# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Science of Emotion Regulation: How Our Brains Process Emotions

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The brain has the amazing ability to change and improve itself. Peak brain development occurs in the early years (0-3), and again between the ages of twelve and twenty-four. We now know that humans also have the ability to continue to improve brain function throughout life. The part of the brain that is key to reasoning, problem solving, comprehension, impulse-control, creativity and perseverance is the prefrontal cortex. These functions (called Executive Functions) are needed when we have to focus and think, mentally play with ideas, use our short-term working memory, and think before reacting in any situation.

Evidence shows that a well-developed prefrontal cortex with strong Executive Functions can improve both academic and life outcomes. But very little sweat need be shed while "exercising" our prefrontal cortex. What it takes is intentional use and practice of the Executive Functions. The fun part is that the workout is most effective when you feel socially supported, happy, relaxed and are physically fit.

The following are 10 "exercise" choices for a prefrontal cortex workout:

1. Put on your rose coloured glasses. Create a positive future story; optimism is associated with rising levels of dopamine which engages the brain.

2. Follow a sleep routine. At the end of the day, choose a pleasant activity that brings your day to a peaceful end. Getting adequate sleep is connected with memory function.

1. Deny the drama and avoid getting caught up in gossip, what-if's and theatrical reactions (other people's too). Drama fires up the amygdala that gets the prefrontal cortex off its game.

2. Move your body with sports, dance, martial arts, yoga or other active pursuits.

Find ways to express your gratitude. Gratitude activities increase positive emotions which then activates the prefrontal cortex.

Offer and receive physical contact. Give and take hugs to literally soothe the brain with calming inhibitory peptides.

1. Create silly sentences, acronyms and cartoons to help remember things. These skills call on the prefrontal cortex and Executive Functions to access working memory. By integrating jokes, riddles and puns you can also learn to think flexibly by shifting between different meanings and associations of words.

2. Play! Make-believe play, in particular strengthens Executive Functions.

Be of service and volunteer. The social and mental activity required sends blood rushing to the prefrontal cortex.

Learn to juggle. Learning any new and engaging activity fires off neurons in a positive way. Other activities that require focus and practice such as dancing, circus arts, music, and theatre are predicted to significantly strengthen Executive Function.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The brain has the amazing ability to change and improve itself. Peak brain development[1] occurs in the early years (0-3), and again between the ages of twelve and twenty-four. We now know that humans also have the ability to continue to improve brain function throughout life.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Prefrontal Cortex Exercises that Improve Memory and Attention

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The frontal lobe (prefrontal cortex) and the hippocampus play vital roles in learning, memory and complex mental activities. Check out these exercises now!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
You probably know yoga is good for you, but you may not know how good. In a recently published study, researchers reviewed 11 different studies that compared subjects who practiced yoga with those who didn't, to see what effect doing yoga might have on people's brains. The results suggest that several brain areas benefit from yoga, including the areas that control decision-making and planning, those that control emotions, and those that control memory.

A team of researchers led by professor Neha Gothe of the University of Illinois and professor Jessica Damoiseaux from Wayne State university studied the studies. All the studies used brain scanning techniques such as MRIs or fMRIs to examine participants' brains. Six of the studies compared people who regularly practiced Hatha yoga (the most commonly practiced form in the United States) with people who didn't. But in the other five studies, all the participants started out as non-yogis, and then some began practicing once or twice a week for 10 to 24 weeks. Even that amount of yoga was enough to make some measurable differences to participants' brain function.

What were those differences? To begin with, a measurably larger hippocampus. That's very important because the hippocampus helps in memory processing and it gets smaller as you get older. " "It is also the structure that is first affected in dementia and Alzheimer's disease," Gothe notes.

Researchers also found that the prefrontal cortex and brain networks appeared larger in those who practiced yoga. The prefrontal cortex "is essential to planning, decision-making, multitasking, thinking about your options and picking the right option," according to Damoiseaux - in other words, yoga makes you a better decision-maker. If, like me, you often find yourself thinking through your most pressing problems while practicing yoga, this may not come as any surprise.

The amygdala and cingulate cortex are also larger in yoga practitioners, and both these brain areas contribute to emotional regulation and learning, as well as memory. In a previous study, Gothe found that practicing yoga reduced the release of cortisol, commonly called the "stress hormone," even after only eight weeks of regular practice. It all adds up to this: Yoga helps you manage your emotions much better.

Why is that? For one thing, yoga forces you to focus on deep and steady breathing, and often on making your exhalations longer than your inhalations. That simple technique communicates calm to your body, by automatically slowing your heart rate.

Quieting the fluctuations of the mind.

More to the point, calming your emotions is exactly what yoga was originally designed to do. We know this because we still have one of the ancient texts that explained yoga more than 2,000 years ago. That text, called the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (Patanjali was the person who wrote them down) is basically a bible of yoga. Each of the sutras is a short aphorism about the practice of yoga, and the second one, in Sanskrit, says "Yogas citta vrtti nirodha," which translates as, "Yoga is the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind." It makes sense that it helps us calm our negative feelings and become more emotionally resilient and intelligent because that's what it's supposed to do.

The fact that yoga helps you manage stress may help explain some of its other brain benefits - for instance, stress is known to shrink the hippocampus, so anything that reduces stress likely reduces that shrinkage as well.

Yoga is not the only health practice with brain benefits. Aerobic exercise, such as running has also been shown to benefit many of these same areas, which researchers found intriguing since yoga is not an aerobic form of exercise.

More study is needed to figure out exactly how these effects work, Gothe notes. In the meantime, I'm going to make sure to get to a yoga class this weekend. How about you?

