assumptions-of-science/

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We first have to understand the objective of the problem and what we are specifically trying to solve. Then we can rely on already existing knowledge in a specific context. We can also develop theories that can help guide us in the selection of which factors are relevant and what to measure. In addition, when working together with others in the process of solving a problem, we can easily get feedback that can further help us know what to measure.

Leach, H. (2022, October 18). How do you pick the right problem-solving approach when there are so many to choose from? https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-do-you-pick-right-problem-solving-approach-when-so-harvey-leach/

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To know which model is appropriate we first have to consider the type of problem, the characteristics of your data, and what you want to achieve. We first have to predict a value, classify a category, or group similar things. The we have to understand the characteristics of the data (the amount and type of data). Additionally, we need to think about the goals, whether it's achieving accuracy, understanding relationships, or efficiency.

Scientific models. (2020, April 24). Victoria State Government. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/science/continuum/Pages/scimodels.aspx

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When building a model, we need to make assumptions about how things work and how they are related. To decide what assumptions to make, we need to think about what we already know about the problem. We look at the data to see if we can find any patterns or connections. Then we can figure out what we want the model to do and how simple or complex it needs to be. Then we can try to simplify the problem by focusing on the most important things. Then read what other people have written about similar problems to see what we can learn from them.

Tredennick, A. T., Hooker, G., Ellner, S. P., & Adler, P. B. (2021). A practical guide to selecting models for exploration, inference, and prediction in ecology. Ecology, 102(6). https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3336

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To decide which one is the best, we have to compare them with each other. We can look at how well each model works, how easy it is to understand, and how fast it can process data. We should also think about what kind of data each model needs and what it assumes about the problem. By considering these things, we can see the strengths and weaknesses of each model and choose the best one for our problem.

Grant, P. (2021, December 10). How to choose between multiple models - towards data science. Medium. https://towardsdatascience.com/how-to-choose-between-multiple-models-a0c274b4228a

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To manipulate a model to get an answer, we need to understand the model's structure and components, and identify the key variables that affect its output. By analyzing these components and using techniques such as sensitivity analysis, we can simulate different scenarios and observe how the model responds. This allows us to gain insights into the system's behavior and make predictions about its future performance.

Audrey Eads. (2024, August 16). Data Manipulation: Definition, importance and tips. Indeed. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/data-manipulation

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When interpreting a model answer, it's crucial to consider the context and the question being asked. This involves understanding the units of the answer, thinking about its scale, and relating it to the real-world problem or question being asked. Additionally, it's essential to be aware of the limitations of the model and the data used, recognizing any assumptions or biases that may affect the accuracy of the answer. This can be interpreted using a regression model.

Beers, B. (2024, August 1). Regression: definition, analysis, calculation, and example. Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/regression.asp

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Even if science should value-free, it will never be value free. As a human pursuit, science is inherently shaped by values, which play a crucial role in shaping scientific inquiry. Values such as inter subjectivity and rationality are essential to the scientific method. These values help scientists work together, rely on evidence, and question their own assumptions, recognizing that they can make errors and that their theories might not be perfect.

Is science value-free? (n.d.). Philosophy Stack Exchange. https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/112911/is-science-value-free

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I believe that research should be subject to ethical constraints. The pursuit of knowledge is important, but it should not come at the expense of human well-being, dignity, or the environment. Ethical guidelines can help ensure that research is conducted in a responsible, ethical, and respectful manner, promoting trust and accountability in the scientific community.

Should scientific research be subject to ethical constraints, or is the pursuit of all scientific knowledge intrinsically worthwhile? (n.d.). Quora. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.quora.com/Should-scientific-research-be-subject-to-ethical-constraints-or-is-the-pursuit-of-all-scientific-knowledge-intrinsically-worthwhile

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While scientific facts are considered objective and moral values are seen as subjective. Scientific facts may not be as objective as they seem due to cultural and historical context, personal biases, and methodological limitations. For example, the idea of different human races is not just a biological fact, but also influenced by society and history. Moral values may not be as subjective as they seem as they can be based on universal principles and informed by scientific facts and empirical evidence. For example, protecting human life is a moral value that is widely accepted and based on principles that are considered universal and important.

