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The theatre at Sagalassos, Turkey, was built between 120 and 190 CE, possibly preceded by an earlier construction in the Hellenistic tradition. Its construction was stopped by the end of the second century CE, with parts of the seating unfinished and a stage area of only one story.

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Picturing Homeric Weaving - The Center for Hellenic Studies

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back Susan T. Edmunds Introduction §1. In discussion of Homer and the lyric poets, Gregory Nagy has shown how “the idea of making song is expressed metaphorically through the idea of making fabric.” [1] The process of weaving would have been completely familiar to the average person in Greek antiqui…

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Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages, containing articles about The Ancient World - Greece

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Енциклопедия на световната история

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В сравнение с гражданите от мъжки пол, жените в света на Древна Гърция са имали много по-малко права. Без право да гласува, да притежава земя, мястото на една жена е било у дома и целта на нейният живот е бил оглеждането на деца. Това обаче е общо описание и когато се разглежда ролята на жените в древна Гърция трябва да се помни, че често липсва информация за конкретни градове-държави и почти винаги тя е представена от автори-мъже, и само в Aтина статусът и ролята на жените могат да се опишат малко по-подробно. Нито пък сме сигурни как на практика и в ежедневието са се прилагали правилата и законите, достигнали до нас от древността. Знаем, че със жените в Спарта са се отнасяли по различен начин в сравнение с другите градове. Например трябвало е да преминават през физическа подготовка като мъжете, имали са право да притежават земя и да пият вино.

Съществували са също и категории жени, за които разполагаме с по-малко информация отколкото за други - като категорията на работещите жени, които са се трудили в магазини, както и като проститутки и куртизанки. Социалните правила и обичаи , които са важали за тях са дори по-неясни отколкото за жените, които са били членове на семействата на гражданите. В края на краищата, за разлика от повечето жени, някои, особено надарени, са се издигнали над ограниченията на гръцкото общество и са получили признание като поетеси (Сафо от Лесбос), философи (Арета от Кирена), водачи (Горго от Спарта) и Аспазия от Атина) и лекари (Агнодика от Атина).

Жените в митологията

Като се има предвид ограничената роля на жените в реалното общество, гръцката религия и митология е изпълнена с удивително силни женски персонажи. Aтина, богинята на мъдростта и покровителка на Атина, изпъква като могъща фигура, благословена с интелект, кураж и чест. Както в повечето древни култури, където земеделието е играло важна роля за общността, богините на женското плодородие са били от изключително значение и особено уважавани от гърците, като Деметра и Персефонаса са били на особена почит.

Подобно на останалата античната литература, в която мъжете-автори играят доминираща роля, жените често са представяни като нарушителки на спокойствието, от ревнивата Хера до Афродита , използваща своя чар, за да накара мъжете да загубят своя ум. Митовете и литературата изобилстват от женски персонажи, които с всички сили се опитват да попречат на плановете на героите-мъже, от върховната вещица Mедея до смъртоносните, но хубави сирени. Те често биват представяни като водени само от дива страст и възторжени емоции, например като менадите. От друга страна Пелелопа в „ Одисея " на Омир е въплъщение на идеалната целомъдрена жена, вярна на своя отсъстващ съпруг. Mузите са друг позитивен женски образ, известни не само с физическата си красота, а също така и със богатия спектър от умения в областта на изкуствата. Въпросът дали тези измислени персонажи са имали някаква връзка с ролята на жената в реалния живот остава открит, както и по-интригуващия въпрос за това какво е било мнението на самите гръцки жени за създадените мъжки примери за подражание? Може би никога не ще узнаем.

Момичета

Подобно на много други аграрни култури, където мъжете имат доминираща роля, отрочетата от женски пол са били изложени на много по-голям риск от изоставяне от своите родители при раждане, отколкото тези от мъжки пол. Децата на гражданите са ходили на училище, където учебната програма е включвала четене, писане, и математика. След усвояване на тези основни знания, децата са се насочвали към изучаване на литература (например, Омир), поезия и музика (по-специално лира). Леката атлетика също е била важна част от образованието на младите хора. Момичетата са били възпитавани по подобен начин на момчетата, но повече се е наблягало на танците, гимнастиката и музикалните постижения, които в последствие е могло да бъдат демонстрирани на музикални конкурси, както и на религиозни фестивали и церемонии. Крайната цел на образованието на едно момиче е била то да бъде подготвено да се грижи за семейство, а не директно да се стимулира нейното интелектуално развитие.

Целта на образованието на момичето е да бъде подготвено да се грижи за семейство семейство, а не ДА се СТИМУЛИРА нейното интелектуално развитие.

Важна част от възпитанието на едно момиче е била педерастията (сексуални практики в Древна Гърция, които не са били практикувани само от зрели мъже и момчета). Това е връзка между възрастен и подрастващ, която включвала сексуални отношения, но в допълнение към физическата връзка, по-старият партньор е бил в качеството на ментор за по-младия и го е образовал през призмата на своите разбирания и практически опит.

Млади жени

От младите жени се е очаквало да се оженят девствени и обикновено женитбата е организирана от техния баща, който избира съпруга и получава от него зестра. Ако една жена е била без баща, тогава за нейните интереси (брачни перспективи и управление на имуществото) се е грижил настойник ( kyrios или kurios), вероятно чичо или друг роднина от мъжки пол. При встъпване в брак, обикновено на възраст между 13 или 14 години, любовта не е имала нищо общо с избор на съпруг или съпруга ( damar). Разбира се, между двойката е могло да се породи любов, но най-доброто за което са могли да се надяват е било philia -приятелство, симпатия. Ерос, любовта на страстта, често е намирана някъде другаде от съпруга. От всички жени се очаквало да се омъжат, в гръцкото общество не са се предвиждали място и роля за неомъжени зрели жени.

Омъжени жени

В семейния дом от жените се е очаквало да отглеждат деца и да изпълняват ежедневните задължения по управление на домакинството. Помагали са им роби, ако съпругът е могъл да си го позволи. Общуването с несемейните мъже не се е поощрявало и жените предимно са се занимавали със своите домашни дейности, както и с плетене и тъкане. Могли са да излизат и да посещават домовете на приятели, а също така са участвали в обществени религиозни церемонии и фестивали. Учените все още спорят дали жените са могли да присъстват на театрални представления. По -достоверно е, че жените не са могли да присъстват на обществените събрания, да гласуват или да заемат държавни длъжности. Дори името на жената по никакъв повод не е трябвало да бъде споменавано публично.

Омъжените жени са били, поне според закона, под пълната власт на своите съпрузи. Такива автори, като Аристотел , даже не са подлагали на съмнение, че жените са били интелектуално неспособни да вземат важни за себе си решения. На практика, разбира се, отделни двойки вероятно са водели по-равностоен живот. От жените се очаквало да бъдат верни на своите съпрузи, но същото не се е отнасяло за другата страна, понеже съпрузите са могли свободно да използват услугите на проститутки, любовници и куртизанки. Всяка жена, която не е пазила семейната чест ( и по този начин не е защитавала законността по мъжка линия) е била обвинявана в сериозно престъпление moicheia, което е могло да доведе до забрана за участие в обществени религиозни церемонии. Съпруг, който е открил, че неговата съпруга има сексуална връзка с друг мъж е можел да убие любовникa без страх от преследване.

