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Destiny Rodriguez, Corrine Kimes, Vanessa Guardiola, & Kaylee Wade

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Early development is incredibly important for the success of the child's future. This can show up as a social, physical and emotional impact. Positive experiences and environments can impact a young childs life. Negative impacts how shown to show up as long-lasting, detrimental impact. "Early childhood experiences from birth to age 8 affect the development of the brain’s architecture, which provides the foundation for all future learning, behavior and health." When infants and toddlers feel fully supportive they are more likely to succeed, and avoidance of substance use disorder or crime.

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A child's early years can have lifelong physical, social, and emotional impacts. While positive experiences and environments can set up a young child on a stronger life-long path, traumatic experiences or environments during those formative years can have long-lasting, detrimental impact.

Early childhood experiences from birth to age 8 affect the development of the brain's architecture, which provides the foundation for all future learning, behavior and health. A strong foundation helps children develop the skills they need to become well-functioning adults.

In particular, the time between birth and age 3 is a period of rapid brain development when billions of connections between individual neurons are established. Mechanisms and interventions to support that development must be available beginning at birth.

The experiences children have early in life play a crucial role in the development of the brain. Exposure to positive factors, especially stable and responsive relationships with parents and other adults, and safe and supportive environments promote positive development.

When brain development in infants and young children is fully supported, they are more likely to reach milestones critical to future individual and community success. These include:

Third-grade reading proficiency

High school graduation and postsecondary education

Gainful employment

Lifetime physical and mental health and well-being

Avoidance of substance use disorder and crime

On Feb. 27, North Carolina welcomed Dr. Jack Shonkoff as the keynote speaker for the NC Early Childhood Summit. Shonkoff is a leading scholar on early child health and development and the director of the Harvard Center on the Developing Child.

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A child's early years can have lifelong physical, social, and emotional impacts. While positive experiences and environments can set up a young child on a

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After birth, Infants usually lose about 10% to 12% of birth weight. By the 2nd week of life they should be able to gain the weight back. 4 to 6 months, a child's weight should double from their birth weight. The second in half growth tends to slow down. A healthy child's growth should look like a growth curve. A healthy diet should be encouraged. Poor nutrition can cause problems with intellectual development. This can look like tiredness, feeling sick or inactive.

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Play is crucial for child development, and it manifests in various forms. These include unoccupied, solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative play

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https://youtu.be/pZSjm0drIGM?si=rSCfjABv6cD6c47u

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Baby and Toddler Milestones, Dr. Lisa Shulman

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It all begins with early cognitive development. Infants and toddlers first two years of life are most important when comes to learning. There is rapid brain development at these ages. They tend to watch the behavior, and actions of the caregiver or adults. Infants and young children are more likely to respond to behaviors they learn. Casual learning and more understanding of physical or social. They explore through sense, built relationships, and problem solving. Infants respond to cues. Communication is all about eye contact, infant directed speech, and tune into adults.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310550/

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The domains of child development and early learning are discussed in different terms and categorized in different ways in the various fields and disciplines that are involved in research, practice, and policy related to children from birth through age 8. To organize the discussion in this report, the committee elected to use the approach and overarching terms depicted in Figure 4-1. The committee does not intend to present this as a single best set of terms or a single best categorical organization. Indeed, it is essential to recognize that the domains shown in Figure 4-1 are not easily separable and that a case can be made for multiple different categorizations. For example, different disciplines and researchers have categorized different general cognitive processes under the categorical term "executive function." General cognitive processes also relate to learning competencies such as persistence and engagement. Similarly, self-regulation has both cognitive and emotional dimensions. It is sometimes categorized as a part of executive function, as a part of socioemotional competence, or as a part of learning competencies. Attention and memory could be considered a part of general cognitive processes, as embedded within executive function, or linked to learning competencies related to persistence. Mental health is closely linked to socioemotional competence, but is also inseparable from health.

The challenge of cleanly separating these concepts highlights a key attribute of all of these domains, which is that they do not develop or operate in isolation. Each enables and mutually supports learning and development in the others. Therefore, the importance of the interactions among the domains is emphasized throughout this chapter. For example, socioemotional competence is important for self-regulation, as are certain cognitive skills, and both emotional and cognitive self-regulation are important for children to be able to exercise learning competencies. Similarly, although certain skills and concept knowledge are distinct to developing proficiency in particular subject areas, learning in these subject areas also both requires and supports general cognitive skills such as reasoning and attention, as well as learning competencies and socioemotional competence. In an overarching example of interactions, a child's security both physically and in relationships creates the context in which learning is most achievable across all of the domains.

It is less important that all fields of research, practice, and policy adhere to the exact same categorizations, and more important that all conduct their work in a way that is cognizant and inclusive of all the elements that contribute to child development and early learning, and that all fields recognize that they are interactive and mutually reinforcing rather than hierarchical. This point foreshadows a theme that is addressed more fully in subsequent chapters. Because different fields and sectors may not use the same categorizations and vocabulary for these domains and skills, developing practices and policies that support more consistent and continuous development and early learning across birth through age 8 will require a concerted effort to communicate clearly and come to a mutual understanding of the goals for children. To communicate across fields and between research and practice communities requires being aware of the different categorical frameworks and terms that are used and being able to discuss the various concepts and content-and their implications-with clarity across those different frameworks. Practitioners and policy makers will be aided in achieving greater precision and clarity in their actions and decisions if those conducting and communicating future research keep this challenge in mind across domains, especially in those cases in which the taxonomy is most variable (e.g., self-regulation, executive function, general learning competencies).

