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Colonialism and capitalism are deeply intertwined, as colonialism was a driving force behind the expansion of capitalism on a global scale.

Colonialism involved European powers establishing control over vast territories in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, reinforcing economic dependency. The rise of capitalism was characterized by the expansion of markets and the need for cheap resources, driving further colonial expansion.

Important aspects that influenced:

Sovereignty

“The advent of sovereign statehood fostered in Europe a level of social and political stability that favored technological innovation and economic development” (Whitham and Heywood, 2023, p.32). Sovereign states provided the framework for European nations to recognize themselves as independent and strive to complete for global influence that led to colonial expansion. The establishments of this sovereign nations is often dated to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

Slavery

Plantations labored by African slaves helped produced high-demand commodities like sugar, cotton, tobacco, and coffee. These plantations became the backbone, not only of colonial economies, fueling European capitalism.

Collateral outcomes: rising living standards and impact on the size of the world's population (Whitham and Heywood, 2023, p.33).

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Industrialism transformed economies through the mechanization of production, leading to mass production and increased demand for raw materials. This demand for resources pushed European powers to further expand their empires, resulting in the Scramble for Africa and the expansion of European influence in Asia. Imperialism, the extension of a nation’s power through colonization, military force, or diplomacy, became a central feature of international relations. Imperialism was not just about economic exploitation, but also about political and military dominance.

Migration

Industrialization created a high demand for labor, leading to migration flows that played crucial roles in the growth of industrial economies. However, a large portion of migration during this period was forced migration through the transatlantic slave trade.

Incipient globalization

Rapid flows of goods, capital and people, technological advancements such as steam-powdered shipping, spread of railroads and the telegraph.

The industrial revolution + key technologies resultant from the industrialization = global space for politics.

(Whitham and Heywood, 2023, p.36).

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World War I, often referred to as the "Great War," had deep-rooted causes in nationalism, militarism, and imperial rivalries, exacerbated by a system of alliances.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914 triggered a complex web of alliances and rivalries among the major European powers. The war quickly escalated, with the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire) facing the Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, and later the United States).

One of the main causes of the war was the imperial ambitions of European powers, competing for colonies and influence, especially in Africa and Asia. Additionally, the rise of nationalism within Europe created tensions, particularly in the Balkans.

The war resulted in the collapse of several empires, including the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian Empires, and it profoundly reshaped the political landscape of Europe. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, placed heavy reparations on Germany and set the stage for future conflict.

(Whitman & Heywood, 2023 , p.40-41).

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The Cold War was a period of ideological, political, and military rivalry between the United States (and its allies) and the Soviet Union (and its allies).

The Cold War was rooted in ideological differences, with the US advocating for capitalism and democracy, while the Soviet Union promoted communism and state control of the economy. These ideological divides created tension in Europe, particularly in Germany, which was split into East (Soviet-controlled) and West (US-controlled).

Proxy wars were fought in various parts of the world, including the Korean War (1950-1953), Vietnam War (1955-1975), and Afghanistan (1979-1989), where the two superpowers indirectly supported opposing sides.

The arms race, particularly the development of nuclear weapons, created a climate of fear, with the ever-present threat of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Both powers also competed in the space race, highlighted by the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik in 1957 and the US landing a man on the moon in 1969.

The Cold War ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, marking a shift in global power dynamics and leading to a more unipolar world dominated by the United States.

(Whitham & Heywood, 2023, p. 52)

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The period following the Cold War marked significant changes in global politics, economics, and international relations.

The End of the Cold War led to the unipolarity of the United States, which emerged as the dominant global power (Whitman & Heywood, 2023, p.61).

The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the independence of many Eastern European states and the former Soviet republics (Whitman & Heywood, 2023, p.55).

The 1990s also saw the growth of globalization, with increasing economic, political, and cultural interdependence between nations.

This period also witnessed significant technological advancements, particularly in communications (the rise of the Internet) and transportation, which further accelerated globalization (Whitman & Heywood, 2023, p.55).

New global challenges emerged, including terrorism, as seen in 9/11, and environmental concerns like climate change. These issues have reshaped international relations and brought attention to global governance and cooperation (Whitman & Heywood, 2023, p.61).

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European Global Dominance: European powers (e.g., Britain, France, Spain, Portugal) established colonies worldwide, exerting political, economic, and military control over large parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas from the 15th to the 20th centuries.

Exploitation of Resources: Colonizers extracted vast resources (gold, spices, raw materials) and exploited local populations for labor, enriching their home economies at the expense of colonies.

Cultural and Political Impact: Colonial powers imposed their languages, religions, and legal systems, deeply influencing the social and political structures of colonized regions, leaving long-lasting legacies.