The opinions expressed here by Inc.com columnists are their own, not those of Inc.com.
The super early-rate deadline for the 2025 Inc. Power Partner Awards is Friday, May 30, at 11:59 p.m. PT. Apply now.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Yoga Improves Your Memory, Decision Making, and Emotional Intelligence, a New Study Shows

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Even practicing once a week has measurable benefits for your brain.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Information Pickup Theory (J.J. Gibson) Information Processing Theory (G.A. Miller) Lateral Thinking (E. DeBono) Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart) Mathematical Learning Theory (R.C. Atkinson) Mathematical Problem Solving (A. Schoenfeld) Minimalism (J. M. Carroll) Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering (Andrew Gibbons) Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Patricia Furstenberg, Writer of Historical Fiction, Children's Books - Travel via Stories

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Six Principles That Move Mind, Brain, Education, MBE - Patricia Furstenberg, Writer of Historical Fiction, Children’s Books

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Six Principles That Move Mind, Brain, Education, MBE, ITSI SA. Education, the limits of the human brain. What are the limits of the human brain? How do we learn best? How can we aid and support our children in reaching their full potential as students? Throughout the centuries, great teachers have been guided by

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Regulation of Adult Neurogenesis in the Cerebral Cortex

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It is widely accepted that new neurons are generated throughout life, which is called adult neurogenesis, in limited regions of the adult mammalian brain, such as the hippocampal dentate gyrus and subventricular zone

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
TBI patients with prefrontal cortex damage can experience personality changes and other higher cognitive deficits. Patients with a damaged prefrontal cortex do not usually experience physical impairments, therefore may initially appear to not have any glaring symptoms from their TBI. This can make it more difficult to recognize the cognitive effects, which are often more subtle.

To help you maximize recovery chances, this article will explain the signs and symptoms of prefrontal cortex damage. We'll also discuss how to promote better cognitive function after a frontal lobe injury.

What is the Prefrontal Cortex?

The prefrontal cortex is located at the anterior part of the brain, directly behind the eyes and forehead. Researchers typically divide the prefrontal cortex into different sub-regions. These include the:

Dorsolateral cortex

Ventromedial cortex

Orbitofrontal cortex

These areas control many diverse functions such as abstract reasoning, decision-making, and goal-oriented behavior. They also play a role in personality expression and creativity.

These skills are known collectively as executive functions. Executive functions are higher cognitive processes that help us control our impulses and act with long-term consequences in mind. They allow us to interact with others in appropriate ways and adjust our behavior to fit the circumstances.

Some more specific examples of executive functions include anticipation, initiation, self-monitoring, and self-correction. Unfortunately, a frontal lobe injury can cause a decrease in most of these functions.

Effects of Prefrontal Cortex Damage

Patients with prefrontal cortex damage do not typically display the classic signs of a brain injury. For example, they can have normal movement and intelligence, and all their senses are usually intact. Therefore, at first glance, they can appear to have made a full recovery from their injury.

However, family members and those close to the patient might notice more concerning changes. A person with damage to the prefrontal cortex might have blunted emotional responses, for instance. They might even become more aggressive and irritable, and struggle to initiate activities. Finally, they might perform poorly on tasks that require long-term planning and impulse inhibition.

Other common effects of frontal cortex damage include:

Since these issues are all cognitive in nature, treatment can be a little more complex. However, with the right approach, it is still possible to improve a person's cognitive function.

Treating Prefrontal Cortex Damage

Treating damage to the prefrontal cortex is difficult and will require help from a cognitive-behavioral therapist. A therapist can teach patients how to deal with their injury in a healthy way. They can also show you specific techniques to manage executive dysfunction.

People with prefrontal cortex damage thrive in a highly structured and organized environment. But actions that require creativity or initiative are harder for them to perform. Therefore, most therapists will try to help the person relearn how to adapt to new situations and create their own structure.

The following are a few ways to accomplish this:

1. Create a routine

Patients with prefrontal cortex damage often struggle to plan or initiate activities on their own. This can unfortunately cause inactivity, which will eventually lead to cognitive and physical decline.

Therefore, to help overcome this inertia, it's important to create a structured routine. A routine helps patients know "what's next" without having to come up with something on their own. This minimizes the amount of mental energy they must spend.

If possible, family members should work with the person to create a routine. An occupational therapist can also help create a daily or weekly schedule that includes productive activities.

2. Minimize distractions

Prefrontal cortex damage can also cause problems with attention. Therefore, when trying to finish a task, the best approach is to minimize distractions as much as possible.

This might look different for each person. For example, if loud noises distract the person, they might need to work in their own quiet room. If that is not possible, noise-canceling headphones might be a good alternative.

3. Try Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can help patients deal with the emotional and behavioral effects of damage to the prefrontal cortex. Specifically, CBT helps patients learn how to address the negative beliefs that might affect behavior.

Once you discover these beliefs, the therapist will teach you helpful ways to replace negative thoughts with positive ones.

CBT therapists can also help persons relearn empathy and appropriate social interactions.

4. Practice Task-Sequencing

Another excellent exercise to improve cognitive function after prefrontal cortex damage is called task-sequencing.

To practice task-sequencing, have someone else write down the steps needed to complete a certain activity, such as going to the park. But make sure that these steps are not in the correct order. Your job is to rearrange the steps until they are in the correct order.

As you improve your skills, you can work on more complicated tasks, such as preparing a meal. Finally, you can try writing the steps down on your own.

This exercise can teach how to organize your thoughts and think through a problem clearly.

5. Medication

Finally, some medications used to manage the symptoms of ADHD can help reduce the adverse effects of prefrontal cortex damage. One commonly prescribed drug for TBI patients is Ritalin.

Ritalin, also known as methylphenidate, increases the level of dopamine in the brain. This helps increase motivation and concentration, two skills that many brain injury survivors struggle with.

While medication should not replace other treatments, it can act as a helpful supplement. In fact, many TBI patients have found that drugs such as Ritalin help them regain the motivation they need to continue with their other therapies.

Therefore, if the person's symptoms do not improve with therapy, ask their doctor if Ritalin or other drugs might be an option.

Understanding Prefrontal Cortex Damage

An injury to the prefrontal cortex can cause problems with complex cognitive skills such as planning and behavior. It can also change the way the person expresses their emotions.