Scientific objectivity (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2020, October 30). https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-objectivity/

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Moral disagreements can be helped by looking at facts and evidence, especially about the outcomes of actions. However, because people have different values and beliefs, facts alone may not settle all disagreements.

source:https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/disagreement-moral/

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Developments in science have challenged long-held ethical values in several ways. For example, advancements in genetics raise questions about cloning and genetic modification, which can conflict with beliefs about the sanctity of life. Additionally, discoveries in psychology and neuroscience challenge ideas about free will and moral responsibility, making us rethink accountability for actions.

source: https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/the-moral-challenge-of-modern-science

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There isn't just one "scientific method," but rather a collection of approaches that scientists use to investigate questions. While most involve making observations, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing data, the specific steps can vary depending on the field of study and the nature of the research.

source:https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/scientific-method

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Developments in science have challenged long-held ethical values in three main ways. They have challenged traditional beliefs, such as the theory of evolution vs. creationism, and the discovery of DNA structure vs. the concept of a "soul". They have also raised new ethical concerns, such as genetic engineering, stem cell research, and artificial intelligence. Furthermore, science has led to a greater understanding of the importance of ethics in research, the development of bioethics, and the concept of "responsible innovation".

Maurizio Iaccarino. (2001, September 15). Science and Ethics. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084045/

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Imagination and intuition play crucial roles in forming hypotheses in the natural sciences. They help scientists envision possibilities, connect seemingly unrelated ideas, and generate innovative questions to explore. This creative thinking can lead to new theories and approaches that drive scientific discovery.

source: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13194-020-00291-z

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Moral disagreements can't be solved just by looking at facts, because they involve different values and beliefs. But facts can still help us make better moral decisions by

showing us what happens when we make certain choices, helping us understand people and how they behave, pointing out biases and wrong assumptions, and helping us have more informed discussions.

The philosophy lab. (2020, May 8). Ethical Disagreement — Can Science Ever Resolve a Moral Disagreement? Meduim. https://medium.com/@thephilosophylab/ethical-disagreement-can-science-ever-resolve-a-moral-disagreement-c4cf66c7edb2

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Yes, we often think of scientific facts as completely objective and moral values as entirely subjective. In reality, science can be influenced by context, and while morals are shaped by culture, they can also be guided by reason and common human experiences.

source: https://iep.utm.edu/moral-re/

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While human rights and the law of gravity have similarities, they differ. Human rights do not exist in the same way that laws of gravity exist. Laws of gravity cannot be broken, while human rights can be “broken” by violating human rights laws. The law of gravity is consistent and predictable, but human rights are inconsistent and dependent on societal norms, interpretation, and implementation.

Mensenrechten overal anders geïnterpreteerd. Hoe kan dat? (2024, January 8). Leiden University. https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/news/2024/01/each-country-interprets-human-rights-differently.-but-why

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Societies in which scientists operate exert a greater influence on what is ethically acceptable in science. The ethics of science is usually associated with the reconstruction of rules of action that are shaped by societal values and norms. As a result, what is considered ethically acceptable in science can vary across different societies and cultures.

Unknown. (n.d.). Ethics of science. ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/ethics-of-science

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Societies have a greater influence on what is ethically acceptable in science. This is because science is a method, not a moral guide, and ethical considerations come from outside the scientific process. Societal values and norms shape what is considered right or wrong, and scientists are influenced by these values and norms.

Understanding Science. (2022d, September 10). Science has limits: A few things that science does not do - Understanding Science. Understanding Science - How Science REALLY Works. . . https://undsci.berkeley.edu/understanding-science-101/what-is-science/science-has-limits-a-few-things-that-science-does-not-do/

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Human rights do not exist in the same way that the laws of gravity exist. The laws of gravity are considered objective and universal, while human rights are considered social constructs that are based on human values and moral principles.

B, D. (2014, July 22). Do human rights exist in the same way that the laws of gravity exist? Philosophy Stack Exchange. https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/14768/do-human-rights-exist

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There are many methods and approaches that vary based on the research question. For example, in chemistry, the scientific method often involves forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments to test that hypothesis, and analyzing the results to conclude, such as in the development of new drugs through systematic experimentation.