With these caveats in mind, the remainder of this chapter addresses in turn the domains of child development and early learning depicted in Figure 4-1: cognitive development, including learning of specific subjects; general learning competencies; socioemotional development; and physical development and health. The final section examines a key overarching issue: the effects on child development and early learning of the stress and adversity that is also an important theme in the discussion of the interaction between biology and environment in Chapter 3.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

This section highlights what is known about cognitive development in young children. It begins with key concepts from research viewpoints that have contributed to recent advances in understanding of the developing mind, and then presents the implications of this knowledge for early care and education settings. The following section addresses the learning of specific subjects, with a focus on language and mathematics.

Studies of early cognitive development have led researchers to understand the developing mind as astonishingly competent, active, and insightful from a very early age. For example, infants engage in an intuitive analysis of the statistical regularities in the speech sounds they hear en route to constructing language ( Saffran, 2003). Infants and toddlers derive implicit theories to explain the actions of objects and the behavior of people; these theories form the foundation for causal learning and more sophisticated understanding of the physical and social worlds. Infants and young children also are keenly responsive to what they can learn from the actions and words directed to them by other people. This capacity for joint attention may be the foundation that enables humans to benefit from culturally transmitted knowledge ( Tomasello et al., 2005). Infants respond to cues conveying the communicative intentions of an adult (such as eye contact and infant-directed speech) and tune in to what the adult is referring to and what can be learned about it. This "natural pedagogy" ( Csibra, 2010; Csibra and Gergely, 2009) becomes more sophisticated in the sensitivity of preschoolers to implicit pedagogical guides in adult speech directed to them ( Butler and Markman, 2012a, b, 2014). Young children rely so much on what they learn from others that they become astute, by the preschool years, in distinguishing adult speakers who are likely to provide them with reliable information from those who are not ( Harris, 2012; Jaswal, 2010; Koenig and Doebel, 2013). This connection of relationships and social interactions to cognitive development is consistent with how the brain develops and how the mind grows, and is a theme throughout this chapter.

Much of what current research shows is going on in young children's minds is not transparent in their behavior. Infants and young children may not show what they know because of competing demands on their attention, limitations in what they can do, and immature self-regulation. This is one of the reasons why developmental scientists use carefully designed experiments for elucidating what young children know and understand about the world. By designing research procedures that eliminate competing distractions and rely on simple responses (such as looking time and expressions of surprise), researchers seek to uncover cognitive processes that might otherwise be more difficult to see. Evidence derived in this experimental manner, such as the examples in the sections that follow, can be helpful in explaining young children's rapid growth in language learning, imitation, problem solving, and other skills.

Conclusions About Cognitive Development and Early Learning Learning begins prenatally, and children are not only "ready to learn" but already actively learning from the time they are born. From birth, children's minds are active and inquisitive, and early thinking is insightful and complex. Many of the foundations of sophisticated forms of learning, including those important to academic success, are established in the earliest years of life. Development and early learning can be supported continuously as a child develops, and early knowledge and skills inform and influence future learning. When adults understand how the mind develops, what progress children make in their cognitive abilities, and how active inquiry and learning are children's natural inclination, they can foster cognitive growth by supporting children's active engagement with new experiences and providing developmentally appropriate stimulation of new learning through responsive, secure, and sustained caregiving relationships.

LEARNING SPECIFIC SUBJECTS

Interrelationships among different kinds of skills and abilities contribute to young children's acquisition of content knowledge and competencies, which form a foundation for later academic success. These skills and abilities include the general cognitive development discussed above, the general learning competencies that allow children to control their own attention and thinking; and the emotion regulation that allows children to control their own emotions and participate in classroom activities in a productive way (the latter two are discussed in sections later in this chapter). Still another important category of skills and abilities, the focus of this section, is subject-matter content knowledge and skills, such as competencies needed specifically for learning language and literacy or mathematics.

Content knowledge and skills are acquired through a developmental process. As children learn about a topic, they progress through increasingly sophisticated levels of thinking with accompanying cognitive components. These developmental learning paths can be used as the core of a learning trajectory through which students can be supported by educators who understand both the content and those levels of thinking. Each learning trajectory has three parts: a goal (to develop a certain competence in a topic), a developmental progression (children constructing each level of thinking in turn), and instructional activities (tasks and teaching practices designed to enable thinking at each higher level). Learning trajectories also promote the learning of skills and concepts together-an effective approach that leads to both mastery and more fluent, flexible use of skills, as well as to superior conceptual understanding ( Fuson and Kwon, 1992; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). See Chapter 6 for additional discussion of using learning trajectories and other instructional practices.

Every subject area requires specific content knowledge and skills that are acquired through developmental learning processes. It is not possible to cover the specifics here for every subject area a young child learns. To maintain a feasible scope, this chapter covers two core subject areas: (1) language and literacy and (2) mathematics. This scope is not meant to imply that learning in other areas, such as science, engineering, social studies, or the arts, is unimportant or less subject specific. Rather, these two were selected because they are foundational for other subject areas and for later academic achievement, and because how they are learned has been well studied in young children compared with many other subject areas.

GENERAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Educators, developmental scientists, and economists have long known that academic achievement is a result of both the growth of specific knowledge and the development of general learning competencies that regulate how children enlist cognitive resources when they encounter learning challenges, motivate advances in learning, and strengthen children's self-confidence as learners.