While these issues are difficult to treat, with the right tactics it is still possible to recover many higher cognitive functions and live independently again after brain injury. Make sure to talk to a neuropsychologist for more ideas on how to overcome prefrontal cortex damage.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Prefrontal Cortex Damage: What to Expect & How to Recover

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
TBI patients with prefrontal cortex damage can experience personality changes and other higher cognitive deficits. Patients with a damaged prefrontal cortex do not usually experience physical impairments, therefore may initially appear to not have any glaring symptoms from their TBI. This can make it more difficult to recognize the cognitive effects, which are often more ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Abstract

Frontal lobe lesions are associated with behavioral abnormalities and executive dysfunction. When these lesions occur early in life, the symptoms are even more severe as the anatomical and functional substrates underlying personality and behavior are damaged, distorting normal modulation by interaction with the psychosocial environment. We present a case of a 40-year-old man who suffered a frontal lobe lesion at the age of nine years and developed impulsivity, disinhibition and inappropriate behaviors while showing some preservation of insight. Brain MRI revealed lesions to bilateral orbitofrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyri and genu of the corpus callosum, which were more extensive on the right side. The right prefrontal dorsolateral cortex was severely damaged, whereas the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex was spared. We will discuss the correlation of the damaged pre frontal regions with the symptoms presented by the patient.

Keywords: traumatic brain injury, neuropsychology, frontal lobe, social behavior

Abstract

Lesões no lobo frontal são associadas com sintomas de distúrbios do comportamento e disfunção executiva. Quando a lesão ocorre em fase precoce da vida, os sintomas são ainda mais intensos pois o substrato anatômico e funcional da formação da personalidade e comportamento está danificado, então, a sua modulação decorrente da interação com o meio psicossocial será distorcida. Apresentamos aqui o caso de um homem de 40 anos que sofreu uma lesão no lobo frontal aos nove anos de idade, com sintomas de impulsividade com manutenção parcial da autocrítica, desinibição e comportamento inapropriado. A ressonância de crânio evidenciava lesões bilaterais do córtex orbitofrontal da porção anterior do giro do cíngulo e do joelho do corpo caloso e do córtex ventromedial, mais extensa à direita. O córtex pré-frontal dorsolateral estava extensamente acometido à direita, enquanto o córtex pré-frontal ventrolateral parecia poupado. Discutiremos a correlação das áreas pré frontais lesadas com a sintomatologia do paciente.

INTRODUCTION

The relationship between frontal lobe lesions and personality changes has been highlighted since the paradigmatic description of Phineas Gage's case (apud Macmillan).1 Another source of evidence includes prefrontal lesions that occur during childhood, a period in which the personality is being formed. In comparison to such lesions occurring during adulthood, personality changes caused by these prefrontal lesions in children tend to be more severe, with consequences that become apparent during development.2.

CASE REPORT

The history was reported by the patient and her mother. The patient was a 40-year-old civil servant first seen in 1994. At that time, he reported having punched his adolescent son in front of his friends for little reason. After the event, he had suicidal thoughts. He also mentioned having attacked his friends for trivial reasons and that he refrained from asking for forgiveness because if reprehended, he might be incapable of holding himself back and could attack again.

His behavioral changes started after a serious accident at the age of nine. Close to his house there was a saw-mill, where workers used an iron bar to stop the pulley rotation after the machines were turned off. One day, he stuck the iron bar between the pulley arches to lock it while the machines were still on. The iron bar then span back striking him in the head. The trauma caused skull fracture and exposure of cerebral tissue. He did not lose consciousness and was seen by a doctor, who cleaned the wound and applied bandages.

After the accident his behavior changed radically. Before the accident he was a well-mannered boy at home and school, and an excellent student. But after the accident he became easily distracted, disobedient towards adults and teachers, and quarrelsome. As he grew older, his behavior deteriorated: he strived to be the center of attention, was loud and made inappropriate comments.

At the age of 18, he underwent neurosurgery to remove scar tissue, which worsened the severity of the symptoms but led to no additional symptoms. Even after getting married, he went out with other women and prostitutes, telling them he was a widower, and gave these women his home phone number.

Despite the behavioral changes, his cognitive performance seemed to be preserved. He was able to memorize long excerpts from the bible, was knowledgeable about his hometown's politics, and was occasionally hired to survey rural properties.

Despite his qualifications, he only managed to hold down menial jobs. He was employed at a public office only due to tolerance from his bosses and to his family's intervention.

During the interview and examination, he behaved well, but in the waiting room he talked loudly, tried to strike up conversation with other patients and exhibited puerile jocosity. His physical and neurological examination revealed no abnormalities, except for testing positive for Myerson's sign. He scored 30 on the mini-mental state examination.

The electroencephalogram showed no abnormal activity. His brain MRI scan revealed bilateral orbitofrontal (OFC) and ventromedial prefrontal lesions that were more extensive to the right side ( Figures 1, 2 and 3). The anterior cingulate cortex was also damaged bilaterally, as well as the genu of the corpus callosum. The right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) was extensively damaged, while the ventrolateral PFC seemed to be spared. These two regions were spared on the left side.

Figure 1.

Axial brain MRI images. Axial T1-weighted images [A-C] demonstrate bilateral hypointense lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex that are more extensive to the right side, where lesion also encompasses the adjacent orbitofrontal cortex [arrows in A]. There is also bilateral involvement of the anterior cingulate cortex and the genu of the corpus callosum [B]. The left lateral portion of the prefrontal cortex is spared; but to the right there is extension of the hypointensity especially to the dorsolateral cortex [these aspects are more evident in B and C].

Figure 2.

Sagittal brain MRI images. Sagittal T1-weighted images [A and B] show hypointense lesions in the genu of the corpus callosum [arrow in A] and anterior cingulate cortex [arrowhead in A]. The damage to the right medial prefrontal cortex [A] and the adjacent dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [arrow in B] is more clearly visible, while the ventrolateral cortex is partially preserved near the sylvian fissure.

Figure 3.

Representation of lesions on 3D brain model. [A] Right lateral view; [B] Inferior view; [C] Medial view (Right hemisphere); [D] Medial view (Left hemisphere). 3D template from MRIcron (Rorden, C., Brett, M. Stereotaxic display of brain lesions. Behavioural Neurology 2000;12:191-200.)