Ако бащата на една жена умре, и ако тя е имала братя, обикновено не е наследявала нищо. Ако е била единствено дете, тогава или нейния попечител, или съпруг, ако е била омъжена, са поемали контрол на над нейното наследство. В някои случаи когато неомъжена жена е наследявала имуществото на своя баща, тя е била задължена да се омъжи за най-близкият мъжки родственик, обикновено чичо. Жените са могли да наследяват след смъртта на други роднини от мъжки пол, при условие че не е имало друг роднина от мъжки пол. Жените в същност са имали лична собственост, обикновено под формата на дрехи и бижута, получена като подаръци от членовете на семействата. Жените не са могли да правят завещания, и при смърт, цялата им собственост отивала при техния съпруг.

Три са били причините за разтрогване на браковете. Първата и най-разпространената е отхвърляне от съпруга (apopempsis или ekpempsis). Не е било необходимо никакво обяснение, само се е очаквало да се върне зестрата. Втората причина за прекратяване е била напускане на семейния дом от съпругата (apoleipsis) и в този случай, от новият покровител на жената се е изисквало да действа като неин юридически представител. Това обаче е рядък случай и в последствие репутацията на жената в обществото е била накърнена. Третото основание за разтрогване на брака е, когато бащата на булката е поискал дъщеря си обратно (aphairesis), вероятно за да я предложи на друг мъж с по-съблазнителна зестра. Последното е било възможно само ако жената не е имала деца. Ако една жена е останала вдовица, тя е трябвало да се омъжи за близък родственик от мъжки пол, за да се гарантира, че собствеността остава в пределите на семейството.

Други роли

Жени, разбира се, е имало и в другите класи, не само в тази на гражданите. Като робини са изпълнявали всички възможни задължения, а също така са работели в магазини и пекарни. Групата за която разполагаме с най-много информация е тази на секс-труженичките. Жените в нея са били разделени на две категории. Първата и вероятно най-широко разпространената е тази на проститутките в бордеите (pornē). Втората категория са проститутките от висшата класа (хетерите). Последните са получавали образование в областта на музиката (по-специално флейта) и културата и често са имали продължителни връзки със женени мъже. Именно те са забавлявали мъжете (във всяко едно отношение) на прочутия пир, който е бил частно парти само за мъже.

В заключение, някои жени са участвали в култове и са изпълнявали ролята на жрици на определени женски божества (по-специално на Деметра и Афродита), а също така и на Дионис. Жриците за разлика от своите жреците са имали едно допълнително ограничение, че често, но не винаги, са били избирани, понеже са били девствени или след менопауза. От друга страна, участниците в ритуалите са били от двата пола, освен в онези случаи, когато са присъствали или само мъже, и само жени. Фестивалът на плодородието Тесмофория е най-широко разпространеното такова събитие и на него са присъствали само омъжени жени. Всяка година в Атина, четири млади жени са били избирани, за да служат като жрици на Атина Полиас и да изтъкат свещената одежда (пеплос), която да украсява култовата статуя на богинята. Вероятно най-известната женска религиозна роля е била тази на възрастната пророчица Пития в Делфи, която е тълкувала посланията на Aполон.

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Жените в Древна Гърция

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В сравнение с гражданите от мъжки пол, жените в света на Древна Гърция са имали много по-малко права. Без право да гласува, да притежава земя, мястото на една жена е било у дома и целта на нейният живот е бил оглеждането на деца.

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simona

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simona

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This is a model of a reconstruction of an ancient Roman theatre from Buthrotum (now Butrint), Albania. The theater was originally built in the 2nd Century B.C., but was renovated around 44 B.C. after the city became a Roman colony under the rule of Augustus.

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simona

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simona

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simona

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Ancaint Greek Theater is a theater in greece #ancaint_greece #Ancaint_Greek_Theater #greece #theater

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Irina Andre Chavushyan

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Odeon of Herodes Atticus, 161AD, Athens Greece. http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=6622 Let’s digitize the world and share it :) - Ancient greek theater Acropolis - Download Free 3D model by theovasilis (@theovasilis) [5053135]

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Prytaneion - 3D model by Sunduz Ersen (@sunduzersen) [2145d1f]

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Irina Andre Chavushyan

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Prytaneion - 3D model by Sunduz Ersen (@sunduzersen) [2145d1f]

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Sagalassos is an ancient city located in Burdur, Turkey. It was the capital of Pisidia in Ancient Greece and most of buildings, especially baths, fountains, theaters and agoras, have survived until today. In this study, the Prytaneion building, where the council convened, was modeled by photogramme…

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Irina Andre Chavushyan

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Royalty free 3D model Greek theatre for download as max on TurboSquid: 3D models for games, architecture, videos. (1187647)

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колекция на Кристина Александрова

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Ancient Greek Theatres - A 3D model collection by christine (@cherryberrycoconaut)

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Odeon of Herodes Atticus, 161AD, Athens Greece. http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=6622 Let’s digitize the world and share it :) - Ancient greek theater Acropolis - Download Free 3D model by theovasilis (@theovasilis) [5053135]

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Ancient Greece. The software obviously had difficulty with this model. This really needs drone imagery. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidaurus - Epidaurus Theatre - 3D model by rmark (@rmark) [32def39]

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падлет на петра

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Древногръцка архитектура

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Древногръцка архитектура

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Identify the classical orders-the architectural styles developed by the Greeks and Romans used to this day.

An architectural order describes a style of building. In classical architecture each order is readily identifiable by means of its proportions and profiles, as well as by various aesthetic details. The style of column employed serves as a useful index of the style itself, so identifying the order of the column will then, in turn, situate the order employed in the structure as a whole. The classical orders-described by the labels Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian-do not merely serve as descriptors for the remains of ancient buildings, but as an index to the architectural and aesthetic development of Greek architecture itself.

The Doric order

The Doric order is the earliest of the three Classical orders of architecture and represents an important moment in Mediterranean architecture when monumental construction made the transition from impermanent materials (i.e. wood) to permanent materials, namely stone. The Doric order is characterized by a plain, unadorned column capital and a column that rests directly on the stylobate of the temple without a base. The Doric entablature includes a frieze composed of trigylphs (vertical plaques with three divisions) and metopes (square spaces for either painted or sculpted decoration). The columns are fluted and are of sturdy, if not stocky, proportions.