These general learning competencies have been labeled and categorized in various ways. Considerable recent research on some of these learning competencies has been conducted using the concept of "executive function," which generally refers to a set of supervisory functions that regulate and control cognitive activity that affects learning ( Vitiello et al., 2011) and allow children to persevere with tasks, including learning tasks, even when facing fatigue, distraction, or decreased motivation. In the field of human development "mastery motivation" in infancy typically is indexed by the baby's persistence, focus, and curiosity in exploration and problem solving ( Morgan et al., 1990; Wang and Barrett, 2013). In preschool-age children, these skills often are conceptualized as the quality of the child's "approaches to learning," which include motivation, engagement, and interest in learning activities. Heckman (2007) has used the term "noncognitive skills" to refer to many of these learning competencies, including self-control, persistence, self-discipline, motivation, and self-esteem, as well as future orientedness (i.e., the capacity to substitute long-term goals for immediate satisfactions). This label is used in contrast to the "cognitive skills" that are more often measured to predict children's later success, although there is considerable research that the "noncognitive skills" also support learning and achievement (see, e.g., Cunha and Heckman, 2010; Heckman, 2007), and they are highly relevant to cognitive skills in such areas as language, mathematics, science, and other traditional academic fields.

Here the alternative conceptualizations for these important aspects of child development and early learning are grouped as "learning competencies" to reflect their importance for early learning. Individual differences in these competencies are important determinants of learning and academic motivation, and children's experiences at home and in the classroom contribute to some of these differences. This section examines these competencies as well as their interrelationships with the previously discussed subject-matter domains of language and literacy and mathematics.

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The development of social and emotional competence is an important part of child development and early learning. Socioemotional competence has been described as a multidimensional construct that contributes to the ability to understand and manage emotions and behavior; to make decisions and achieve goals; and to establish and maintain positive relationships, including feeling and showing empathy for others. Although their importance is widely recognized, universal agreement is lacking on how to categorize and define these areas of development. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning offers a summary construct with five interrelated groups of competencies that together encompass the areas typically considered to be part of socioemotional competence (see Figure 4-2).

Socioemotional competence increasingly is viewed as important for a child's early school adjustment and for academic success at both the preschool and K-12 levels ( Bierman et al., 2008a, b; Denham and Brown, 2010; Heckman et al., 2013; La Paro and Pianta, 2000; Leerkes et al., 2008). A growing body of research addresses the relationship between dimensions of socioemotional competence and cognitive and other skills related to early learning and later academic achievement ( Bierman et al., 2008a, b; Graziano et al., 2007; Howse et al., 2003b; Miller et al., 2006). Socioemotional development early in life also increasingly is understood to be critically important for later mental well-being, and for contributing to subsequent mental health problems when there are enduring disturbances in socioemotional functions ( IOM and NRC, 2009; Leckman and March, 2011).

There are several reasons why socioemotional development is important to early learning and academic success. As discussed in detail later in this section, early learning is a social activity in which these skills are important to the interactions through which learning occurs and is collaboratively shared. Socioemotional competence gives children the capacity to engage in academic tasks by increasing their ability to interact constructively with teachers, work collaboratively with and learn from peers, and dedicate sustained attention to learning ( Denham and Brown, 2010). Further, behavioral and emotional problems not only impede early learning but also pose other risks to long-term success. Substantial research has examined the relationship between delays and deficits in children's social skills and challenging behavior, such as serious problems getting along with peers or cooperating with educators ( Zins et al., 2007). When challenging behavior is not resolved during the early years, children with persistent early socioemotional difficulties experience problems in socialization, school adjustment, school success, and educational and vocational adaptation in adolescence and adulthood (e.g., Dunlap et al., 2006; Lane et al., 2008; Nelson et al., 2004). Thus attention to socioemotional competence also is important from the perspective of addressing early emerging behavior problems before they become more serious.

A variety of evidence-based approaches can be implemented to strengthen socioemotional competence for young children ( Domitrovich et al., 2012; IOM and NRC, 2009). These approaches typically entail strategies designed to improve children's emotion identification and understanding combined with the development of social problem-solving skills; practice in simple emotion regulation strategies; and coaching in prosocial behavior through strategies that can involve role playing, modeling, and reinforcement of socially competent behavior. Importantly, as discussed further in Chapter 6, these strategies can be incorporated into daily classroom practice to provide children with everyday socioemotional learning.

Conclusion About the Ability to Self-Regulate The ability to self-regulate both emotion and cognitive processes is important for learning and academic achievement, affecting children's thinking, motivation, self-control, and social interactions. Children's progress in this ability from birth through age 8 is influenced by the extent to which relationships with adults, learning environments, and learning experiences support this set of skills, and their progress can be impaired by stressful and adverse circumstances.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH

Child development and early learning are closely intertwined with child health. Indeed, each is a foundation for outcomes in the other: health is a foundation for learning, while education is a determinant of health ( Zimmerman and Woolf, 2014). The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2010) has described three foundational areas of child health and development that contribute to physical and mental well-being:

Stable and responsive relationships-Such relationships provide young children with consistent, nurturing, and protective interactions with adults that enhance their learning and help them develop adaptive capacities that promote well-regulated stress response systems.

Safe and supportive physical, chemical, and built environments-Such environments provide physical and emotional spaces that are free from toxins and fear, allow active exploration without significant risk of harm, and offer supports for families raising young children.

Sound and appropriate nutrition-Such nutrition includes health-promoting food intake as well as eating habits, beginning with the future mother's nutritional status even before conception.

This section examines interrelated topics of physical development, child health, nutrition, and physical activity and then touches on partnerships between the health and education sectors (also discussed in Chapter 5).

