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Transatlantic Slave Trade (16th-19th centuries)

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Transatlantic Slave Trade (16th-19th centuries)

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The slave trade was a large part of the Columbian Exchange, fueled by the growth of maritime empires and routes. The prevalence of the slave trade was directly tied to the growth of plantation colonies, which was caused by the settlement and expansion of European empires like the Spanish, Portuguese, etc. States in Africa also expanded as the result of the slave trade, as captured prisoners of war were traded along with gold, ivory, and salt for European goods such as guns.

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Russia underwent large amounts of empirical expansion in the 17th & 18th centuries, led by generations of rulers such as Ivan III, Ivan IV, Peter the Great, and Catherine the Great. Under Peter I and his administration, Russia adapted many things from the West, and although many social and political reforms were directed at the aristocracy, others operessed the working class; this led to challenges in power in the form of peasant revolts.

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The Yuan Dynasty was an important era for both the Mongols and China. It was founded by Kublai Khan, who claimed control over China between 1279 and 1368. During this time, many changes were implemented, affecting the Chinese culture in profound ways. For one, rules were set into place both facilitating exchange, and preserving distinction between the Mongols and Chinese. Chinese scholars could not learn the mongols script, nor could not marry each other. However, Kublai Khan was a known fan of Chinese culture, preferring his house to be in a traditional Chinese imperial palace, as well as hiring Chinese advisors to help him with conquests. Eventually, internal rebellions and pushback against the Mongol rule lead to the demise of the Mongol control of China, still leaving lasting effect on China and its population.

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The Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids (15th-17th centuries)

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The Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids (15th-17th centuries)

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Empirical belief systems were showcased in the three Islamic Empires, especially in the tension between the Sunni Ottomans and the Shi'a Safavids, which resulted in the Battle of Chaldiran. The Mughal Empire, under Akbar, blended various Indian religions with Islam to create a new belief system called Din-i-Ilahi. The Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids were also known as the gunpowder empires, for their use of gunpowder technology in empirical expansion. Indeed, artillery was what enabled the Ottomans to conquer Constantinople in 1451. The three empires were also very rich culturally, all three boasting spectacular architecture and art.

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Japan and Vietnam during Mongol Dynasty (1200-1400)

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Japan and Vietnam during Mongol Dynasty (1200-1400)

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Japan was mainly controled by the samuri, as they were not only people, they were a lifestyle and controled nearly every aspect of Japanese culture for multiple centuries. Politically, military was a core strenght and importance for the Japanese, but this lead to profound segregation between the high class, mainly consisting of the samurai, and the lower, working classes. In terms of relations between Japan and the Mongols, Mongol conquests of Japan were famously unsuccessful due to miracle typhoons causing mass destruction in the Mongol fleet.

Vietnam was also under pressure by the Mongols, the leading world power at the time. The Mongols, looking to conquer Vietnam to support the Yuan resistance in China, attempted to conquer Vietnam through many military attacks. Vastly outnumbered, the Vietnamese left the capital and burned all the crops that the Mongols needed to feed their troops, along with using ambushes and hit-and-run attacks to weaken them for the actual armies to finish them

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Rise of Abbasids and DAR-Al-Islam (750–1258)

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Rise of Abbasids and DAR-Al-Islam (750–1258)

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From the fall of the Abbasids, to the rise to new Islamic empires, this time period was significant to the ongoing Isalmic Religion. The Abbasids, struggling to find succession to the throne, were ridden with claimants, who all believed they were the appropriate successor. Each used military force to try to fight for the throne, which magnified the problem and revealed the use of mercenaries, or slave soldiers to that time period. At this point, 5 more caliphs were assassinated or poisoned by the mercenary forces, ending with the final collapse of the Abbasids by Timur. Despite the political collapse of the Abbasids, significant artistic and scientific advancements were achieved during the period, including algebraic and geometric theories, sin, cos, tan, trigonometry, the classification of minerals, and much more.

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Europe mostly consisted of a decentralized government where the king was reliant on small bureaucracies, and the support of nobles. They embraced the capitalist system, where everything was based and centered around trade. People invested in private firms, banks, and merchants all in turn to lose, or gain money. Additionally, guilds were established that facilitated trade by bringing individuals with similar values or professions together to allow for security and mutual control over a certain industry. Also, it is important to note that the majority of Europe was Chrisitan, raising its own values and social influence

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The Bubonic plague was a deadly disease transmitted through fleas that originated in Central Asia and was subsequently spread through the Mongol trade routes and into Europe, where it killed roughly 1/3 of the population. This happened in part because of a famine that swept through Medieval Europe before the arrival of the plague, lowering disease resistance. The Bubonic plague also weakened the Mongols' expansion and empirical control over areas like China and Russia. Overall, the Black Death led to a shift in world power in Eurasia and the rearrangement of social and family structures in Europe.