Industrial Revolution: The rise of capitalism accelerated with the Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries), leading to mass production, urbanization, and global trade expansion.

Free Markets & Trade: Capitalism promoted free markets, private ownership, and international trade, driving competition and economic growth on a global scale.

Economic Imperialism: Capitalist powers, particularly Western nations, exerted control over weaker economies through imperialism and neo-colonialism, using economic influence instead of direct political control.

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Technological Advancements: The Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries) introduced new technologies like the steam engine, mechanized production, and improved transportation (railroads, ships), transforming economies worldwide.

Urbanization & Economic Growth: Industrialism caused rapid urbanization as people moved from rural areas to cities for factory jobs, leading to the rise of modern cities and industrial economies.

Global Trade Expansion: Industrialism fueled the need for raw materials and new markets, driving global trade networks. Industrialized nations became dominant global exporters of manufactured goods.

Expansion of European Empires: Driven by industrialism's need for raw materials and markets, European powers expanded their empires in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific during the 19th and early 20th centuries, competing for control of territories and resources.

Economic Exploitation: Imperial powers extracted resources, labor, and wealth from their colonies, using them to fuel their industrial economies, often at the expense of local populations and economies.

Political Control & Governance: Imperialism imposed foreign political systems, often replacing or controlling local governments. This created centralized administrations that governed vast colonial empires from Europe.

Cultural Domination: Imperial powers spread their languages, religions, and cultural values, often suppressing local traditions a

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After the Cold War:

Optimism and Idealism

New world Order

Liberal Democracy

Unipolarity of USA as a superpower

Technological advances

Growth of Globalization

After 9/11:

Global Terrorism (9/11)

Instability

Return of multipolarity

(Whitman & Heywood, 2023 , p.60.)

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Whitham, B., & Heywood, A. (2023). Global politics. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. (Chapter 2)

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Space Race: Competition for technological supremacy, leading to milestones like the Soviet Union’s first man in space (1961) and the U.S. moon landing (1969) .

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

Ideological Influence

Proxy wars fought around the world:

1. Korean War (1950-1953).

2. Vietnam War (1955-1975).

3. Afghanistan War (1979-1989).

Ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Main Causes:

Ideological Differences:

US promoted capitalism and democracy.

Soviet Union promoted communism and state control of the economy.

Division of Germany:

Germany was split into East (communist) and West (capitalist), symbolizing the broader global divide.

Global Proxy Wars:

Rivalry played out through indirect conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan.

Arms Race:

Both superpowers competed to develop nuclear weapons, escalating tensions and fear.

Space Race:

Technological competition, especially over space exploration, contributed to the rivalry.

(Whitman & Heywood, 2023 , p.50,52).

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Most significant war in world history

The first modern war

Precipitated by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand that lead to declarations of war

Main causes:

'German Problem':

Imbalance of power that lead to conflict

'Eastern Question':

Structural Instabilities of the Balkans

'Imperialism':

Highest state of capitalism that caused rivalry between capitalist powers that led to war.

'Nationalism':

Militarism and Chauvinism intensifying conflict that led to war.

(Whitman & Heywood, 2023 , p.41-42).

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Whitham, B., & Heywood, A. (2023). Global politics. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. (Chapter 2)

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Whitham, B., & Heywood, A. (2023). Global politics. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. (Chapter 2)

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The war had multiple causes, including the unresolved issues from World War I, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, which humiliated and economically crippled Germany. The rise of fascism in Germany, Italy, and Japan led to aggressive expansionist policies, including Germany’s occupation of Austria and Czechoslovakia.

In the context of World War II, the document discusses how alliances, both military and political, played a major role. For example, during this time, "alliances and collaborations between Germany, Italy, and Spain" were formed under fascist rule, exemplified by the Axis powers' coalition during the war (Whitham & Heywood, 2023, p. 16).

This war also deeply influenced the geopolitical landscape, leading to significant global changes. The eventual rise of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers set the stage for the Cold War, which was defined by ideological conflict between capitalism and communism (Whitham & Heywood, 2023, p. 16). These developments not only redefined global alliances but also marked the beginning of a new world order

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Important Points

Bipolar Power Struggle

Arms Race

Proxy Wars

Formation of Alliances .

Space Race

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

((Whitman & Heywood, 2023 , p.42)

Main Causes

Ideological conflict between capitalism (U.S.) and communism (USSR)

Mutual distrust and the desire to expand political and economic influence globally

Arms race, particularly in nuclear weapons development

(Whitman & Heywood, 2023 , p.47)

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Whitham, B., & Heywood, A. (2023). Global politics. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. (Chapter 2)

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Whitham, B., & Heywood, A. (2023). Global politics. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. (Chapter 2)

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Whitham, B., & Heywood, A. (2023). Global politics. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. (Chapter 2)