The Doric order emerged on the Greek mainland during the course of the late seventh century B.C.E. and remained the predominant order for Greek temple construction through the early fifth century B.C.E., although notable buildings of the Classical period-especially the canonical Parthenon in Athens-still employ it. By 575 B.C.E the order may be properly identified, with some of the earliest surviving elements being the metope plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon. Other early, but fragmentary, examples include the sanctuary of Hera at Argos, votive capitals from the island of Aegina, as well as early Doric capitals that were a part of the Temple of Athena Pronaia at Delphi in central Greece. The Doric order finds perhaps its fullest expression in the Parthenon (c. 447-432 B.C.E.) at Athens designed by Iktinos and Kallikrates.

The Ionic order

As its names suggests, the Ionic Order originated in Ionia, a coastal region of central Anatolia (today Turkey) where a number of ancient Greek settlements were located. Volutes (scroll-like ornaments) characterize the Ionic capital and a base supports the column, unlike the Doric order. The Ionic order developed in Ionia during the mid-sixth century B.C.E. and had been transmitted to mainland Greece by the fifth century B.C.E. Among the earliest examples of the Ionic capital is the inscribed votive column from Naxos, dating to the end of the seventh century B.C.E.

The monumental temple dedicated to Hera on the island of Samos, built by the architect Rhoikos
c. 570-560 B.C.E., was the first of the great Ionic buildings, although it was destroyed by earthquake in short order. The sixth century B.C.E. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, a wonder of the ancient world, was also an Ionic design. In Athens the Ionic order influences some elements of the Parthenon (447-432 B.C.E.), notably the Ionic frieze that encircles the cella of the temple. Ionic columns are also employed in the interior of the monumental gateway to the Acropolis known as the Propylaia (c. 437-432 B.C.E.). The Ionic was promoted to an exterior order in the construction of the Erechtheion (c. 421-405 B.C.E.) on the Athenian Acropolis (image below).

The Ionic order is notable for its graceful proportions, giving a more slender and elegant profile than the Doric order. The ancient Roman architect Vitruvius compared the Doric module to a sturdy, male body, while the Ionic was possessed of more graceful, feminine proportions. The Ionic order incorporates a running frieze of continuous sculptural relief, as opposed to the Doric frieze composed of triglyphs and metopes.

The Corinthian order

The Corinthian order is both the latest and the most elaborate of the Classical orders of architecture. The order was employed in both Greek and Roman architecture, with minor variations, and gave rise, in turn, to the Composite order. As the name suggests, the origins of the order were connected in antiquity with the Greek city-state of Corinth where, according to the architectural writer Vitruvius, the sculptor Callimachus drew a set of acanthus leaves surrounding a votive basket (Vitr. 4.1.9-10). In archaeological terms the earliest known Corinthian capital comes from the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae and dates to c. 427 B.C.E.

The defining element of the Corinthian order is its elaborate, carved capital, which incorporates even more vegetal elements than the Ionic order does. The stylized, carved leaves of an acanthus plant grow around the capital, generally terminating just below the abacus. The Romans favored the Corinthian order, perhaps due to its slender properties. The order is employed in numerous notable Roman architectural monuments, including the Temple of Mars Ultor and the Pantheon in Rome, and the Maison Carrée in Nîmes.

Legacy of the Greek architectural canon

The canonical Greek architectural orders have exerted influence on architects and their imaginations for thousands of years. While Greek architecture played a key role in inspiring the Romans, its legacy also stretches far beyond antiquity. When James "Athenian" Stuart and Nicholas Revett visited Greece during the period from 1748 to 1755 and subsequently published The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece (1762) in London, the Neoclassical revolution was underway. Captivated by Stuart and Revett's measured drawings and engravings, Europe suddenly demanded Greek forms. Architects the likes of Robert Adam drove the Neoclassical movement, creating buildings like Kedleston Hall, an English country house in Kedleston, Derbyshire. Neoclassicism even jumped the Atlantic Ocean to North America, spreading the rich heritage of Classical architecture even further-and making the Greek architectural orders not only extremely influential, but eternal.

Additional resources:

B. A. Barletta, The Origins of the Greek Architectural Orders (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

H. Berve, G. Gruben and M. Hirmer, Greek temples, theatres, and shrine s (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1963).

F. A. Cooper, The Temple of Apollo Bassitas 4 vol. (Princeton N.J.: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1992-1996).

J. J. Coulton, Ancient Greek Architects at Work: Problems of Structure and Design (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1982).

W. B. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Greece: an Account of its Historic Development 3rd ed. (London: Batsford, 1950).

W. B. Dinsmoor, The Propylaia to the Athenian Akropolis, 1: The predecessors (Princeton NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1980).

P. Gros, Vitruve et la tradition des traités d'architecture: fabrica et ratiocinatio: recueil d'études (Rome: École française de Rome, 2006).

G. Gruben, "Naxos und Delos. Studien zur archaischen Architektur der Kykladen." Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 112 (1997): 261-416.

Marie-Christine Hellmann, L'architecture Grecque 3 vol. (Paris: Picard, 2002-2010).

A. Hoffmann, E.-L. Schwander, W. Hoepfner, and G. Brands (eds), Bautechnik der Antike: internationales Kolloquium in Berlin vom 15.-17. Februar 1990 (Diskussionen zur archäologischen Bauforschung; 5), (Mainz am Rhein: P. von Zabern, 1991).

M. Korres, From Pentelicon to the Parthenon: The Ancient Quarries and the Story of a Half-Worked Column Capital of the First Marble Parthenon (Athens: Melissa Publishing House, 1995).

M. Korres, Stones of the Parthenon (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2000).

A. W. Lawrence, Greek Architecture 5th ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).

D. S. Robertson, Greek and Roman Architecture 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969).

J. Rykwert, The Dancing Column: On Order in Architecture (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996).

E.-L. Schwandner and G. Gruben, Säule und Gebälk: zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozess griechisch-römischer Architektur: Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16. bis 18. Juni 1994 (Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1996).

M. Wilson Jones, "Designing the Roman Corinthian Order," Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 2, 1989, pp. 35-69.

Smarthistory images for teaching and learning:
More Smarthistory images...

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Identify the classical orders-the architectural styles developed by the Greeks and Romans used to this day. An architectural order describes a style of building. In classical architecture each order is readily identifiable by means of its proportions and profiles, as well as by various aesthetic details.

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Моята библиотека

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Николай Кун - Старогръцки легенди и митове (129) - Моята библиотека

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Универсална библиотека за книги и текстове на български език. Над 3000 автори. Поддръжка на FictionBook (FB2), EPUB и TXT.

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Introduction to Greek Stagecraft

The tragedies and comedies of the fifth and fourth centuries BCE that remain to us today were almost all written for performance in the Theatre of Dionysos at Athens. The Theatre of Dionysos was first dug out of the slope beneath the south side of the Acropolis in the late 6th century BCE, possibly while Athens was still under the rule of the Peisistratid dynasty. It was rebuilt and expanded many times, and so it is difficult to tell exactly what its original shape was.

