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The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson and was signed in Philadelphia. It was adopted on July 4, 1776, and formally asserted the 13 colonies' independence from Britain. The declaration proclaimed natural rights and presented grievances against King George III, justifying rebellion. It was both a philosophical stepping stone for the Constitution that was to come and a bold declaration of self-rule. Independence rendered the coonies free from their own government and led the way to a national constitution.

Primary Source: http://www.americanyawp.com/reader/the-american-revolution/declaration-of-independence-1776/

Image Source: Continental Congress. “Declaration of Independence”. Broadside, July 04, 1776. From Teaching American History. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/declaration-of-independence/ (accessed May 14, 2025).

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The Articles of Confederation (March 1, 1781)

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The Articles of Confederation (March 1, 1781)

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The Articles of Confederation were created by the Second Continental Congress. They were ratified on March 1, 1781, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They were made with the intention to unify the 13 colonies during and after the American Revolution, but they also gave very little power to the federal government. The Articles established a loose confederation of states with a weak central government. It lacked the power to tax or regulate trade, and this led to unrest and future reforms.

Secondary Source: Rakove, Jack. “The Legacy of the Articles of Confederation.” Publius 12, no. 4 (1982): 45–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3329662.

Image source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2024696653/?embed=resources

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(August 1786- February 1787) Shay's Rebellion

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(August 1786- February 1787) Shay's Rebellion

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Shays' Rebellion began in the year 1786 in Western Massachusetts. It was led by Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran. It was an armed protest by farmers against state tax policies because farmers started losing land because of the debt they owed, and high taxes, which the weak federal government couldn't intervene in. This event highlighted the Articles' failure to maintain order, making leaders like Daniel Shays believe a stronger government was what they needed.

Primary Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:

Image Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/shays-rebellion-causes-effects-4158282

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(May 25, 1787) Constitutional Convention Begins

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(May 25, 1787) Constitutional Convention Begins

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George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton are among the delegates who met from May 25th to September 1787 in Philadelphia, then the capital of the U.S., initially with the goal of amending the Articles of Confederation. But if they wanted a stronger national government, they would have junked the entire Constitution and started all over again. Friendships and alliances cracked, and fiery debates over representation, federalism, and slavery led to a compromise that undergirded the U.S. government. The conflict over articles, then, was actually confronted by the Constitutional Convention that set the foundation for a more unified and powerful nation.

Primary Source: "Philadelphia, May 26." Independent Gazetteer (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) VI, no. 454, May 26, 1787: [2]. NewsBank: America's Historical Newspapers. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/document-view?p=EANX-K12&docref=image/v2%3A1092161B1163DFB0%40EANX-109221C87310E810%402373894-109221C8930E5F48%401-109221C90EB9CA68%40Philadelphia%252C%2BMay%2B26.

Image Source: https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/constitution/how-did-it-happen

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Ratification of the U.S. Constitution (September 17, 1787)

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Ratification of the U.S. Constitution (September 17, 1787)

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The Constitution, signed on September 17, 1787, was a means to form a government for the 13 independent colonies, but the very act of signing did not in itself create a government. It was created with the intention to replace the Articles and create a more effective government. Ratification was only achieved after promises to add a Bill of Rights. Nine states' approval put the Constitution into effect. This established the new U.S. framework of government and marked the transition from theory to functioning government.

Primary Source: "Legislative Acts/Legal Proceedings." Freeman's Journal; or, the North-American Intelligencer (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) VII, no. CCCXXXV, September 19, 1787: [3]. NewsBank: America's Historical Newspapers. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/document-view?p=EANX-K12&docref=image/v2%3A10DBEB326E324758%40EANX-10DEE1BEEEEF55C8%402374010-10DEE1BF4E4D2DB8%404-10DEE1BFD2CEF8D0.

Image Source: https://www.cnn.com/2013/10/31/us/u-s-constitution-fast-facts/index.html

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A series of essays were published between 1787 and 1788 in New York newspapers, which offered exegeses of and defenses for the new Constitution and urged its ratification by New York. Copies of these essays, known as the Federalist Papers, described how the Constitution would divide power and protect the rights of free men. In Federalist Number 10, for one, a great deal is made of the idea that a mass republic can serve as a check on dangerous functions. Their work contributed decisively to carrying the day for ratification and helped to shape political thought in America about governance and freedom.