Wright, G. (2023, February). What is the scientific method and how does it work? WhatIs.com. https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/scientific-method

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Imagination and intuition are important in making hypotheses in the natural sciences because they allow scientists to generate possibilities and ideas based on existing knowledge. For example, August Kekulé dreams of a snake biting its tail and connecting it to the ring structure of the benzene molecule.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5368320/

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Natural scientists offer causal explanations that describe how and why natural phenomena occur based on empirical evidence and scientific principles. For example, the theory of evolution by natural selection explains the diversity of species by detailing the mechanisms of adaptation and survival over generations.

https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0128-1

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Many laws in the natural sciences are stated using the language of mathematics because it is a precise, universal, and logical framework to describe complex ideas. For example, Newton’s law of gravitation is mathematically expressed as F=G m1 m2/d2, providing a clear, testable formula for gravitational force.

https://darkcosmos.com/home/f/why-mathematics-explain-the-laws-of-nature

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Many laws in natural sciences are expressed mathematically because mathematics provides a universal, concise language that can accurately describe relationships and patterns. The equation for universal gravitation (F=G(m1m2/r²)) exemplifies how mathematical expressions enable precise predictions of gravitational interactions. This emphasis on math facilitates clearer communication of complex ideas.

Dorato, M. (2005). Why are (Most) Laws of Nature mathematical? In Springer eBooks (pp. 55–75). https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3258-7_2

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Inductive reasoning allows scientists to derive general principles from specific observations, while deductive reasoning helps apply these principles to predict outcomes in new contexts. For example, observing that all metals expand when heated (induction) enables predictions for any metal under similar conditions (deduction), illustrating how these reasoning types are integral to scientific advancement.

Bradford, A., Weisberger, M., & Lanese, N. (2024, March 6). What’s the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning? livescience.com. https://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html

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Scientific language primarily serves an explanatory function, as it seeks to clarify and interpret observations. However, it also encompasses descriptive elements to present data accurately and interpretative aspects to provide context and implications. The balance among these functions enhances scientific communication.

Rahimi, S., & Khatooni, M. (2024). Saturation in qualitative research: An evolutionary concept analysis. International Journal of Nursing Studies Advances, 6, 100174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnsa.2024.100174

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Natural sciences often rely on foundational assumptions—like the uniformity of nature—that cannot be empirically proven but are essential for conducting scientific inquiry. The assumption that natural laws remain consistent allows scientists to apply findings universally, though its unprovable nature introduces a level of philosophical debate into science.

Understanding Science. (2022, August 26). Basic assumptions of science - Understanding Science. Understanding Science - How Science REALLY Works. . . https://undsci.berkeley.edu/basic-assumptions-of-science/

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Before knowing the solution to a problem, scientists identify relevant factors by reviewing existing literature and theories. For example, studying the effect of a new drug involves examining variables like dosage, patient demographics, and health conditions. This iterative process ensures that critical elements are considered before drawing conclusions.

Salahshoori, I., Golriz, M., Nobre, M. A., Mahdavi, S., Malekshah, R. E., Javdani-Mallak, A., Jorabchi, M. N., Khonakdar, H. A., Wang, Q., Mohammadi, A. H., Mirnezami, S. M. S., & Kargaran, F. (2023). Simulation-based approaches for drug delivery systems: Navigating advancements, opportunities, and challenges. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 395, 123888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2023.123888

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Determining which model is appropriate often relies on both empirical validation and theoretical coherence. For instance, climate models are chosen based on historical climate data and their ability to simulate observed phenomena accurately. This process balances predictive accuracy with theoretical soundness.

McSweeney, R. (2022, July 20). Q&A: How do climate models work? Carbon Brief. https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-how-do-climate-models-work/

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Scientists make assumptions in model construction by relying on established theories and empirical evidence. The assumption that ecosystems function through energy transfer informs ecological models. Understanding these foundational beliefs is crucial for the model's reliability.

Herman, B. D., McKay, S. K., Altman, S., Richards, N. S., Reif, M., Piercy, C. D., & Swannack, T. M. (2019). Unpacking the black box: demystifying ecological models through interactive workshops and Hands-On learning. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00122

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When faced with different models yielding varying solutions, scientists assess their predictive accuracy and applicability to real-world scenarios. For example, competing theories of gravity are evaluated based on their capacity to predict planetary movements accurately. This assessment helps identify the most scientifically robust model.

Thomas Kuhn (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2018, October 31). https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-kuhn/

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Scientists manipulate models to obtain answers based on the specific variables of interest, often guided by previous research and empirical data. In epidemiology, changing a variable in a disease spread model can illustrate potential outcomes of interventions, providing a clearer understanding of relationships.

Gilbert, J. A., Meyers, L. A., Galvani, A. P., & Townsend, J. P. (2014). Probabilistic uncertainty analysis of epidemiological modeling to guide public health intervention policy. Epidemics, 6, 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epidem.2013.11.002

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Interpreting model outcomes demands careful correlation with real-world contexts, often requiring qualitative and quantitative analysis. For example, a climate model predicting a rise in temperature must be contextualized with socio-economic implications. This ensures that the model's findings are actionable.