The Precinct

The Theatre of Dionysos was only one part of the precinct, or temenos,of Dionysos. Initially the precinct contained only the Older Temple of Dionysos and a sacrificial altar. Later a hall, or stoa, was added, incorporating or obliterating the Older Temple, and a second temple built further south. The highest row of seats in the Theatre of Dionysos was 125 feet above the lowest part of the precinct, and before the construction of the stoa and the stage building ( skene), the audience could easily see the temples and the sacrificial altars from the theatre. More importantly, from the Athenian point of view, Dionysos himself (represented by his cult statue, which was seated in the front row) could observe not only the choral performances being given in his honour but the sacrifices which were made at his altar.

In the mid-fifth century, after rebuilding the ruins of the Acropolis, Pericles built a recital-hall ( odeion) to the east of the Theatre of Dionysos. This building was roughly square in shape with a roof described as pyramidal or conical. The Odeion of Pericles was used for many purposes, one being the proagon, a ceremony in which the dramatic poets announced the titles of their plays and introduced their actors. Members of the chorus would wait in the Odeion to make their entrance.

Pericles also introduced the Theoric Fund to subsidize the cost of theatre tickets for the poor. The price of a ticket to the Theatre of Dionysos was two obols, as much as a laborer earned in a day.
The Players
Because Greek tragedy and comedy originated with the chorus, the most important part of the performance space was the orchestra, which means 'a place for dancing' ( orchesis). A tragic chorus consisted of 12 or 15 dancers ( choreuts), who may have been young men just about to enter military service after some years of training. Athenians were taught to sing and dance from a very early age. The effort of dancing and singing through three tragedies and a satyr play was likened to that of competing in the Olympic Games.

In contrast with the chorus of 12 or 15, there were only three actors in fifth-century Athenian tragedy. The original word for 'actor' was hypokrites, meaning 'answerer,' for the actor answered the chorus. Thespis is said to have introduced (and been) the first actor, later called protagonistes (literally 'first competitor'). The introduction of a second actor ( deuteragonistes) is attributed to Aeschylus and the third ( tritagonistes) to Sophocles. There are no one-actor plays remaining to us, though Aeschylus' earliest play, Persians, requires only two actors.

Ordinarily each actor would undertake to play several different roles, and it is usually possible to divide the speaking parts in a Greek tragedy up by determining which characters were in the same scene. Often the division of roles had some thematic significance relevant to the play. We know that the audience could tell one actor from another, despite wearing a mask and costume, because a prize for the best actor was introduced in 449 BCE. Very occasionally a single role might be divided between two or more actors, as in Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus.

The Dramatists

The tragic poets of the 5th century BCE, most notably Phrynicus and Aeschylus, not only composed the plays but acted in them, directed them, and choreographed them. Because they were said to have 'taught' ( edidaksen) the chorus, the inscriptions recording the winners of the dramatic contests were called didaskaliai. Like the actors, these poets were men of leisure with a passion for theatre. Although a substantial cash prize was offered to the winning playwright, and later to the winning actor, playwrights and actors in the 5th century did not earn their living in the theatre. The Mining Company has produced a series of articles about the Greek tragic poets, all written by N.S. Gill:

Aeschylus
Sophocles
Euripides

The only remains of this first theatre, used by Phrynicus, Aeschylus, and possibly Sophocles, are six of the stones which made up the wall of the orchestra. According to the original excavator, Dörpfeld, they once formed part of a circle some 85-88 feet (24-27 meters) in diameter. The stonework is in a rough style known as 'polygonal' which was used in early Greek times. The initial seating area for spectators ( theatron) may not have required much excavation of the hillside, but it was still necessary to shore up the orchestra with retaining walls and to move considerable quantities of earth to make an appropriately level place for the choruses (dithyrambic, tragic, comic, etc) to dance.

It is possible that there was no skene (stage building) until roughly 460 BCE. Aeschylus' Oresteia is the earliest extant drama which uses the skene. His other four plays ( Persians, Seven Against Thebes, Suppliants, Prometheus Bound) may well have been performed in the orchestra, with the actors and chorus on the same level. Previous to the invention of the skene, entrances could only have been made through the two ramps, called eisodoi, which led onto the orchestra.

The archaeological evidence suggests that between 460 and 431 BCE (and probably at the time the Odeion was built) the orchestra was shifted north and west of its original position, and the hillside excavated further to make a more secure foundation for the wooden seats. By this point it is likely that the seats were divided into at least ten different wedges, for the ten 'tribes' which made up the citizens of Attica. By the fourth century BCE, and possibly during the fifth, there were 13 of these wedges, called kekrides in Greek. In front of the new terrace wall, which became the rear wall of the stoa, was a projecting rectangle of stone 26 feet long and 23 feet 3 inches wide. The wooden posts which supported the temporary skene fit into grooves in the terrace wall.

The fifth-century skene was not a permanent building, but a temporary construction of wood, placed across the rear of the orchestral circle for the dramatic performances at each year's festival. Nevertheless its invention brought about a massive change in theatrical practice and in the way in which performers and playwrights used space to create meaning. The interior of this flat-roofed building was the 'backstage' area, but in visual terms it was not so much 'behind' as 'within', an enclosed space which, like a real house, was the dominion of female characters. As a rule, actors could and did step out of the skene and join the chorus in the orchestra, but we have no record of the chorus ever having entered the skene.

The fifth-century skene was frequently a single-storey building with one central door, which could take on the identity of a palace or a temple. At times, a hut or a cave could be represented. In the course of the fifth century, some form of perspective painting was introduced, assisting the front of the building (or removable flats placed before it) to suggest the type of location required for a particular play, but such properties and scenery as existed appear to have been more symbolic than illusionistic.

Machinery

Divinities could appear suddenly on the roof via a trap door. Characters which were specifically stated to be flying (such as Bellerophon on Pegasus) could be swung into the air above the stage space by means of a simple crane, called the mechane or geranos. The earliest known use of the mechane was in the year 431, when Euripides used it at the end of his Medea. Because the mechane had to support considerable weights (and counterweights) it was probably supported by the projection of stone which extended into the orchestra from the terrace wall, and affixed to one of the posts which supported the skene.

Interior scenes could be brought outside by means of a low rolling platform called the ekkyklema ('thing which rolls out'). Because performances took place in daylight, and because of the angle at which the productions were seen (at a considerable distance, and usually from above the playing area), it was not possible to see the interior of the skene. (This is just as well, because the actors needed to change masks, attributes, and possibly costumes inside the skene.) The ekkyklema was used to display the bodies of those who had been killed indoors and to wheel out characters who were ill. The Old Comedy of Aristophanes frequently made fun of the stage machinery and drew deliberate attention to it, but it was an accepted convention in performances of tragedy.

Masks

The large size of the theatre (in its final form it seated 20,000 people) and the distance of even the nearest spectators from the performers (more than 10 meters) dictated a non-naturalistic approach to acting. All gestures had to be large and definite so as to 'read' from the back rows. Facial expression would have been invisible to all but the closest members of the audience; the masks worn by the actors looked more 'natural' than bare faces in the Theatre of Dionysos. The masks of tragedy were of an ordinary, face-fitting size, with wigs attached, and open mouths to allow clear speech. Contrary to some later theories, there were no 'megaphones' in the masks, and their decoration and expression was quite subtle, as vase paintings from the 5th and 4th centuries attest.