The patient was treated with carbamazepine and pericyazine and advised to seek psychiatric treatment in his hometown. He showed some improvement but complained of excessive sleepiness.

He underwent neuropsychological assessment in 2000. During the evaluation, he was mildly agitated, verbose, and often had to be redirected to focus on the testing. His verbal IQ was 116, performance IQ 100, with a total IQ of 109 (WAIS). He had a normal performance on the following tests: go-no go tests, Hooper visual test and Raven progressive matrices, block design and Rey Complex Figure copy, attention tests, Wisconsin card sorting Test, arithmetic and similarity tests (WAIS), phonemic and semantic verbal fluency tests, Boston naming test and Rey auditory verbal learning test. His performance for delayed recall of the logical memory was at the 85 th percentile. He showed mild impairment in trail-making-B, digit-symbol, picture arrangement, object assembly (WAIS), and the visual reproduction test (WMS-R).3,4 Overall, the neuropsychological assessment showed mild impairment in attention/executive functions and visual episodic memory.

DISCUSSION

This patient developed behavioral and personality changes, with great impulsivity, social disinhibition and poor job performance as a result of a frontal brain trauma during his childhood. Despite these symptoms, he had good cognitive performance, especially in activities of daily living that involved verbal memory.

In 1948, Ackerly and Benton (cited by Eslinger et al.)5 were the first to report a patient with a very early prefrontal lesion and characterized the neurodevelopmental abnormalities as a "primary social defect". Changes in social conduct with relative preservation of cognitive abilities have been described in patients with early frontal lesions. There is evidence that prefrontal lesions sustained during the perinatal and infancy periods have devastating consequences on the development of social behavior, personality and moral conduct.2,5 Such early deficits can become apparent only later in life, as it is believed that a certain degree of brain maturation and higher social demand are required for full expression of symptoms.6

In the majority of reported cases, the frontal lobe lesion occurred in children aged four years or younger.7-9 In these reports, lesions in the dorsolateral prefrontal region were associated with executive dysfunction and were less incapacitating than lesions in orbitofrontal, prefrontal ventromedial and polar frontal regions, which interfered in the correct development of social cognition with resultant impairments in inhibitory control, decision-making, moral judgment and empathy (theory of mind).7

Eslinger et al.8,10 reported two patients who suffered lesions later in childhood (at age 7) and highlighted that behavioral and personality changes were less severe than those observed in lesions occurring earlier in life.

The OFC receives afferent connections from the amygdala, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal cortex and hippocampus and therefore receives sensory, emotional and memory-related information. Bilateral orbitofrontal damage leads to perseverative responses to previously rewarding stimuli, and deficits in decision-making.11-13 This can explain the present patient's impulsivity and inappropriate behavior, as he would have difficulty adapting his behavior to external stimuli. His impairment in inhibitory control shown by neuropsychological testing could also be similarly explained. The OFC, together with the anterior cingulate cortex, prefrontal ventromedial and dorsolateral regions, among others, is involved with empathy.11-13

The PFC ventromedial region is connected to many sensory modalities, the temporal lobe, insular cortex, as well as to the premotor cortex and basal ganglia, hence influencing the behavioral response. This region, together with the OFC, has also been associated with decision-making and emotion regulation.14-16

The PFC dorsolateral cortex has extensive connections with the temporal, parietal and unimodal visual cortices, amygdala and cingulate gyrus. This region is also implicated in reversal learning and attentional set maintenance, and thus in decision-making.15 Clinically, individuals with prefrontal dorsolateral lesions present with executive dysfunction.17 Lesion in the prefrontal dorsolateral cortex can therefore explain the deficit in attention and mild executive dysfunction evidenced by our patient's neuropsychological assessment.

The interesting aspect of this patient's symptoms is that many functions associated with the PFC and its connections were preserved despite the extensive lesion disclosed on the brain MRI. The fact that the patient felt guilty for his actions and had partial insight of his behavior is particularly striking. The feeling of guilt, together with pity and embarrassment, are considered prosocial sentiments that enable us to care about others and be aware of our mistakes.18 Prosocial sentiments are essential for moral conscience. In a functional neuroimaging study, Moll et al.19 suggested a critical role of the frontopolar cortex and septal region in enabling prosocial sentiments.

There are at least two distinctive facets of moral processing to consider: [1] an implicit and automatic level mediated through orbital and inferior mesial prefrontal regions, which is more emotionally based; and [2] a slower acting, cognitive level that contributes to moral reasoning and becomes alerted secondarily and is mediated through frontal polar and dorsolateral regions.10,20-22

In our patient, his inability to control impulses despite feeling guilt suggests that the first level of moral processing was much more disturbed than moral reasoning.

His clinical presentation has features also observed in emotionally unstable (borderline) personality disorder, which is usually associated with psychological trauma, severe neglect during childhood or severe parental inadequacy.23 Patients with borderline personality disorder may exhibit neuropsychological deficits.24

It is possible that the extent of the lesion, with less severe involvement of the left hemisphere, in which the left dorsolateral and ventrolateral PFC were not impaired, may be responsible for this relative preservation of moral processing. The right ventrolateral PFC was at least partially undamaged, another feature that may have contributed to the preservation of moral processing in this case. The age at which the lesion occurred could also have influenced his clinical presentation. At the age of nine years, many aspects of executive functioning, social cognition and self-regulation had already been developed, and most of the social rules had already been learned.10

Footnotes

REFERENCES

3. Lezak M. Neuropsychological Assessment. Third Edition. Oxford: New York: Oxford University Press; 1995. [Google Scholar]

4. Spreen O, Strauss E. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary. Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]

19. Moll J, Zahn R, De Oliveira-Souza R, et al. Impairment of prosocial sentiments is associated with frontopolar and septal damage in frontotemporal dementia. NeuroImage. 2011;54:1735-1742. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.08.026. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

21. Moll J, De Oliveira-Souza R, Eslinger PJ, et al. The Neural Correlates of Moral Sensitivity: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Investigation of Basic and Moral Emotions. J Neurosci. 2002;22:2730-2736. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-07-02730.2002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. World Health Organization ICD-10 Classifications of Mental and Behavioural Disorder: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Geneva: 1992. [Google Scholar]

Articles from Dementia & Neuropsychologia are provided here courtesy of Academia Brasileira de Neurologia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Prefrontal damage in childhood and changes in the development of personality: a case report

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Frontal lobe lesions are associated with behavioral abnormalities and executive dysfunction. When these lesions occur early in life, the symptoms are even more severe as the anatomical and functional substrates underlying personality and behavior ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
As one of our most important organs, the brain oversees vital functions, ranging from our thoughts and emotions to our movements and how we respond to stimuli, among many other tasks.