Elo, S., Kääriäinen, M., Kanste, O., Pölkki, T., Utriainen, K., & Kyngäs, H. (2014). Qualitative content analysis. SAGE Open, 4(1), 215824401452263. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014522633

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The question of whether science is value-free is contentious, as scientific inquiry can be influenced by societal values and ethical considerations. The development of CRISPR technology sparks debates about genetic manipulation, illustrating how scientific advancements intersect with ethical dilemmas.

Clare, T., & Clare, T. (2023, July 31). Gene-editing: The ethical questions | Food Ethics Council. Food Ethics Council | Fair and Resilient Food Systems. https://www.foodethicscouncil.org/opinion/gene-editing-the-ethical-questions/

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Research should be subject to ethical constraints, as some scientific pursuits can have significant societal implications, like genetic editing. The boundary between ethical research and the intrinsic value of knowledge is often debated, emphasizing the need for guidelines.

Isa, N. M., & Shuri, M. F. H. S. (2017). Ethical concerns about human genetic enhancement in the Malay science fiction novels. Science and Engineering Ethics, 24(1), 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-017-9887-1

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There is a tendency to exaggerate the objectivity of scientific facts while viewing moral values as subjective; however, both realms can influence human understanding. The impact of climate science on public policy actions emphasizes the relationship between empirical findings and ethical behaviors.

Wang, J., & Kim, S. (2018). Analysis of the impact of values and perception on climate change skepticism and its implication for public policy. Climate, 6(4), 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6040099

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Scientific developments challenge long-held ethical values by confronting established norms, such as debates over human cloning or genetic modification. These challenges encourage society to reassess moral frameworks in light of scientific advances.

Langlois, A. (2017). The global governance of human cloning: the case of UNESCO. Palgrave Communications, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1057/palcomms.2017.19

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While empirical evidence can inform moral disagreements, it may not provide definitive resolutions due to underlying philosophical differences. For example, debates over climate change often pit empirical data against diverse ethical standpoints regarding environmental responsibility.

Chan, J. K. H. (2023). The ethics of wicked problems: an exegesis. Socio-Ecological Practice Research, 5(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-022-00137-3

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Human rights do not exist in the same tangible, universally observable manner as the laws of gravity; rather, they are social constructs founded on ethical beliefs. This distinction highlights the complexity of moral discussions in relation to scientific truths.

Human Rights (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2024, May 31). https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rights-human/

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Societal values and norms significantly influence what is considered ethically acceptable in natural science, often shaping research priorities and methodologies. The increasing push for sustainability in scientific research reflects changing societal values aimed at addressing environmental challenges.

Filho, W. L., Levesque, V., Sivapalan, S., Salvia, A. L., Fritzen, B., Deckert, R., Kozlova, V., LeVasseur, T. J., Emblen-Perry, K., Azeiteiro, U. M., Paço, A., Borsari, B., & Shiel, C. (2022). Social values and sustainable development: community experiences. Environmental Sciences Europe, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-022-00641-z

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In scientific inquiry, inductive reasoning helps scientists generate hypotheses by observing patterns and creating general conclusions, while deductive reasoning tests these hypotheses by applying general principles to specific cases. For example, Charles Darwin used inductive reasoning to formulate the theory of evolution based on observations of species, and deductive reasoning is applied when testing this theory through specific experiments and predictions.

https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0901404106

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Scientific language in the natural sciences has a descriptive and explanatory function, as it is based on empirical evidence aiming to be objective and provide clear explanations. For example, the laws of thermodynamics describe the behavior of energy in systems and explain how heat and work interact in physical processes.

Second Law of Thermodynamics - Britannica.

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Yes, natural sciences rely on unprovable assumptions. For example, in pseudo-science like astrology, hypotheses were assumed to be correct from the beginning, although they have never been supported by rigorous evidence.
Uniformity of Nature - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

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Natural sciences often rely on prior knowledge, theories, or models as a foundation in selecting relevant factors to measure before finding a solution. For example, when studying climate change, scientists know to measure carbon dioxide levels, temperature, and ocean acidity based on existing theories of greenhouse gases and their impact on global warming.
Climate Models - NASA.

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It is based on its ability to accurately predict and explain observed phenomena, and its consistency with empirical data. For example, the heliocentric model was accepted over the geocentric model because it more accurately predicted planetary motion and aligned with astronomical observations.(https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/venus/in-depth/#otp_phases).