Conclusion About Health, Nutrition, and Early Learning
Safe physical and built environments, health, and nutrition are essential to early learning and academic achievement. Food security and adequate nutrition are important to support cognitive development and participation in education, and food insecurity and poor nutrition can contribute to early learning difficulties. Care and education settings provide an opportunity to promote healthful eating and physical activity in learning environments. Providing appropriate health and developmental screenings and follow-up care and services also is important in supporting development and early learning.

EFFECTS OF CHRONIC STRESS AND ADVERSITY

As detailed in Chapter 3, one of the most important advances in developmental science in recent years has been the recognition that the brain incorporates experience into its development. Although experience is important at any age, early experiences are especially formative in the development of the brain's structure and function. Human development is the result of the continuous interaction of genetics and experience. This interplay is true not just of brain development but of other aspects of human development as well. Research in this area encourages developmental scientists as well as parents and practitioners to consider how positive early experiences and enrichment, in formal and informal ways, may have a beneficial influence on the developing brain and in turn on the growth of thinking and learning. The brain's openness to experience is, however, a double-edged sword-adverse early experiences can have potentially significant negative consequences for brain development and early learning.

As discussed in Chapter 3, evidence indicates that experiences of stress and adversity are biologically embedded and that individual differences exist in the health and developmental consequences of stress. A substantial body of evidence now shows that adversity and stress in early life are associated with higher rates of childhood mental and physical morbidities, more frequent disturbances in developmental trajectories and educational achievement, and lifelong risks of chronic disorders that compromise health and well- being ( Boyce et al., 2012; Hertzman and Boyce, 2010; Shonkoff et al., 2009). Children respond to stress differently. Many exhibit withdrawal, anger and irritability, difficulty paying attention and concentrating, disturbed sleep, repeated and intrusive thoughts, and extreme distress triggered by things that remind them of their traumatic experiences. Some develop psychiatric conditions such as depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and a variety of behavioral disorders ( NCTSN, 2005).

What are the circumstances that contribute to chronic adversity and stress for children? All children can experience forms of chronic stress and adversity, but exposures to stress and adversity are socioeconomically layered. Poverty, discussed in more detail below, has been the best studied and is a highly prevalent source of early chronic stress ( Blair and Raver, 2012; Evans and Kim, 2013; Jiang et al., 2014). Young children in the United States also suffer high levels of victimization through child abuse and exposure to domestic violence. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported for the year 2012 that of all child abuse victims, approximately 60 percent were age 8 or younger ( Children's Bureau, 2013). The highest rates of child abuse and neglect, including fatalities related to child abuse, were reported for children in the first year of life. Comparable biological and behavioral effects of chronic stress have been studied in children in foster care, in those who experience significant or prolonged family conflict, in those who have a depressed parent, and in those who are abused or neglected (see Thompson, 2014, for a review).

It is noteworthy that these circumstances include not only those that most people would regard as sources of extreme stress for children (e.g., child abuse), but also those that an adult might regard as less significant because they may be less severe although persistent (e.g., parents' chronic marital conflict, poverty). This broader range of circumstances that children experience as stressful is consistent with the view that, in addition to situations that are manifestly threatening and dangerous, children are stressed by the denial or withdrawal of supportive care, especially when they are young.

Culture also is closely interrelated with stress and adversity. Culture affects the meaning that a child or a family attributes to specific types of traumatic events as well as the ways in which they respond. Because culture also influences expectations regarding the self, others, and social institutions, it can also influence how children and families experience and express distress, grieve or mourn losses, provide support to each other, seek help, and disclose personal information to others. Historical or multigenerational trauma also can influence cultural differences in responses to trauma and loss ( NCTSN Core Curriculum on Childhood Trauma Task Force, 2012).

Building on the discussion in Chapter 3 of the biology of chronic stress and adversity, the following sections describe more broadly some of the contributing circumstances and consequences for young children, including the stressors associated with economic adversity; social buffering of stress; and the relationships among stress, learning, and mental health.

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1

An ongoing study and forthcoming report of the Institute of Medicine and the National Research Council focuses on research, practice, and policy for young dual language learners. More information about this study can be found at www​.iom.edu/English-DualLanguageLearners.

2

The 2012 federal poverty threshold was $23,364 for a family of four with two children, $18,480 for a family of three with one child, $15,825 for a family of two with one child.

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The domains of child development and early learning are discussed in different terms and categorized in different ways in the various fields and disciplines that are involved in research, practice, and policy related to children from birth through age 8.

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Developmental milestones are the key skills and abilities that most children achieve at specific ages, reflecting healthy growth and development across various domains

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Developmental milestones are physical or behavioral signs of development of infants and children. Rolling over, crawling, walking and talking are considered developmental milestones and provide important information regarding your child's early development.

Milestones are different for each age range. These milestones are behaviors that emerge over time, forming the building blocks for growth and continued learning. Some of the categories of behavior include:

Cognition: Thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, understanding

Motor coordination: Gross/fine motor skills, jumping, hopping, throwing/catching, drawing, stacking

Social interaction: Initiating peer contact, group play

Adaptive: Dressing, eating, washing

You child's CHOP pediatrician or nurse practitioner will address your child's milestones during well visits; however, if you have any developmental concerns at any point, you should contact your pediatrician immediately.

Children develop at their own pace, so don't be alarmed if your child takes a slightly different course. Some children may skip over milestones, while others take more time. Your CHOP provider will help you distinguish whether your child is experiencing delays and how to address them.