Not surprisingly, when a person suffers an injury to the brain, how their physiology responds to it depends on the part of the brain affected. Since the brain comprises of billions of neurons that take part in different functions of high-level regions and subregions, what happens if the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is damaged? What is the PFC anyway?

What Does the Prefrontal Cortex Do?

Executive functions are top-level control processes or vital activities that regulate cognitive and social behavior, personality and decision-making - the latter being one of the most important executive functions.

The Prefrontal Cortex Subregions

The DLPFC is the uppermost area of the PFC that oversees cognitive processes such as planning, problem-solving and attention to the task at hand (working memory). Still, as it establishes strong interconnection with the motor and sensory cortices, DLPFC also controls our thoughts and actions. For instance, during working memory activation, this part of the brain connects with the hippocampus to process long-term memories.

The OFC is the brain area responsible for decision-making, emotional regulation and social attachments. It is closely related to the limbic system (in charge of processing emotions). Not surprisingly, the decisions processed in the OFC are rooted in emotional data.

The vmPFC is the most sophisticated subregion regarding responsibilities. It connects with several brain areas, including the amygdala, thalamus, olfactory system, temporal lobe and ventral segmental area. Like the orbitofrontal cortex, the vmPFC plays an essential role in decision-making derived from emotions.

Both regions work collaboratively to help us regulate our emotional responses, including negative ones. But on the other hand, while making decisions, the vmPFC also considers the bigger picture, which makes its role vital in social situations. Take, for example, our ability to make sound judgments, learn from mistakes, and show courage or guilt.

What Can Happen If the Prefrontal Cortex Is Damaged?

Patients with damaged PFC tend to show irritability, short-term memory loss, lack of empathy, difficulty planning, impulsiveness and inflexibility. Overall, when the PFC is damaged, the individual presents issues with complex cognitive skills, including planning, behavior and emotional expressions.

Risks of Prefrontal Cortex Damage

According to a study in the Neuropsychopharmacology , "disruption, or even a slight slowing of the rate of neuronal production, migration and synaptogenesis by genetic or environmental factors, can induce gross as well as subtle changes that eventually can lead to cognitive impairment."

How to Strengthen the Prefrontal Cortex

Individuals with PFC damage have a hard time functioning in unstructured environments. There are some exercises or a series of simple activities that you can do to strengthen your cognitive functions and, consequently, the prefrontal cortex. Some of these activities include:

Pick an everyday task and write down the steps needed to complete it on separate pieces of paper. Then, shuffle these notes and try to organize the task in the correct order. This activity is excellent for working on planning skills and enhancing cognitive function.

By creating a regimen, it's easier to take the initiative to do tasks or things you need to do daily. In addition, for individuals whose PFC is damaged, the routine prevents them from spending a lot of mental energy on day-to-day activities.

Working out is another way to strengthen the prefrontal cortex. A study published in the Behavioral Sciences journal suggests that exercise intensity influences PFC oxygenation , which contributes to improvement in cognitive performance. What's more, if you enjoy working out frequently, your brain has a slight advantage, as exercise helps boost memory .

If you like to put your culinary skills to the test, this may be one of the best exercises to strengthen the prefrontal cortex. That is because you enlist the five senses, which use several brain regions during cooking. Also, cooking demands planning and concentration while enlisting the working memory to execute the task at hand.

It should be noted that treating this area is no easy feat. Most of the time, patients need the help of a behavioral specialist.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Happens if the Prefrontal Cortex Is Damaged?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As one of our most important organs, the brain oversees vital functions, ranging from our thoughts and emotions to our movements and how we respond to stimuli, among many other tasks. Not surprisingly, when a person suffers an injury to the brain, how their physiology responds to it depends on the part of the brain affected.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Keeping muscles fit and powerful requires hard work. The same concept holds true for your brain, an amazing organ with the ability to change, adapt and get stronger through mental exercise.

"Neuroplasticity" is the fancy medical term used to describe your brain's ability to learn and adapt. Think of it as an internal rewiring process that allows your mind to grow and meet new and increased demands.

So, how can you build your brain to flex more mental muscle? Let's get some cognitive workout tips from psychologist Grace Tworek, PsyD.

What is neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity refers to your brain's ability to absorb information and evolve to manage new challenges. It's a natural gift that allows you to develop as a person and take on the ever-changing tasks of daily life.

"Neuroplasticity speaks to the flexibility and adaptability of our brain throughout our life," explains Dr. Tworek. "It's how we grow as people."

So, when you memorize the alphabet as a kiddo, that's an example of neuroplasticity in action at a young age. Ditto for when you learn how to drive and navigate the streets in your neighborhood.

Even something as simple as remembering the name of a new coworker involves brainwork that falls under the umbrella of neuroplasticity.

Now here's where things get really nifty: Neuroplasticity actually brings physical changes inside your cranium. In essence, your brain undergoes a sort of rewiring while learning from your experiences.

"Morphological alterations and structural changes occur within our brains," says Dr. Tworek. "New synaptic connections form between the billions of neurons in your brain as you take in information. It's a constant process."

Benefits of neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity explains how we learn by absorbing and analyzing information as we go through life. "It allows us to adapt to new environments and new situations," says Dr. Tworek.

But neuroplasticity isn't just about learning new stuff. Your brain's ability to constantly update and reprogram can also power relearning - a critical need after a stroke or traumatic head injury.