Theatrical masks were made of wood (like the masks of Japanese Noh drama), leather (like the masks of the Commedia dell' arte, or cloth and flour paste (like many of the masks used at the Carnevale of Venice, and many masks made for modern productions today). Various theories are advanced in favor of each material, but no originals remain, only stone carvings which may have been used as mask-molds and the paintings on pottery.

Designed by Animagic for Didaskalia, this model will give you a better impression of a Greek tragic mask, inside and out.

Satyr Plays
Each set of three tragedies was followed by the performance of a satyr play, a short spoof of a myth related to the theme of at least one of the tragedies. The ordinary human characters in these plays wore tragic masks and costumes, but the chorus of half-human satyrs wore pug-nosed, pointy- eared, bearded masks, furry shorts, and normal-sized erect phalluses (probably made of leather.) Satyrs danced a special kind of dance called the sikinnis, in which they pranced like horses. The illustration is taken from the Pronomos Vase, which shows the entire cast of a satyr-play.

The masks of Greek Old Comedy were distorted caricatures, sometimes of real people. They were meant to be ugly and silly in keeping with the ludicrous padded costumes worn by comic actors. While tragic actors wore elaborate pattern-woven garments which were similar to the robes of priests and musicians, comic actors wore loose body stockings padded at the breast, buttocks, and stomach, with long floppy phalluses for the male characters. (Except in the case of Aristophanes' Lysistrata, where they were long erect phalluses.) The chorus of Old Comedy was often composed of non-human creatures, such as wasps, frogs, birds, or even clouds. The 24 choreuts of Old Comedy were adult men, as were the three speaking actors.

Greek New Comedy, which was first performed in the 4th century BCE, was in many ways more similar to Euripidean tragedy than to Greek Old Comedy. The masks were fairly naturalistic, the costumes devoid of padding. The plots went from the fantastical to the domestic. The TDA had been rebuilt in stone by the time Menander began producing New Comedies. The skene was more elaborate than before, and how had two or three doors instead of just one. The chorus was divorced from the action of the play and no longer the concern of the playwright at all.

During the Hellenistic era the TDA was again rebuilt, with a skene several storeys high. Actors formed a professional union called the Artists of Dionysus, and were used as diplomatic couriers. By this time theaters had been built in many parts of Greece, including Epidaurus/Epidavros. After their conquest of Greece in the late second century BCE, the Romans also built or redesigned theaters and other performance spaces in Greece. Many of the theaters which you can see in Greece today are actually Roman.

At present the reconstructions show the latest (Hadrianic) phase of the Theater of Dionysus, not the space as it was used in the Fifth Century.

A pictorial tour of the remaining Greek and Roman theatrical buildings around Greece, with maps and descriptions. They are hosted by Gaiorama/Georama in Greece.

Bibliography

Brooke, Iris, Costume in Greek Classic Drama, Greenwood Press, 1973.
Csapo, Eric and Slater, William The Context of Ancient Drama, University of Michigan Press,1995.
Green, Richard and Handley, Eric, Images of the Greek Theatre, British Museum Press, 1995.
Halleran, Michael Stagecraft in Euripides London: Croom Helm, 1985
Ley, Graham, A Short Introduction to the Greek Theatre, University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Lonsdale, Steven, Dance and Ritual Play in Ancient Greek Religion, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
McLeish, Kenneth, The Theatre of Aristophanes, Thames and Hudson, 1980.
Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur, The Theatre of Dionysos in Athens, 1946.
Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur (revised by John Gould), The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, 1980.
Rehm, Rush, Greek Tragic Theatre, Routledge, 1991.
Taplin, Oliver, Greek Tragedy in Action, Oxford University Press, 1978.
Taplin, Oliver, The Stagecraft of Aeschyl us Oxford, 1977.
Taplin, Oliver, Comic Angels, Clarendon Press, 1993.
Walton, J. Michael, Living Greek Theatre, Greenwood Press, 1980.
West, M.L., Ancient Greek Music, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992.
Wiles, David, The Masks of Menander, Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Wiles, David, Tragedy in Athens, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Winkler and Zeitlin, eds., Nothing to Do with Dionysos? Princeton University Press, 1990.
Zimmermann, Bernhard, Greek Tragedy: An Introduction John Hopkins University Press, 1991

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Didaskalia - The Journal for Ancient Performance

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The tragedies and comedies of the fifth and fourth centuries BCE that remain to us today were almost all written for performance in the Theatre of Dionysos at Athens. The Theatre of Dionysos was first dug out of the slope beneath the south side of the Acropolis in the late 6th century BCE, possibly while Athens was still under the rule of the Peisistratid dynasty.

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Произход на старогръцката драма

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Произход на старогръцката драма

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Произход на старогръцката драма

Думата „драма" (стгр. drama) означава „действие".

Води началото си от култа към Дионис.

Изпитва влияния от:

а) Елевзинските мистерии;

б) култа към мъртвите - по време на погребения са се възпроизвеждали събития, чиито герои са били мъртвите;

в) култа към героите.

Възниква и се формира в контекста на атинските празници, наречени Големи Дионисии, и в началото на развитието си изпълнява свещени (сакрални) функции.

Има най-силни изяви през VI-V в. пр.Хр.

! Трите жанра на старогръцката драма са трагедия, сатирна драма и комедия.

Характеристика на понятието „празник"

Празничността е начин на съществуване на старогръцката драма и тя не може да бъде разбрана в същината си, без да се познават старогръцките празници.

Всепроникваща сакралност (религиозна функция)

В ранната гръцка култура се наблюдава ясен ритъм между страните на делника и празника.

Празникът е система от култови действия и организирано време-пространство за „високо" общуване. Елементите на празника са строго определени в своето протичане.

Празнуващата общност се отдава на действия с голяма съпричастност, които се тълкуват като актове на установяване на дълбока връзка с отвъдния свят и със сакралното, на общуване (диалог) с божествата.

Прагматичност

В резултат на разиграваната сакрална комуникация хората очакват от божествата осигуряване на плодородието, потомството, богатството и благополучието за своята общност.

Ритуалност

Празникът в древността (и в Древна Гърция, в частност) е бил свързан с някакво сакрално космическо събитие от митологичен характер - борбата между силите на съзиданието и силите на разрушението, между светлината и мрака, живота и смъртта, космоса (порядъка) и хаоса (безредието), доброто и злото.