Secondary Source: https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/americas-historical-newspapers/federalist-papers?p=EANX-K12&pnews=AWNB

Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers

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James Madison and Congress of the United States had the sense to ratify the first 10 Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, the Bill of Rights, on December 15, 1791, to keep liberty preserved and government’s power clipped. The amendments were adopted in response to anti-Federalist objections to the new Constitution and in conjunction with arguments against the new Constitution regarding individual liberties. The Bill of Rights was a pact with the fearful to ratify this Constitution, then, no, we will not let the government have one thing more than what we voluntarily gave it. We don’t have to test these by the power of what we gave; it was reserved for the states and the people.

Image Source: https://dvmsushist.wordpress.com/2015/06/15/bill-of-rights-hand-signals/

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On December 17, 1803, the Supreme Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, in Washington, D.C., ruled that the action set a precedent for judicial review. It was a landmark case representing the court's new power of judicial review under the Constitution. It showed the constitution's flexibility in interpretation, explored new territory in civilized law and constitutional history, influenced later decisions, and bolstered federal authority in relation to state laws.

Secondary Source: https://www.britannica.com/event/Marbury-v-Madison

Image Source: https://supremecourthistory.org/schs-marbury-madison-empowerment-of-the-judiciary/

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The U.S. Constitution is alive and well today, continuing to influence government and protect the rights of the people throughout the United States. Americans, courts, and legislators have always brought the principles of the Constitution to life when making laws, settling questions of justice, and determining the scope of civil liberties. The courts continue to rule on it and its application more than 200 years later, which shows the document’s flexibility and relevance. This transformation from the 1787 plan demonstrates that the Constitution is not an inflexible framework, that it speaks to the changes in the American way of life.

Primary Source: "Legislative Acts/Legal Proceedings." New-Jersey Journal (Elizabethtown, New Jersey), no. 206, September 26, 1787: [1]. NewsBank: America's Historical Newspapers. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/document-view?p=EANX-K12&docref=image/v2%3A107661F0956FDE88%40EANX-107666BCEA3A5168%402374017-107666BCF8B6FF48%400-107666BD77E645B0.

Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_court

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Primary Sources:

1. http://www.americanyawp.com/reader/the-american-revolution/declaration-of-independence-1776/

2. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:

3. "Philadelphia, May 26." Independent Gazetteer (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) VI, no. 454, May 26, 1787: [2]. NewsBank: America's Historical Newspapers. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/document-view?p=EANX-K12&docref=image/v2%3A1092161B1163DFB0%40EANX-109221C87310E810%402373894-109221C8930E5F48%401-109221C90EB9CA68%40Philadelphia%252C%2BMay%2B26.

4. "Legislative Acts/Legal Proceedings." Freeman's Journal; or, the North-American Intelligencer (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) VII, no. CCCXXXV, September 19, 1787: [3]. NewsBank: America's Historical Newspapers. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/document-view?p=EANX-K12&docref=image/v2%3A10DBEB326E324758%40EANX-10DEE1BEEEEF55C8%402374010-10DEE1BF4E4D2DB8%404-10DEE1BFD2CEF8D0.

5. "Legislative Acts/Legal Proceedings." New-Jersey Journal (Elizabethtown, New Jersey), no. 206, September 26, 1787: [1]. NewsBank: America's Historical Newspapers. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/document-view?p=EANX-K12&docref=image/v2%3A107661F0956FDE88%40EANX-107666BCEA3A5168%402374017-107666BCF8B6FF48%400-107666BD77E645B0.

Secondary Sources:

1. Rakove, Jack. “The Legacy of the Articles of Confederation.” Publius 12, no. 4 (1982): 45–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3329662.

2. https://www.britannica.com/event/Marbury-v-Madison

3. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/apps/news/americas-historical-newspapers/federalist-papers?p=EANX-K12&pnews=AWNB

Image Sources:

1. Continental Congress. “Declaration of Independence”. Broadside, July 04, 1776. From Teaching American History. https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/declaration-of-independence/ (accessed May 14, 2025).

2. https://www.loc.gov/item/2024696653/?embed=resources

3. https://supremecourthistory.org/schs-marbury-madison-empowerment-of-the-judiciary/

4. https://www.thoughtco.com/shays-rebellion-causes-effects-4158282

5. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/constitution/how-did-it-happen

6. https://www.cnn.com/2013/10/31/us/u-s-constitution-fast-facts/index.html

7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers

8. https://dvmsushist.wordpress.com/2015/06/15/bill-of-rights-hand-signals/

9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_court

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Nathan Dorn discusses the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, the first Constitution of the United States. A 1777 printing of these articles is part of the Law Library of Congress’ rare book collection.