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Assumptions are made based on prior and established knowledge that are reasonable and consistent. For example, in constructing models of projectile motion, we assume air resistance is negligible when dealing with basic cases to simplify calculations.
Projectile Motion - Khan Academy.

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We compare their predictive accuracy against empirical data, simplicity, and evidence. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many epidemiological models were used to predict infection rates, and the most accurate ones were validated against real-world case data.
COVID-19 Modeling - CDC.

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We should understand the relationships between variables and apply mathematical techniques or computational methods to simulate different scenarios. For example, in climate modeling, scientists adjust parameters such as greenhouse gas concentrations or solar radiation to predict future climate conditions.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/climate-modeling

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We should assess the implications of numerical results and their uncertainties. For example, a climate model may predict a temperature increase of 2°C by 2050, which researchers then interpret to assess potential impacts on ecosystems, weather patterns, and human activities.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987123002414

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Science is value-free in its methodologies and findings based on objective and empirical evidence; but, values can influence research topics, interpretation of results, and ethical considerations. For example, research into renewable energy technologies may be driven by societal values prioritizing environmental sustainability, even as the scientific investigation itself aims to remain unbiased.

https://works.swarthmore.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1085&context=fac-philosophy

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Research should be subject to ethical constraints to ensure the well-being of living and non-living. It must be balanced with moral responsibility. For example, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study is a historical case that highlighted the need for ethical standards in research, as it involved unethical treatment of African American participants without informed consent.
Tuskegee Study - CDC.

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Yes, we tend to exaggerate the objectivity of scientific facts while viewing moral values as entirely subjective. However, scientific interpretations can be influenced by societal contexts and biases, just as moral values can be informed by empirical evidence and rational discourse. For example, debates surrounding climate change highlight how scientific data can be interpreted differently based on political or economic values.
Climate Change Consensus - NASA.

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Developments in science have challenged long-held ethical values. For example, the ability to edit genes using CRISPR technology has sparked debates over the ethical implications of modifying human embryos, which challenges traditional views on the sanctity of human life.

https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-researchers-debate-ethics-crispr-gene-editing

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Moral disagreements can be informed or mitigated by empirical evidence, but it may not be resolved due to underlying value differences. For example, public health campaigns on smoking have used empirical evidence linking tobacco use to health issues, which has led to shifts in societal attitudes and policy changes, yet debates over personal freedom versus health still persist.(https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke.html).

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Human rights do not exist in the same way that the laws of gravity exist. Human rights are social constructs based on moral and ethical beliefs, whereas the laws of gravity are objective physical phenomena based on natural laws. For example, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights articulates moral principles that countries are encouraged to uphold, but these rights can vary significantly in implementation and recognition across different cultures and legal systems.(https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights).

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Societies exert a greater influence on what is ethically acceptable in natural sciences, as it is shaped by cultural values, public opinion, and legal frameworks. For example, the public backlash against genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has led to stringent regulations and ethical considerations in agricultural biotechnology, reflecting societal concerns rather than purely scientific perspectives. (https://www.usda.gov/topics/farming/gmos-faqs).

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There is no one scientific method. While students at school might be taught a straightforward and generalized approach to scientific experimentation, in reality it is much more complex than that, involving many distinct sub-methods.

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1635141/#:~:text=There%20is%20no%20such%20unique,order%20to%20test%20those%20theories.

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Imagination allows scientists and researchers to create hypothetical scenarios in which they can assume and try to predict the outcome of things based on their prior knowledge. An example of this could be a scientist trying to imagine how different shapes of paper airplane would fly according to their past knowledge of aerodynamics.

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5368320/#:~:text=The%20cycle%20of%20imagination%20and,as%20a%20hypothesis%2Dbased%20research.

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Through rigorous and thorough testing and analysis the natural sciences aim to offer concrete and evidence-backed explanations to phenomena in the real world. An example of this could be explaining how electrons in an electrical circuit flow based on numerous tests and experiments on circuits themselves.

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/natural-science

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Many of the laws in the natural sciences are stated using the language of mathematics, as mathematics is a much more universal way of spreading information, especially when it comes to describing relationships between variables and how different factors affect one another. An example of this could be the SUVAT equations in kinematics, describing projectile motion of objects in physics.

Source: https://www.ncl.ac.uk/webtemplate/ask-assets/external/maths-resources/mechanics/kinematics/equations-of-motion.html#:~:text=The%20equations%20of%20motion%2C%20also,%2D%20acceleration%20and%20t%20%2D%20time.