Членовете на древното общество се чувстват съучастници в такова събитие. Те извършват ритуални магически действия, за да подпомогнат положителните космически сили. Тези действия представляват най-вече жертвоприношение - на животно или растителен продукт. Обектът жертва се убива и разчленява на късове. Така се уподобява разпадането на света и настъпването на хаоса, но успоредно с това се имитира синтез на нов свят, на нов космос чрез събирането, пренареждането, обработката (най-често печене) и разпределянето на частите на жертвата (поела чрез умъртвяването върху себе си ефекта на космическото унищожение). Така се „спасява" светът, печели се благосклонността на божествата и се гарантират редът, благополучието и стабилността на общността до следващия празник.

Синтетичност

При празничните ритуали се използват всички достъпни на човека изразни средства: слово, мимика, жестове, музика, танц, маскиране и т.н.

Всеобщност

Практическите обществени задачи на празника се отнасят до общността. Общувайки с отвъдния свят, празнуващият колектив общува със самия себе си, като се преобразува от делничен в празничен - изоставя се обществената йерархия и се преминава към отношения на временно равенство. По този начин се постига обновяване на социалното единение и цялостност (общността се реинтегрира).

Игрови характер

Участващите в празника установяват „друг", временно действащ, свят със свои закони за поведение и общуване. Празничното пренареждане на делничната структура освобождава потиснатите сили в отделните човешки същества.

Емоционалност

Древният празник се характеризира с начален страх, тревога, печал (поради настъпващите сили на мрака) и последващо общо облекчение, отпускане, радост и веселие.

Старогръцките празници

Старогръцката култура е наричана „култура на храма" поради широко разпространените храмови строежи и свързаните с тях ритуални практики. С не по-малко основание тя може да бъде наречена „култура на празника".

В отворената и подвижна система от празници през Архаиката и Класиката има два типа празници:

мистериални, несъобразени с реалните общности;

немистериални, пазещи обществената структура.

! Двата типа обикновено се съчетават.

Мистериални празници

Произходът им вероятно е неелински - наследени са от старата неолитна култура на Балканите (може би тракийска по характер).

Основна единица в тях е не реалната общност, а отделният човек, който се включва във временната празнична общност.

В основата си съдържат комплекс от ритуали за осигуряване на плодородие (земеделска мистика) и/или за възрастова инициация (по-свещение в религиозно тайнство).

Отразяват една обща структура на инициационните обреди, моделирани според два главни ритуала на прехода - сватбата и раждането (представени в мистериите като свещена сватба на богинята майка с божествен баща и раждането на „божественото дете").

Мистериалният празник установява йерархия от непосветени, по-малко посветени и повече посветени. В ритуалния ход на празника се застъпват напрегнато опозициите „живот и смърт", „тукашен и отвъден свят" и стремежът за тяхното преодоляване. Идеята за отвъдния живот на една принципно безсмъртна душа, както и за греховността, чието посмъртно наказание може да бъде избегнато чрез посвещение, възниква в този вид празнуване.

Гръцките мистериални богове са Деметра (с Персефона) и Дионис (често отъждествяван с Плутон).

Мистериални празници в Древна Гърция:

а) Тесмофории - участват само омъжени жени;

б) Кабирии - провеждани в Тива и на остров Самотраки;

в) Елевзински мистерии;

г) орфически посвещения - участват само мъже.

Немистериални празници

Към тях се отнасят общогръцките празници и градските празници.

Основната празнуваща единица е реалната общност - общината, семейството, градът.

Организират се шествия в чест на божеството, спортни и драматически състезания и ораторски единоборства.

Допускат се и външни участници, елементът на тайната няма решаваща роля.

Тези празници имат елински произход.

Общогръцки (панелински) празници

Четирите общогръцки празника, назовавани panegyris (оттам - панаир), са най-високо в елинската празнична йерархия. Те се честват така, че всяка година да се провежда по един (т.е. всеки един от тях се празнува веднъж на четири години). Последователността им е следната:

Истмийските игри в близост до град Коринт (през април);

Олимпийските игри - в областта Олимпия (през юли);

Немейските игри - в Немейската долина, Арголида (също през юли);

Питийските игри в Делфи (през август).

! Преди началото на игрите се обявява общогръцко свещено примирие.

Събират се гърци от целия елински свят.

Общогръцките празници са време-пространство за закрепване в културен план на неподдържания в цялост елински етнос.

Състезанието е основният момент в празника. То обикновено е спортно - само в Делфи е музикално.

Стадионът, свързан с олтар, по-късно се превръща само в спортна арена. Олимпия привлича също търговци, музиканти, оратори, философи. Празнува се на спортните площадки и на тържищата, премерва се и се разменя стока.

Атински празници

Чества се основното божество, покровител на града - Атина Палада.

Празниците са през август, веднага след жътвата. Те имат календарен характер, с тях започва новата година.

Завършват цикъл от празници, образуващи дългия ход на трудното сменяне на старата година с нова.

Дионисови празници в Атина - образуват голям комплекс от колективни прояви през зимата и пролетта:

Малки или Селски Дионисии - декември;

Ленеите - януари;

Антестериите - февруари и началото на март;

Големи Дионисии - в края на март и началото на април

! Най-известният атински празник е Големите (Великите), или Градските, Дионисии.

Митът за Дионис в контекста на старогръцката празничност

Традиционен смисъл на мита за Дионис:

Дионис е „нов бог", не влиза направо в олимпийския пантеон.

Разказите за него повествуват за „блуждаенето" му из „чуждото", „дивото" пространство.

Силно е природното съдържание на неговия култ - свързано не само с растителността, виното, гроздето и лозата, но и с вод-ната стихия, с горите и планините (които са периферни зони спрямо културата).

„Природността" на Дионис често се изтъква на преден план, сравняван е с малоазийските богове на умиращата и възкръсваща природа.

Оргиите (стгр. orgia - свещенодействие, богослужение, а също и разпуснато пиршество, карнавал), посветени на него, се асоциират именно с неговата природа на божество на вегетацията.

Социално съдържание на мита за Дионис

В мита за Дионис проличават три нива, свързани с действията на бога през различните му възрасти: като дете, юноша и възрастен. Следствие от тези проявления на Дионис са различните мито-ритуални комплекси, посветени на него.

Чрез Дионис се кодира в божествен порядък социалният живот на индивида в древногръцкото общество, преминаващ през тези възрастови фази и поредно принадлежащ към съответстващите им социални групи.

Първи митологичен цикъл (раждане и детство на бога): двойно раждане - от майка му Семела и от бедрото на Зевс, разкъсване от титаните (под името Дионис Загрей) и отглеждане от жени (лелите-кърмачки, нимфи, нереидите). Изразява се загрижеността на митичното съзнание за опасностите, които съпровождат раждането и детството на момчето - първият етап от израстването му като социално пълноценна личност.

Втори митологичен цикъл (Дионис като юноша, бродещ из горите и съпровождан из горите от вакхическа женска дружина - тиас (стгр. thiasos - дружина). Богът е далеч от семейството, от дома, извън културното пространство - в дивата периферия или на чужда етническа територия. Дионис е описван като изнежен, женствен, преоблича се като девойка, т.е. все още полово неопределен, непреминал възрастовата инициация. С този кръг от митове е свързан и мотивът за лудостта.