Remember those physical changes behind neuroplasticity? That building process in your head makes it possible for your brain to bypass damaged areas. Those synaptic connections essentially create new pathways to work around injuries.

In many ways, physical therapy and rehabilitation activities after a stroke or head injury look to use the regenerative force of neuroplasticity.

"Your brain begins to adapt and find a way," notes Dr. Tworek. "How cool is that?"

Types of neuroplasticity

The functions of learning and relearning serve as the foundation for two different types of neuroplasticity:

Structural plasticity. Experiences that create pathways to solidify learned information.

Functional plasticity. The construction of pathways around damaged brain areas to work around an injury or weakness.

10 principles of neuroplasticity

A paper published in 2008 laid out 10 principles of neuroplasticity when it comes to optimizing brain function, particularly after sustaining an injury or damage. (Credit for the oft-cited list goes to researchers Jeffrey A. Kleim and Theresa A. Jones.)

The principles are as follows:

1. Use it or lose it. Learning something once doesn't mean you'll know it forever. If you don't use a skill, odds are it will deteriorate and weaken over time.

2. Use it and improve it. To use an old phrase, "practice makes perfect."

3. Specificity. Be tactical in your approach. Focus on the exact skill you want to learn.

4. Repetition. Doing a task repeatedly can eventually make it feel second nature. "Repetition is extra practice for your brain," says Dr. Tworek.

5. Intensity matters. Go all-in. A half-hearted effort often brings halfway results.

6. Timing matters. If you have a brain injury, don't delay on trying to rebuild pathways. Early action typically brings better results.

7. Salience matters. You'll do better at something if it's truly meaningful to you. Commit yourself to the effort.

8. Age matters. Anybody at any age can benefit from neuroplasticity, but the process goes a bit easier when you're younger. "If you're older, it may take a bit more time and patience," says Dr. Tworek.

9. Transference. Everyone likes a 2-for-1 deal, right? Well practicing one skill can bring side benefits when you do related tasks. (Example: Researchers found that retraining people on using a spoon after a stroke improved other motor skills.)

10. Interference. Something you learn may interfere with the next thing you have to learn. This is especially true if you take shortcuts and must undo bad habits.

Ways to improve neuroplasticity

Want to make your brain stronger? Then challenge it regularly with new activities and experiences - an endeavor that isn't nearly as difficult as it might sound.

"You don't need to travel across the world to find new experiences," clarifies Dr. Tworek. "Instead, look to build the concept of 'new experiences' into your day-to-day life with some simple acts."

The idea is to break from your routine, even if it's just slightly. You can do that by:

Taking a new route to work or the grocery store. Better yet, turn off your GPS for a bit and use your head to find your way.

Listening to a new song instead of spinning out the same old playlist.

Finding a new recipe to make for dinner.

Adding something different to your exercise routine. If you're a runner, for instance, try some cycling or weightlifting.

Using your "other" hand for tasks. So, if you're right-handed, brush your teeth using your left hand.

Getting enough quality ZZZs. "Sleep is when the information from the day is being consolidated in your brain," says Dr. Tworek. "It helps your brain more than you can imagine."

If you're feeling really energized, do something completely new and out of the norm to escape your comfort zone. That could involve:

Signing up for a class.

Learning a new language.

Taking up juggling.

Starting to play a musical instrument.

Traveling.

Have fun with the brain-building process of neuroplasticity, too, and don't worry about how successful you are at your new venture. "It's the experience that counts," encourages Dr. Tworek. "Your brain will benefit from that no matter how great you are at this new thing you try."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Neuroplasticity refers to your brain's ability to change and get stronger through new experiences. You can improve your brain's functioning by giving it new challenges.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to change and adapt due to experience. It is an umbrella term referring to the brain's ability to change, reorganize, or grow neural networks. This can involve functional changes due to brain damage or structural changes due to learning.

Plasticity refers to the brain's malleability or ability to change; it does not imply that the brain is plastic. Neuro refers to neurons, the nerve cells that are the building blocks of the brain and nervous system. Thus, neuroplasticity allows nerve cells to change or adjust.

Types of Neuroplasticity

The human brain is composed of approximately 100 billion neurons. Early researchers believed that neurogenesis, or the creation of new neurons, stopped shortly after birth.

Today, it's understood that the brain's neuroplasticity allows it to reorganize pathways, create new connections, and, in some cases, even create new neurons.

There are two main types of neuroplasticity:

Functional plasticity is the brain's ability to move functions from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas.

Structural plasticity is the brain's ability to actually change its physical structure as a result of learning.

How Neuroplasticity Works

The first few years of a child's life are a time of rapid brain growth. At birth, every neuron in the cerebral cortex has an estimated 2,500 synapses, or small gaps between neurons where nerve impulses are relayed. By the age of three, this number has grown to a whopping 15,000 synapses per neuron.

The average adult, however, only has about half that number of synapses. Why? Because as we gain new experiences, some connections are strengthened while others are eliminated. This process is known as synaptic pruning.

Neurons that are used frequently develop stronger connections. Those that are rarely or never used eventually die. By developing new connections and pruning away weak ones, the brain can adapt to the changing environment.

Benefits of Neuroplasticity

There are many benefits of brain neuroplasticity. Allowing your brain to adapt and change helps promote:

The ability to learn new things

The ability to enhance existing cognitive capabilities

Recovery from strokes and traumatic brain injuries

Strengthening areas where function is lost or has declined

Improvements that can boost brain fitness

Characteristics of Neuroplasticity

There are a few defining characteristics of neuroplasticity.

Age and Environment Play a Role

While plasticity occurs throughout the lifetime, certain types of changes are more predominant at specific ages. The brain tends to change a great deal during the early years of life, for example, as the immature brain grows and organizes itself.

Generally, young brains tend to be more sensitive and responsive to experiences than much older brains. But this does not mean that adult brains are not capable of adaptation.

Genetics can have an influence as well. The interaction between the environment and genetics also plays a role in shaping the brain's plasticity.