Your baby at 2 months

At 2 months, your child is wide-eyed and watching, smiling at faces, and engaging with everything around them. Babies at this age are social and love to interact. Their neck muscles are growing stronger and they can hold their heads erect for a period of time. They can identify and understand the tone, emotions and comfort in your voice.

What your baby is learning now

While babies may progress at different rates, the following are some of the common milestones your baby may reach in this age group:

What your baby is learning next

What you can do to encourage your baby's development

Games and activities

Cozy blanket for cuddling while awake

Music boxes or soft music

Plastic links or rattles

Reading books out loud

Encouraging tummy time while awake

Your baby at 4 months

Your baby is growing even more social and moving in a purposeful manner. Babies at this age love to babble and coo and mimic sounds they hear. They love to play and copy the movements of others. Also, your baby's cries will be different, as they communicate hunger, frustration, discomfort or feeling tired.

What your baby is learning now

While babies may progress at different rates, the following are some of the common milestones your baby may reach in this age group:

What your baby is learning next

What you can do to encourage your baby's development

Games and activities

Rattles

Sing and talk together

Board books with textures

Soft cloth toys

Plastic mirrors

Your baby at 9 months

By 9 months, your baby is much more mobile and likes to explore. Babies at this age are crawling and can pull up to stand. Safety in the home becomes an important issue as your baby's curiosity (and mobility) grows. Your baby now responds to his or her name, loves to cuddle with family and may show shyness or fear of strangers. Games like peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake are popular.

What your baby is learning now

While babies may progress at different rates, the following are some of the common milestones your baby may reach in this age group:

What your baby is learning next

What you can do to encourage your baby's development

Games and activities

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Developmental milestones are physical or behavioral signs of development of infants and children that emerge over time and form the building blocks for growth and continued learning.

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Children's cognitive development includes the capacity to solve basic puzzles, recognize colors and shapes, and comprehend the idea that things exist even when they are concealed. As kids develop, they begin to reason about material objects, such as classifying items according to size or realizing that the volume of water remains constant even when it is transferred into a different-shaped vessel.

https://www.amu.apus.edu/area-of-study/education/resources/major-theories-of-child-development/

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Major Theories of Child Development: Frameworks for Learning

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Explore the major theories of child development and discover how experts like Piaget, Erikson, and Vygotsky explain children’s growth, learning, and behavior.

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Responsive caregiving involves a caregiver's ability to notice, understand, and respond to a child's cues in a timely and appropriate manner. This back-and -forth interaction builds trust, fosters emotional security, and supports learning, positive health outcomes and academic success. It is essential for halthy infant and toddler development.

It is important to recognize that every child has unique needs and preferences..

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When we talk about health and safety in child care, the discussion is often focused on reducing or eliminating physical threats to children's well-being (e.g., unsafe playground equipment or the spread of an infectious disease). CCAoA believes that child care is a place where the whole environment helps build healthy children, including their healthy social and emotional development. This is the second of four blog posts from CCAoA about promoting social and emotional health - in this case , through a practice known as responsive caregiving.

An infant and provider are sitting on the floor. The child glances toward a nearby toy. The provider picks up the stuffed bear and hands it to the child, who reacts with a smile and a happy squeal. The provider returns the smile, makes eye contact and says, "Oh, you like the bear! I do, too. It has such big, brown eyes. Can you find the bear's eyes?"

That's an ex ample of responsive caregiving , a teaching and parenting practice that promotes the social and emotional health of infants and toddlers. It involves :

T uning into a child's cues - eye gazes, gestures, facial expressions, sounds, etc.

T hinking about what the child is trying to communicate and

R esponding to the child in a sensitive way

Responsive caregiving recognizes that every child has unique needs and preferences and that young children learn best through back-and-forth social interactions with trusted adults.

How does it help infants and toddlers?

Responsive caregiving sends children the message that they are important , their needs will be met, and their unique temperament and characteristics are respected. If a caregiver (parent/guardian and/or provider) is attuned to a child and responds consistently , the child feels safe and supported. It allows an infant or toddler the freedom to learn and thrive in the company of a trusted adult.

We know that caregivers are pulled in a lot of different directions and may find it hard to promptly respond to every child's cues for attention. Caregiving is an art, not a science. Make an effort to be as responsive as possible, as often as possible. Strong social relationships are essential to a child's ability to build healthy social and emotional skills, and much more. They foster brain development and can affect cognition, problem-solving and learning. Early, strong relationships also positively affect longer-term outcomes such as motivation and resilience to stress.

What can CCR&Rs do?

Referral s and consumer education : Post tips and short video clips on your website to introduce parents to the idea of responsive caregiving and show them what it looks like. If you send out resources along with your referral lists, be sure to include information about responsive caregiving for parents seeking infant and toddler care.

Technical assistance : Train your technical assistance specialists to assess and support responsive caregiving in child care. This checklist is full of sample language, activity ideas and other valuable coaching tools that can help your technical assistance specialists work with providers to enhance responsive practices in their program.

Advocacy : Partner with othe r birth to three organizations - like home visiting, early intervention programs and mate rnal and child health programs - to build an infant and toddler coalition in your state.

Identify opportunities to align messaging about responsive caregiving.

Work together to advocate for your state to make responsive caregiving a required training topic for all infant and toddler providers.

CCAoA can support your coalition-building by helping you get the right people in the room and using research to make community-informed decisions about access to high-quality infant and toddler care. Take a look at the coalition-building work (PDF Download) we did on another project and think about how we can support you.

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Learn how responsive caregiving sends children the message that they are important and how their needs will be met, and their unique temperament and characteristics are respected.