Трети митологичен цикъл (Дионис в зряла възраст, изобразяван е с брада): встъпва в свещен брак с критската принцеса Ариадна - бракът е един от пътищата за придобиване на социален статус на зрелост. Вторият знак на узряването е намесата на бога в живота на останалите богове - извежда майка си Семела от подземното царство и довежда Хефест на Олимп. Дионис вече получава собствен култ като бог на виното - самото пиене е привилегия единствено на възрастните мъже, на пълноправните членове на обществото.

Така в образа на Дионис са представени трите стадия от живота на човека - от детето до възрастния мъж.

НO: Тъй като митологичното съзнание осмисля времето като циклично, а не линейно, отсъства разбирането за развитие, за плавен преход между трите възрастови статуса. Всяка фаза е затворена сама в себе си и не се свързва с друга. Преходът между тях се осмисля като смърт. Затова в митичните повествования Дионис умира няколко пъти: опожарен е от мълнията на Зевс при преждевременното си раждане; като дете е разкъсан от титаните; като юноша се крие от Ликург в морето (потапянето във вода е символична смърт) или пък е убит от героя Персей, който го хвърля в изворите на Лерна; също като юноша е отвлечен от тиренските пирати, за да бъде продаден в робство (което е социална смърт). Смъртта на бога като дете и като юноша обозначава двата преходни етапа във възрастовата йерархия в архаичното общество, както и трудностите и страданията, свързани с тях.

Дионис - „идващ" и „преследван" бог

Дионис е бог на „граничните ситуации", митологично „чужд".

В неговия култ основни са ритуалите по пристигането му в нормирано пространство (най-често град).

Дионис е бог чужденец и пристигането му е драматично - то се осмисля като нахлуване, предизвикващо криза в нормите на културата.

Дионис е „преследвано" божество (отново драматичен мотив): яростно се оспорва неговото ново религиозно послание. Дори и в родната му Тива никой не го познава, не го признава за „свой".

В митичните разкази Дионис извършва точно обратните на нормативните предписания действия, т.е. преобръща света наопаки. Влизането му в културната зона кодира изпълването на празнуващите с ентусиазъм и излизането им извън себе си.

Дионис и виното

Дионис дава виното като културен дар на хората.

Виното е свещена напитка, символизираща мощта на живота, то е извор на енергия, а неговата консумация - откровение на неведомото и истината, на духовното възраждане. Самият Дионис е въплъщение на напитката.

Пиенето на вино е важна тема в Дионисовия мито-ритуален кръг. От една страна, чрез виното пиещият постига бога, а от друга, напуска човешката си същност и се приравнява с „дивото", с екстремалното.

Всички трудности, свързани с култивирането на лозата, събирането на плода и приготвянето на виното, древните гърци отъждествяват със страданията, смъртта и възкресението на разкъсания от титаните Дионис. Запазени са сведения, че гръцките ритуали по мачкане на гроздето се съпровождат с викове „Дионис", а участниците са с маски на сатири.

Дионис е богът, който бива „изпиван".

Пилият вино елин мистично съпреживява Дионисовите страсти и получава ново знание за себе си и битието.

Дионисовият ентусиазъм, оргията и идеята за освобождаването

Идващият Дионис изпълва индивида и общността с ентусиазъм: протича интензивно изживявана идентификация с бога и екстаз (надмогване на човешката природа, откриване на цялостно освобождаване).

Дионис е свободен бог и божество, което освобождава човеците и установява друго, „природно" поведение, често отъждествявано с лудост (алкохолно опиянение, вулгарни шеги, еротични волности и енергични конвулсивни танци).

Но лудостта е и божествено обладаване: общението с Дионис е придобиване на мистичен опит, то временно преобръща обикновеното положение на човека и той става съпричастен не само на Дионисовите изпитания и страдания, но и на съзидателната спонтанност и опияняващата свобода, на свръхчовешката сила и неуязвимост на бога.

Постигането на Дионис като религиозен опит

Мито-ритуалният комплекс на Дионис има изключително влияние в светоусещането на античния човек. Той осигурява идеята за осезаемо общуване на индивидуалното човешко съзнание с космическия живот. Така през античността чрез митологична форма се поставят всички важни въпроси на мирозданието в противоречивата му същност - като единство и множество, разпадане и възсъединяване, гибел и възраждане. Дионисовите митове и ритуали изразяват учението за ставането на света като космическа трагедия, която пронизва из основи всеки индивид така, че той, осъзнавайки себе си, „узнава" своята общност с вселената.

Дионис изразява идеята за тоталната жизненост.

Той е единственият елински бог, който привлича и социалните низини, и интелектуалните елити.

Чрез култа към Дионис елинът прониква в божествената същност, изпълва се с „високо" знание чрез оргиастичния екстаз.

Дионис е божество, близко до хората, и дарява надеждата, че човешката природа може да бъде надмогната и да се постигне друго съществуване.

Този дълбок религиозен опит присъства на всяко равнище на Дионисовия култ. Всяко празнично действие се изживява от членовете на общността интензивно. Това се отнася и за театралните състезания в Атина.

Характер на драматическото състезание

Авторът и неговият екип

По време на Големите Дионисии се провеждат драматически състезания.

Те траят 3 дни - всеки ден един автор представя 3 трагедии, обединени в трилогия, и една сатирна драма.

Най-често авторът, освен че е поет, е и режисьор, хореограф на творбата си, а нерядко е дори и актьор в нея.

Ръководителят на Хора - хорегът, освен че го съставя, поема разходите на цялата постановка. Той (както и съставът на актьорите) се определя чрез жребий в Народното събрание на Атина.

Жури

Състезаващите се драми се оценяват от жури (комисия).

То се състои от 10 човека - по един от всеки атински окръг.

Награди

Награда получават хорегът, поетът и протагонистът на драмата, отличена с първото място.

Лавровият венец е предназначен за хорега.

Архитектурно устройство на античния театър

Орхестра (стгр. orchestra) - кръгла площадка, където играе и пее Хорът. В центъра й се намира олтар на Дионис.

Пароди (стгр. parodos - вход, влизане) - два странични входа между сцената и местата за сядане, от които се появяват Хорът или актьорите (идвайки отвън на двореца). Влизащите от десния парод пристигат от града или пристанището, а от левия - идват от полето или от чужбина.

Проскений (стгр. proskenion) - колонада с декори (от боядисани дъски), издигната над орхестрата, площ за актьорите - сцена.

Скене (стгр. skene - покривало) - помещение за преобличане на актьорите, намиращо се зад орхестрата. По-късно се превръща в декоративен фон (фасада на дворец или храм).

Театрон (стгр. theatron) - зрителски места, разположени в полукръг около орхестрата. Разделени са на 2 от диазома (стгр. diazoma).