Neuroplasticity Is an Ongoing Process

Plasticity is ongoing throughout life and involves brain cells other than neurons, including glial and vascular cells. It can occur as a result of learning, experience, and memory formation, or as a result of damage to the brain.

In instances of damage to the brain, such as during a stroke, the areas of the brain associated with certain functions may be injured. Eventually, healthy parts of the brain may take over those functions and the abilities can be restored.

Brain Plasticity Has Limitations

It is important to note, however, that the brain is not infinitely malleable. Certain areas of the brain are largely responsible for certain actions. For example, there are areas of the brain that play critical roles in movement, language, speech, and cognition.

Damage to key areas of the brain can result in deficits in those areas because, while some recovery may be possible, other areas of the brain simply cannot fully take over those functions that were affected by the damage.

How to Improve Neuroplasticity

There are steps you can take to help encourage your brain to adapt and change, at any age.

Enrich Your Environment

Learning environments that offer plenty of opportunities for focused attention, novelty, and challenge have been shown to stimulate positive changes in the brain. This is particularly important during childhood and adolescence, but enriching your environment can continue to provide brain rewards well into adulthood.

Stimulating your brain might mean:

Learning a new language

Learning how to play an instrument

Traveling and exploring new places

Creating art and other creative pursuits

Get Plenty of Rest

Research has shown that sleep plays an important role in dendritic growth in the brain. Dendrites are the growths at the end of neurons that help transmit information from one neuron to the next. By strengthening these connections, you may be able to encourage greater brain plasticity.

Sleep has been shown to have important effects on both physical and mental health. Some researchers suggest that this is partly due to genetics and partly due to the makeup of the grey matter in the brain.

You can improve your sleep by practicing good sleep hygiene. This includes developing a consistent sleep schedule and creating an environment that contributes to good sleep.

Exercise Regularly

Regular physical activity has a number of brain benefits. Some research indicates that exercise might help prevent neuron loss in key areas of the hippocampus, a part of the brain involved in memory and other functions. Other studies suggest that exercise plays a role in new neuron formation in this same region.

A 2021 study adds that physical exercise also appears to boost brain plasticity through its impact on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, a protein that impacts nerve growth), functional connectivity, and the basal ganglia-the part of the brain responsible for motor control and learning.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services recommends getting at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity cardio exercises (such as walking, dancing, swimming, or cycling) per week and a minimum of two days of strength training exercises (lifting weights or doing bodyweight exercises).

Practice Mindfulness

Mindfulness entails completely immersing your mind in the present moment, without ruminating over the past or contemplating the future. Awareness of the sights, sounds, and sensations around you is key. Many studies have shown that cultivating and practicing mindfulness can foster the brain's neuroplasticity.

Games aren't just for kids: Studies show that playing board, card, video, and other games can improve your brain's neuroplasticity.

Problems With Brain Plasticity

Brain changes are often seen as improvements, but this is not always the case. In some instances, the brain's structure and function can be negatively influenced or changed.

For example, brain plasticity can be problematic when it allows detrimental changes caused by substance use, disease, or trauma (including brain injury or traumatic experiences that result in post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD). Even lead poisoning can negatively impact brain plasticity.

There are also some medical conditions that can limit or hinder brain plasticity. Among them are a variety of pediatric neurological disorders such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy, tuberous sclerosis, and Fragile X syndrome.

How Neuroplasticity Was Discovered

Beliefs and theories about how the brain works have evolved substantially through the years. Early researchers believed that the brain was "fixed," while modern advances have shown that the brain is more flexible.

Early Theories

Up until the 1960s, researchers believed that changes in the brain could only take place during infancy and childhood. By early adulthood, it was believed that the brain's physical structure was mostly permanent.

In his 2007 book, "The Brain that Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph From the Frontiers of Brain Science," which took a historical look at early theories, psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Norman Doidge suggested that this belief that the brain was incapable of change primarily stemmed from three major sources:

An ancient belief that the brain was much like an extraordinary machine, capable of astonishing things yet incapable of growth and change

The inability to actually observe the microscopic activities of the brain

The observation that people who had suffered serious brain damage were often unable to recover

Early on, psychologist William James suggested that the brain was perhaps not as unchanging as previously believed. Way back in 1890, in his book "The Principles of Psychology," he wrote, "Organic matter, especially nervous tissue, seems endowed with a very extraordinary degree of plasticity." However, this idea went largely ignored for many years.

Modern Theories

In the 1920s, researcher Karl Lashley found evidence of changes in neural pathways of rhesus monkeys. By the 1960s, researchers began to explore cases in which older adults who had suffered massive strokes were able to regain functioning, demonstrating that the brain was more malleable than previously believed. Modern researchers have also found evidence that the brain is able to rewire itself following damage.

Thanks to advances in technology, researchers are able to get a never-before-possible look at the brain's inner workings. As the study of modern neuroscience flourishes, research has demonstrated that people are not limited to the mental abilities they are born with and that damaged brains are often quite capable of remarkable change.

A Word From Verywell

The brain has an amazing ability to change throughout the course of our life, allowing us to learn new things or recover after sustaining a brain-based injury. Still, there are limits to how much the brain can adapt.

Constantly challenging ourselves, making sleep a priority, and getting regular exercise can also help improve brain plasticity. Avoiding certain substances is beneficial as well.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is neuroplasticity important?

Without neuroplasticity, it would be difficult to learn or otherwise improve brain function. Neuroplasticity also aids in recovery from brain-based injuries and illnesses.

What is an example of neuroplasticity?

Research has found that children with blindness have increased connectivity and reorganized neurocircuits when compared with children without this condition. This suggests that the brain adapts to the inability to see by changing its structure and function, providing children with blindness a greater ability to use the information received from the other senses (such as hearing and touch).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Brain Neurons Change Over Time From Life Experience

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity, is the brain's ability to change as a result of experience. Learn how it works and how the brain can change.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Neuroplasticity is the brain's capacity to continue growing and evolving in response to life experiences. Plasticity is the capacity to be shaped, molded, or altered; neuroplasticity, then, is the ability for the brain to adapt or change over time, by creating new neurons and building new networks.