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Environmental enrichment means creating stimulating and engaging environments to promote development in various areas like motors skills, cognitive abilities, sensory experiments, and social skills. Here are some of the strategies used:

Sensory Stimulation- Often a variety of sensory experiments through toys, materials, and activities that stimulate different senses.

Cognitive Challenges- Provide opportunities for problem-solving, exploration and discovery through age-appropriate toys and activities.

Social Engagement- Encourage interaction with caregivers and peers through social games, playdates and group activities.

Physical Development- Create spaces that encourage movement and exploration such as play mats, tunnels and climbing structures.

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5 Ways to Create an Enriching Environment for Babies and Toddlers

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5 Ways to Create an Enriching Environment for Babies and Toddlers Creating a safe and enriching environment for babies and toddlers at your childcare

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How play promotes cognitive development 

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How play promotes cognitive development 

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Children learn to solve problems as they discover the answers to their own questions such as “Does this piece go here?” or “What happens when I do this?” When children have the opportunity to have extended periods of time (at least 30 minutes of uninterrupted time) to engage in play that is meaningful and relevant to their lives both attention span and memory skills are enhanced

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Early intervention provides specialized support for babies and toddlers who have developmental delays or disabilities. A delay means a child is slower to reach milestones like walking or speaking, while a disability, such as autism or ADHD, is typically lifelong and affects how a child learns, moves, communicates, or behaves. These services help children build key skills like moving, talking, problem-solving, socializing, and self-care. Starting intervention as early as possible gives children the best chance to succeed in school, relationships, and everyday life.

Early intervention services can support your child in areas like speech and communication, hearing, daily tasks, and movement through therapies such as speech-language, audiology, occupational, and physical therapy. Additional services may be provided based on your child’s specific needs and can also help families learn how to best support their child’s development.

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What is early intervention?

Early intervention refers to services for babies and toddlers with developmental delays and disabilities. A developmental delay means your child is slower to reach certain milestones (like smiling or speaking) compared to their peers. With support, they can catch up. A developmental disability, on the other hand, is typically a lifelong condition that affects how your child moves, learns, communicates and/or behaves. Common examples include autism and ADHD.

Early intervention services can help your child develop fundamental skills like:

Rolling over

Crawling

Walking

Reaching for objects

Learning and solving problems

Speaking and listening

Understanding others

Playing and socializing

Taking care of themselves (like eating and getting dressed)

The key is getting such services as early as possible - ideally, as soon as you or a provider notices signs of a possible delay or disability. Doing so can help your child gain the skills they'll need for every aspect of their life, from school to work to relationships.

What's the earliest age for early intervention?

Early intervention services are designed for children from birth to age 3. Some U.S. states allow early intervention to continue until age 5.

These services can begin immediately after birth. This may happen if providers diagnose your child with a condition that affects development (like certain genetic disorders) at birth. They'll refer you to your local early intervention program right away.

In other cases, the need for early intervention isn't apparent at birth. Instead, your pediatrician may identify delays at a routine well-check. They'll then refer you to early intervention services.

But don't wait for a well-check if you feel something isn't right. Trust your gut. If you think your child might have a developmental delay or disability, contact your pediatrician and tell them what you're observing. They'll guide you from there.

Who offers early intervention services?

All states and territories in the U.S. offer early intervention services for eligible children who live in that area. Certain services (like evaluations and assessments) are free. Other services may come with a fee.

To learn more about what's available, you should contact the early intervention program in your specific state or territory. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) keeps a current list of contact information. In different states, early intervention is called different things - like Bright Beginnings, First Steps or Help Me Grow. You can usually find information about early intervention services on your state's education department website.

If your child needs continued support after turning 3, they may be eligible for special education services. To find out more about special education, contact a public elementary school in your area.

What are some examples of early intervention?

Early intervention services include a variety of therapies that help your child learn, play and socialize.

Early intervention services might help your child with:

Speaking and communicating (speech-language therapy).

Hearing (audiology services).

Doing daily tasks (occupational therapy).

Moving around (physical therapy).

Other services are possible based on your child's needs. Some services help you and other family members learn how best to support your child.

How does a child qualify for early intervention?

Your child will qualify for early intervention if experts determine they have a developmental delay or disability. Some children automatically qualify if they've been diagnosed with a condition that's likely to result in developmental delay. Your pediatrician can tell you if this is the case with your child.

If your child doesn't have such a diagnosis, they'll go through an evaluation process. Here's a breakdown of how this process works:

1. You call your local early intervention office. This is the first step - and you can do it with or without a doctor's referral.

2. The office assigns you a service coordinator. This is your contact person throughout the early intervention process. Your service coordinator will tell you more about how early intervention works and what you need to do.

3. Your child receives an evaluation. Experts in different areas of child development - like speech and language, hearing, vision and movement - evaluate your child. This means they interact with your child and make note of how they engage or respond.

4. You learn the evaluation results. The experts who evaluated your child will share the results and what they mean. They'll tell you if your child is eligible for early intervention services. If so, you'll move on to the next step.

5. Your child receives an in-depth assessment. At this point, the focus isn't on determining eligibility - it's on identifying your child's exact needs and which services can help them. Experts will observe your child and talk to you about your family's preferences.

6. You and the team of experts develop an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP). This document serves as a roadmap for your child's early intervention services. It describes, in detail, your child's needs, the services they'll receive and the intended goals.