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The Italian Renaissance (15th-16th centuries)

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The Italian Renaissance (15th-16th centuries)

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The Italian Renaissance was a time of cultural and political movements in Italy. Their main goal was urban vitality and expanding commerce. They adopted themes from classical Greece and Rome as well. Italy became more secular which shifted from being about religion to being more about humanist ideas. These humanist ideas were known as the "Renaissance Spirit". The Italian Renaissance included paintings, architecture, and technology. The type of paint they used changed from tempera, an egg-based paint, to oil-based paint. This made their paintings much brighter and did not crack when they dried. Francisco Petrarch was a major literary figure in the Italian Renaissance as he was an author who focused on the glories of personal achievements.

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Northern Renaissance (Late 15th - 16th centuries)

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Northern Renaissance (Late 15th - 16th centuries)

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The Northern Renaissance, similar to the Italian Renaissance, was spread through Northern Europe in the last years of the 15th century. It affected France, the Low Countries, England and Germany. In comparison, it stressed a similar emphasis on culture, literature, the arts and the re-emergence of classical ideas as the Italian Renaissance. Literature spread with Humanism similarly in arts and culture, with people like William Shakespeare in England, Rabelais in France and Cervantes in Spain. Governments in France became patrons of the arts. In contrast, it was centered around Christian devotion and the formation of political changes. One major ruler from this period was Francis I.

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The Aztecs rose to be the main empire after the fall of the Toltecs. The Aztecs were made up of mainly Native Americans. They settled in Lake Texcoco, and eventually founded their capital of Tenochtitlan. They believed in many deities such as rain, fire, water, corn, sky, and sun. As well, they were firm believers in human sacrifice. The social class of the Aztecs was a main part of society and was centered around calpulli. Calpulli were clans that distributed land provided labor to warriors. The economy was state controlled and peasants provided basic goods to the rest of the Aztec society. The fall of the Aztecs was due to a Spanish conquistador named Hernan Cortes. Not only did his weaponry kill off many of the people in society, but an outbreak of smallpox did a number on them as well.

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Following the surge of humanist thought from the Renaissance, the technological innovations from the Scientific Revolution, the questioning of authority of the Protestant Reformation, and the (literal) new horizons of the Age of Exploration, the Enlightenment was a movement that started in the late 17th century and peaked in the 18th that focused on the exploration of human nature, the world, and our duty in it. Famous Enlightenment figures included John Locke, Francis Bacon, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and many more. The Enlightenment changed the social and political landscape of Europe, spurring the French Revolution as well as calls for the abolition of slavery.

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Early Foundations of the Human Experience  

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Early Foundations of the Human Experience  

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Homo Sapiens migrated over a vast area of regions and were continuously moving due to their hunting and gathering tactics. They prevailed everywhere, while also advancing in Stone Age Technology. This introduced the succession of technological innovations in human organization, also known as the Neolithic Revolution. The Yucca Fire Kit, stone tools, and bow and arrows were some of many innovations that positively influenced everyday life. Agriculture was an impactful part of the early life. It was mainly around the core areas and coastal environments, however, there were various amount of advantages and disadvantages regarding agriculture. Although this created a wide surplus and generated a wide food supply, agriculture experienced environmental deterioration, diseases, raids, and war. In addition, The use of Cuneiform aided bureaucracies in keeping records, aiding merchants in communication, and interpreting and understanding of mathematics, astronomy, and other subjects. Hammurabi's Law Code also depicted that the poor and rich should obtain justice. This also introduced an era of classical civilizations. Greece, China, and India believed in a hierarchical society where people had different abilities and roles; and argued that those with more skills and intelligence should have higher social status and material wealth. China also made use of the Han Dynasty, Confucius, and technological innovations. While India developed the Caste System, and several areas of religion. A major innovation that was adopted was active trade. Shipping was made throughout the Indian Ocean. Romans traded with India, and India traded with China. Many technological innovations like the Chinese compass, the use of Arab map-making, and triangle sails were adopted and established to help maintain successful trade.