Historically, scientists believed that the brain stopped growing after childhood. But current research shows that the brain is able to continue growing and changing throughout the lifespan, refining its architecture or shifting functions to different regions of the brain.

The importance of neuroplasticity can't be overstated: It means that it is possible to change dysfunctional patterns of thinking and behaving and to develop new mindsets, new memories, new skills, and new abilities.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Neuroplasticity is the brain's capacity to continue growing and evolving in response to life experiences. Plasticity is the capacity to be shaped, molded, or altered; neuroplasticity, then, is the ability for the brain to adapt or change over time, by creating new neurons and building new networks.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080450469011189

1 Anatomy

In evolution and in individual growth, the prefrontal cortex develops more slowly, yet further, than most other brain structures, in both size and weight ( Fig. 1). Phylogenetically and ontogenetically, it is one of the last regions of the cortex (neocortex) to develop (Brodmann 1909). The human prefrontal cortex does not reach full structural maturation of cells and connections until young adulthood. In the adult human, the prefrontal cortex constitutes almost one-third of the totality of the neocortex. For reasons that are not well understood, this region of the cortex, which is one of the latest to develop, is also one of the most vulnerable to involution and pathological aging (Raz 2000).

The primate prefrontal cortex (Petrides and Pandya 1994) is composed of three major parts or regions (Fig. 2): the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, that is, the cortex of the dorsal and lateral convexity of the anterior portion of the frontal lobe (Brodmann cytoarchitectonic area 46, and lateral parts of areas 8, 9, 10, and 11); the medial and cingulate prefrontal cortex, which is nearly flat and faces the medial surface of the contralateral frontal pole (areas 12, 24 and 32, and medial parts of 8, 9, 10, and 11); and the inferior orbital prefrontal cortex, slightly concave and located directly above the orbit (areas 13, 47, and inferior parts of 10, 11, and 13).

Of the three regions, the dorsolateral develops last and most. This region is bordered posteriorly by the premotor cortex (area 6); the medial and orbital prefrontal cortices (often considered together and designated orbitomedial prefrontal cortex) are anterior and adjacent to the corpus callosum and to limbic structures (piriform cortex and amygdala, cingulate cortex, septum, and hypothalamus). In terms of cellular architecture, the posterior orbitomedial cortex is transitional, with features of both the limbic cortex and neocortex.

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767034653

I.C.1.b Long Association Connections

Long association connections represent an integral part of the extended prefrontal system linking the prefrontal cortex with distant and widely dispersed parts of the association and limbic cortices. With regard to afferent connections of the frontal lobe, the lateral extrastriate and caudal inferotemporal regions project to the ventral part of the arcuate cortex (ventral area 8) and to area 46 below the principal sulcus. In contrast, the rostral inferotemporal region projects to orbital area 11 and area 12 of the inferior prefrontal convexity. The proisocortical area of the superior temporal gyrus (area Pro of the temporal pole) and the caudally adjacent portion of the gyrus (area Ts1) are connected preferentially with the orbital and medial prefrontal cortices. The caudal portion of the superior temporal gyrus (areas Tpt and paAlt) projects to area 8 of the caudal prefrontal cortex. The intermediate portion of the superior temporal gyrus is related to the lateral prefrontal cortices. The superior and medial parietal association regions project preferentially to the dorsal and medial prefrontal cortices, which also receive afferents from visual areas PG-Opt and POa of the inferior parietal lobule. The inferior parietal areas, including the dorsal Sylvian opercular cortex and the gustatory cortex, project mainly to the ventrolateral and orbital prefrontal cortices. The visual association areas of the ventral and dorsomedial occipitotemporal cortices, relating to the peripheral visual field, project mainly to the dorsal prefrontal region. In contrast, the areas of the inferotemporal region involved in central vision project preferentially to the ventral prefrontal region.

The combined entorhinal and perirhinal region, which comprises the rostral part of the parahippocampal gyrus, projects to the orbital and medial (area 25) prefrontal cortices. The caudal part of the parahippocampal gyrus sends efferent connections to the medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, and ventrolateral prefrontal regions. The rostral (agranular-dysgranular) insula projects to the ventrolateral and orbital prefrontal regions (areas 12 and 13). The caudal (granular) insula has efferent connections to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (area 8). The cingulate and retrosplenial cortices project to the dorsal prefrontal region.

Within the prefrontal region are specific multimodal areas that receive input from more than a single sensory modality. Area 45 of the ventral prefrontal cortex has afferents from the rostral visual area of the inferotemporal cortex, the ventral somatosensory area, and the auditory cortex of the superior temporal gyrus. In addition, area 45 receives input from multimodal area TPO of the superior temporal sulcus, the insula, and the parahippocampal gyrus. The caudal orbitofrontal cortex receives input from visual association cortices as well as from the olfactory and gustatory areas. Other multimodal frontal regions include dorsal area 8, which receives input from both visual and auditory modalities, and areas 9 and 10, which receive input from multimodal cortices of the superior temporal sulcus.

The efferent connections of the frontal lobe are largely reciprocal to the afferent connections. For example, the dorsal prefrontal cortex projects to cingulate areas 24 and 23 (including the rostral, M3, and caudal, M4, cingulate motor cortices), retrosplenial cortex, as well as the medial parietal and caudal inferior parietal regions. In addition, dorsal prefrontal cortex projects to the presupplementary motor area (P-SMA) and the face representation of the supplementary motor cortex, M2 (Fig. 4). The transitional region between areas 6 V and 12 also projects to the face-head representation of the primary motor cortex, M1. The ventral prefrontal region projects mainly to the inferotemporal cortices, the ventral somatosensory cortex, and the rostral superior temporal region. Finally, the orbitofrontal cortex projects to the entorhinal, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices.

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122272102002855

Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080453965002311

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Read full chapter URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080450469011189 In evolution and in individual growth, the prefrontal cortex develops more slowly, yet further, than most other brain structures, in both size and weight ( Fig. 1). Phylogenetically and ontogenetically, it is one of the last regions of the cortex (neocortex) to develop (Brodmann 1909).