Once the IFSP is created, it's time for your child to begin the services outlined in the plan. Your service coordinator will guide you on what comes next and how to access necessary resources. You can reach out to them any time you have a question or concern. Your team will review the IFSP every six months and update it yearly (or more often) to make sure it's still meeting your child's needs.

Several months before your child turns 3, your team will create a transition plan. This is a plan for what happens after your child's third birthday. Possibilities include:

Your child qualifies for continued early education services up until age 5 (this is possible in some U.S. states)

Your child qualifies for special education services through your local public school district

Your child doesn't need any further services

How can I support my child at home?

There's a lot you can do at home to support your child's development. Your child's early intervention providers can give you targeted advice. But what if you can't get in to see a specialist right away? If you need to wait weeks or more before your first appointment, you might feel anxious and helpless in the meantime.

It's a good idea to talk to your pediatrician about things you can do to help your child. In general, you can engage with your child by:

Reading books aloud to them

Singing songs

Letting your child hold and play with various toys

Pointing to interesting things and showing them to your child

Naming and describing objects

Talking about what's happening at a given moment

The more you can interact with your child, the better. Even if your child doesn't seem interested, they're taking in everything around them in ways that might not always be obvious. Your specialists can help you understand why these interactions are important and which specific activities are most useful for your child's needs.

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Early intervention services support children from birth to age 3 who have developmental delays or disabilities. Examples include speech and occupational therapies.

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Social development in childhood is crucial because it enables children to learn how to communicate effectively, cooperate with others, and establish healthy relationships. These early social skills lay the foundation for emotional well-being, academic success, and effective problem-solving throughout life. "Once they reach age 3, your child will be much less selfish than they were before. They'll be less dependent on you. This is a sign that their sense of identity is stronger and more secure."

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During your child's preschool-age years, they'll discover a lot about themselves and interacting with people around them.

​Once they reach age three, your child will be much less selfish than they were before. They'll also be less dependent on you, a sign that their own sense of identity is stronger and more secure. Now they'll actually play with other children, interacting instead of just playing side by side. In the process, they'll recognize that not everyone thinks exactly as they do and that each of their playmates has many unique qualities, some attractive and some not. You'll also find your child drifting toward certain kids and starting to develop friendships with them. As they create these friendships, children discover that they, too, each have special qualities that make them likable-a revelation that gives a vital boost to self-esteem.

There's some more good news about your child's development at this age: As they become more aware of and sensitive to the feelings and actions of others, they'll gradually stop competing and will learn to cooperate when playing with her friends. They take turns and share toys in small groups, though sometimes they won't. But instead of grabbing, whining, or screaming for something, they'll actually ask politely much of the time. You can look forward to less aggressive behavior and calmer play sessions. Three-year-olds are able to work out solutions to disputes by taking turns or trading toys.

Learning how to cooperate

However, particularly in the beginning, you'll need to encourage this cooperation. For instance, you might suggest that they "use their words" to deal with problems instead of acting out. Also, remind them that when two children are sharing a toy, each gets an equal turn. Suggest ways to reach a simple solution when your child and another child want the same toy, such as drawing for the first turn or finding another toy or activity. This doesn't work all the time, but it's worth a try. Also, help children with the appropriate words to describe their feelings and desires so that they don't feel frustrated. Above all, show by your own example how to cope peacefully with conflicts. If you have an explosive temper, try to tone down your reactions in their presence. Otherwise, they'll mimic your behavior whenever they're under stress.

When anger or frustration gets physical

No matter what you do, however, there probably will be times when your child's anger or frustration becomes physical. When that happens, restrain them from hurting others, and if they don't calm down quickly, move them away from the other children. Talk to them about her feelings and try to determine why they're so upset. Let them know you understand and accept her feelings, but make it clear that physically attacking another child is not a good way to express these emotions.

Saying sorry

Help them see the situation from the other child's point of view by reminding them of a time when someone hit or screamed at them, and then suggest more peaceful ways to resolve their conflicts. Finally, once they understand what they've done wrong-but not before-ask them to apologize to the other child. However, simply saying "I'm sorry" may not help your child correct their behavior; they also needs to know why they're apologizing. They may not understand right away, but give it time; by age four these explanations will begin to mean something.

Make-believe play

Fortunately, the normal interests of three-year-olds keep fights to a minimum. They spend much of their playtime in fantasy activity, which tends to be more cooperative than play that's focused on toys or games. As you've probably already seen, preschooler enjoy assigning different roles in an elaborate game of make-believe using imaginary or household objects. This type of play helps develop important social skills, such as taking turns, paying attention, communicating (through actions and expressions as well as words), and responding to one another's actions. And there's still another benefit: Because pretend play allows children to slip into any role they wish-including superheroes or the fairy godmother-it also helps them explore more complex social ideas. Plus it helps improve executive functioning such as problem-solving

By watching the role-playing in your child's make-believe games, you may see that they're beginning to identify their own gender and gender identity. While playing house, boys naturally will adopt the father's role and girls the mother's, reflecting whatever they've noticed in the hemworld around them.

Development of gender roles & identity

Research shows that a few of the developmental and behavioral differences that typically distinguish boys from girls are biologically determined. Most gender-related characteristics at this age are more likely to be shaped by culture and family. Your daughter, for example, may be encouraged to play with dolls by advertisements, gifts from well-meaning relatives, and the approving comments of adults and other children. Boys, meanwhile, may be guided away from dolls in favor of more rough-and-tumble games and sports. Children sense the approval and disapproval and adjust their behavior accordingly. Thus, by the time they enter kindergarten, children's gender identities are often well established.