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Protestant Reformation (and Catholic Reformation) (16th century)

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Protestant Reformation (and Catholic Reformation) (16th century)

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The Protestant Reformation was a period where many newly inspired religious ideas grew in popularity as the Renaissance spread throughout Europe. With Humanism becoming more thought of, people began disliking the authority the Catholic Church had on their lives, realizing that selling indulgences was wrong and that the church was very corrupt. Leaders like Martin Luther came forth and expressed their beliefs about faith and their concerns about the pope, monasticism, and priest marriage laws. Martin Luther gained followers for his strong beliefs about the bible and unfair Christian laws, and this led to the formation of the Lutheranism denomination. Many others sprang up during this time such as Anglicanism and Calvinism. The spread of these new religions created a dispute with the Catholic church, and the long-held institution felt attacked. The Catholic Reformation was a process that followed the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, where they tried to restate Catholic beliefs by creating the Jesuits, trained to spread Catholic beliefs.

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Purple: Early Modern Period, General Developments

Green: Post-Classical Period, General Developments

Yellow: General developments before 1200 concerning growth of civilizations, empires, etc.

Red: Important Developments, contributes to the overall landscape of the world at that time

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Mali Empire and Songhay Kingdom (13th to 17th century)

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Mali Empire and Songhay Kingdom (13th to 17th century)

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The Mali Empire was an empire created by the Malinke people. It was located between the Senegal and Niger rivers. Mansa Musa was their main leader who expanded the empire and based the government on a clan structure. The population was mainly farmers and their lives revolved around agriculture. However, their economy was also based on their resource of gold and their ability to trade it. They made great architecture as they were very financially stable. Their decline came from many internal conflicts and attacks from neighboring states. Another kingdom around this time was the Songhay Kingdom. The kingdom was located around the middle areas of the Niger Valley. Sunni Ali was the main leader and he expanded the borders as well as seizing Timbuktu and Djenne. They started to decline because of the internal revolts of the ruling families and how the old empire started to break away.

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Scientific Revolution (late 16-17th centuries)

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Scientific Revolution (late 16-17th centuries)

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With the new spread of Enlightenment thought and liberating events across Europe, people began motivated to learn more and question lots of previously believed concepts. Some of these curious individuals questioned our very existence and how nature works. This eventually led to the spread of Scientific contributions across Europe. One of the first pioneers of the scientific revolution was Nicolaus Copernicus, who found out planets move around the sun rather than the Earth. His discovery reflected Europe slowly catching up with their more advanced competitors across the world, like Arab scientists. In this period several foundational and incredible contributions to astronomy, math, physics, biology, chemistry and most natural sciences, and Europe became a leading center for science. Johannes Kepler contributed to astronomy and math, Galileo Galilei contributed to laws of gravity and planets, William Harvey studied blood circulation in animals, Francis Bacon created the scientific method to set an example for others. Then came Rene Descartes who urged more rational thought in addressing nature, and Newton who created the Principia Mathematica and the laws of physics and gravity. Led to Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, and many people during this time gained a lot of common sense.

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The Incas were an empire that was created from the Andean cult that came before them. They gained control of the North Coast of Peru after conquering the Chimors. The capital of the Incas was Cusco. Like the Aztecs, they believed in deities, but the sun god was the most praised. As well, animism was a very popular belief within their society. Animism was the belief that inanimate objects and all other creatures possessed a spirit. They did not have their own alphabet, but they wrote in khipu. The government of the Incas was split into 4 provinces and was considered to be godlike. The government provided roads, irrigation systems, and hard-to-get food to the rest of society. The Incas declined due to many wars and diseases.

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With the emergence of exploration in Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula was united by Rulers Ferdinand and Isabelle. These nations began the pioneers of exploration to the New World and sent many conquests to expand here. The success of their expeditions was due to the heroic "conquistadors" or male explorers/adventurers who led the conquests of the New World. The explorations to this area heavily affected native populations, as several of them were killed off for resisting European control, and others fell victim to the spread of disease. The phenomenon of exchange between Europe to the New World and vice versa was known as the Columbian Exchange, where new foods, diseases, technologies, and people were spread from place to place. Colonial silver mining in the form of haciendas grew popular, and new societies in Latin America emerged. The Europeans in Latin America created a social structure in which they were at the top and the other inhabitants further below. The gold and silver from the New World boosted the World Economy as well. The changes established in the New World began to change in the 1800s though, where political relations and trade were shifted based on the control of the New World, and Portugal dominated Brazil, Spain Dominated Latin America, and the USA and Canada was split between England, France and the Netherlands.