As children start to think in categories, they often understand the boundaries of these labels without understanding that boundaries can be flexible; children this age often will take this identification process to an extreme. Girls may insist on wearing dresses, nail polish, and makeup to school or to the playground. Boys may swagger, be overly assertive, and carry their favorite ball, bat, or truck everywhere.

On the other hand, some girls and boys reject these stereotypical expressions of gender identity, preferring to choose toys, playmates, interests, mannerisms, and hairstyles that are more often associated with the opposite sex. These children are sometimes called gender expansive, gender variant, gender nonconforming, gender creative, or gender atypical. Among these gender expansive children are some who may come to feel that their deep inner sense of being female or male-their gender identity-is the opposite of their biologic sex, somewhere in between male and female, or another gender; these children are sometimes called transgender​.

Given that many three-year-old children are doubling down on gender stereotypes, this can be an age in which a gender-expansive child stands out from the crowd. These children are normal and healthy, but it can be difficult for parents to navigate their child's expression and identity if it is different from their expectations or the expectations of those around them.

Experimenting with gender attitudes & behaviors

As children develop their own identity during these early years, they're bound to experiment with attitudes and behaviors of both sexes. There's rarely reason to discourage such impulses, except when the child is resisting or rejecting strongly established cultural standards. If your son wanted to wear dresses every day or your daughter only wants to wear sport shorts like her big brother, allow the phase to pass unless it is inappropriate for a specific event. If the child persists, however, or seems unusually upset about their gender, discuss the issue with your pediatrician.

Your child also may imitate certain types of behavior that adults consider sexual, such as flirting. Children this age have no mature sexual intentions, though; they mimic these mannerisms. If the imitation of sexual behavior is explicit, though, they may have been personally exposed to sexual acts. You should discuss this with your pediatrician, as it could be a sign of sexual abuse or the influence of inappropriate media or videogames.

Play sessions: helping your child make friends

By age four, your child should have an active social life filled with friends, and they may even have a "best friend." Ideally, they'll have neighborhood and preschool friends they see routinely. But what if your child is not enrolled in preschool and doesn't live near other children the same age? In these cases, you might arrange play sessions with other preschoolers. Parks, playgrounds, and preschool activity programs all provide excellent opportunities to meet other children.

Once your preschooler has found playmates they seems to enjoy, you need to take initiative to help build their relationships. Encourage them to invite these friends to your home. It's important for your child to "show off" their home, family, and possessions to other children. This will establish a sense of self-pride. Incidentally, to generate this pride, their home needn't be luxurious or filled with expensive toys; it needs only be warm and welcoming.

It's also important to recognize that at this age your child's friends are not just playmates. They also actively influence their thinking and behavior. They'll desperately want to be just like them, even when they break rules and standards you've taught them rrm birth. They now realize there are other values and opinions besides yours, and they may test this new discovery by demanding things you've never allowed him-certain toys, foods, clothing, or permission to watch certain TV programs.

Testing limits

Don't despair if your child's relationship with you changes dramatically in light of these new friendships. They may be rude to you for the first time in their life.Hard as it may be to accept, this sassiness actually is a positive sign that they're learning to challenge authority and test their independence. Once again, deal with it by expressing disapproval, and possibly discussing with them what they really mean or feel. If you react emotionally, you'll encourage continued bad behavior. If the subdued approach doesn't work and they persist in talking back to you, a time-out (or time-in) is the most effective form of punishment.

Bear in mind that even though your child is exploring the concepts of good and bad, they still have an extremely simplified sense of morality. When they obey rules rigidly, it's not necessarily because they understand them, but more likely because they wants to avoid punishment. In their mind, consequences count but not intentions. When theybreaks something of value, they'll probably assume they are bad, even if they didn't brea it on purpose. They need to be taught the difference between accidents and misbehaving.

Separate the child from their behavior

To help them learn this difference, you need to separate them from their behavior. When they do or say something that calls for punishment, make sure they understand they are being punished for the act not because they're "bad." Describe specifically what they did wrong, clearly separating person from behavior. If they are picking on a younger sibling, explain why it is wrong rather than saying "You're bad." When they do something wrong without meaning to, comfort them and say you understand it was unintentional. Try not to get upset, or they'll think you're angry at them rather than about what they did.

It's also important to give your preschooler tasks that you know they can do and then praise them when they do them well. They are ready for simple responsibilities, such as setting the table or cleaning their room. On family outings, explain that you expect them to behave well, and congratulate them when they do. Along with responsibilities, give them ample opportunities to play with other children, and tell him how proud you are when they shares or is helpful to another child.

Sibling relationships

Finally, it's important to recognize that the relationship with older siblings can be particularly challenging, especially if the sibling is three to four years older. Often your four-year-old is eager to do everything their older sibling is doing; just as often, your older child resents the intrusion. They may resent the intrusion on their space, their friends, their more daring and busy pace, and especially their room and things. You often become the mediator of these squabbles. It's important to seek middle ground. Allow your older child their own time, independence, and private activities and space; but also foster cooperative play appropriate. Family vacations are great opportunities to enhance the positives of their relationship and at the same time give each their own activity and special time.

Adapted from Caring for Your Baby and Young Child: Birth to Age 5 7th Edition (Copyright © 2019 American Academy of Pediatrics)

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Social development is an important part of all childrens' lives. There are many things you can do to help your child develop in a positive way.

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Failure to thrive (FTT), or growth faltering, refers to insufficient weight gain or failure to grow at the expected rate in children. It's not a specific disease but a sign that a child isn't getting the nutrients and calories needed to grow and develop properly.