Сценична техника

аеорема (стгр. aeorema) или механе (стгр. mechane) - подемен кран. С него на сцената от въздуха се появяват боговете (deus ex machina); В някои източници се споменава и като геранос (стгр. geranos - жерав);

бронтейон (стгр. bronteyonos) - машина за шумови ефекти (барабан с големи метални топки), имитиращи гръмотевици;

екиклема (стгр. ekkyklema) - платформа на дървени колела; с нея се изнасят на сцената телата на убитите;

периактой (стгр. periaktoi) - две призматични колони от лявата и дясната страна на сцената, с чиято помощ се сменя декорът;

теологейон (стгр. theologeion) - платформа, намираща се на покрива на скенето, откъдето произнасят монолози актьорите, играещи богове.

Актьорско облекло и сценична игра

Маски - направени от дърво, кожа или плат и боядисани, те са наследство от архаичните обредни свещени драми. Използват се за представяне на различни обобщени типове и чувства: герои, царе, старици, юноши, роби. Цветовете, с които са украсени маските, определят пола, възрастта, общественото положение, нравствените качества и конкретното душевно състояние на персонажа (при смяна на състоянията на един персонаж се сменят и маските): напр. бяла маска за жена, тъмна - за мъж, червена - за гняв, жълта - за умора. На маската са поставяли и перука. Според някои изследователи са имали метални пластини в отвора на устата за усилване на гласа.

Котурни (стгр. kothornos) - дървени обувки с много високи подметки. Служат за постигане на необичаен, внушителен ръст на актьорите, вдъхващ респект у публиката.

Сценични костюми - дълги, цветни, пищни, със скъпи украшения. Цветът и кройката определят какъв е героят: жълта дреха - цар, лък и стрели - бог Аполон, и т. н. За женските персонажи актьорите добавяли пред гърдите и корема си дървени бюст и изпъкнал корем (стгр. prostemeda и progastreda).

! Със сценичното облекло и маските не се търси индивидуализация, а типизация.

Сценична игра

В представлението като актьори участват само мъже.

Актьорите са свободни хора - за разлика от Рим, където играят роби.

Те трябва да притежават следните качества:

а) добра пластика;

б) танцови умения;

в) декламационно майсторство: височината на гласа определя и избора на роля.

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Фотоника - предпечат и печат

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Думата „драма" (стгр. drama) означава „действие". Води началото си от култа към Дионис. Изпитва влияния от: а) Елевзинските мистерии; б) култа към мъртвите - по време на погребения са се възпроизвеждали събития, чиито герои са били мъртвите; в) култа към героите.

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проф. Богданов
"Литературата на Елинизма"
ЗА ТЕАТЪРА И ДРАМАТА - стр. 53

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проф. Богданов
"Литературата на Елинизма"
ЗА ТЕАТЪРА И ДРАМАТА - стр. 53

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Проф. Богданов:
ИСТОРИЯ НА СТАРОГРЪЦКАТА КУЛТУРА

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Проф. Богданов:
ИСТОРИЯ НА СТАРОГРЪЦКАТА КУЛТУРА

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Проф. Богданов:
Древногръцка литература
ЕНЦИКЛОПЕДИЧЕН СПРАВОЧНИК

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Проф. Богданов:
Древногръцка литература
ЕНЦИКЛОПЕДИЧЕН СПРАВОЧНИК

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Древногръцка архитектура
ТАЙНИТЕ НА ПАРТЕНОНА

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Древногръцка архитектура
ТАЙНИТЕ НА ПАРТЕНОНА

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For 25 centuries the Parthenon has been shot at, set on fire, rocked by earthquakes, looted for its sculptures, and disfigured by catastrophic renovations. To save it from collapse, the modern restoration team must uncover the secrets of how the ancient Greeks built this icon of western civilization in less than nine years without anything resembling an architectural plan.

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Secrets Of The Parthenon: How did the ancient Greeks build the Acropolis, and what it keeps it standing to this day?

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For 25 centuries the Parthenon has been shot at, set on fire, rocked by earthquakes, looted for its sculptures, and disfigured by catastrophic renovations. To save it from collapse, the modern restoration team must uncover the secrets of how the ancient Greeks built this icon of western civilization

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Last week, we talked about the symbolism of the Knot of Isis. This time, let's talk about actually wearing the amulet.

It's relatively easy to find a jewelry version of the amulet and that's certainly the easiest way to wear a symbol of the Goddess. If that's the way you'd like to go, purify and consecrate your new piece of jewelry, then charge it by speaking the formula of the Knot of Isis over it:

You have Your blood, O Isis. You have Your power, O Isis. You have Your magic, O Isis.

It would be well to "touch up" the magical charge from time to time by repeating the Knot of Isis formula on occasion; perhaps yearly at the rising of Sothis in your area, or monthly on the full moon.

It takes a bit more doing if you'd like to actually wear the Knot of Isis tied into your ritual clothing. (Generally, this is a woman's dress; having breasts helps keep it in place a bit. But I see no reason why a man could not wear the Knot, too, should he choose to do so.)

The image above is a Roman-era Isis and shows the usual way we tend to see the Knot of Isis tied into clothing. During this period, this garb was the most common way of depicting both the Goddess and Her representatives. I presume that this was considered ritual clothing and not everyday wear, but perhaps it was daily wear for full time priestesses; just a speculation.

The Knot of Isis ensemble consisted of two pieces: an under-robe, long or short-sleeved, and an over-mantle that was draped around the body and tied together with a large knot-the Isis Knot-between the breasts. The mantle is often fringed. The statue above has just a little fringe, which you can see a little bit where the ends of the knot hang loose. I added the photo on the right so you can see the fringe more clearly.

In Egypt, however, the draped mantle was not quite the specialized mode of dress it became in the Greco-Roman world. In fact, scholars believe that the later Knot of Isis outfit derived from the type of Egyptian dress worn by many queens and noblewomen beginning in the New Kingdom (1570-1085 BCE). Goddesses, on the other hand, are almost always shown wearing the old-fashioned sheath dress, the kalasiris, which is tight-fitting and held up by two wide straps that (sort of) cover the breasts. New Kingdom fashion became more sumptuous. Women's clothing gained drapery and folds, but because it was often made of very sheer material, you could still appreciate the curves of the wearer's body beneath. (Egyptian weavers were famed for their ability to create exquisitely fine linen. It was said that it was so fine that it could easily be pulled through a finger ring.)

As you see on the left, the New Kingdom dress also has material draped over both arms and knotted between the breasts. What we don't see here is the heavy draping under the breasts that became characteristic of the Knot of Isis costume in later periods. Our beautiful New Kingdom lady has no need of an under-robe. Yet Isis' Greek and Roman devotees, in their more modest-or perhaps, restrictive-cultures, preferred an undergarment of some kind, usually a simple robe like a Greek chiton. As time passed and Egypt came under Greek and then Roman rule, Egyptian women would opt for an undergarment as well, either a slim, Egyptian kalasiris or a Greek chiton. There are some Egyptian images in which we can see the undergarment through the diaphanous draped mantle. In the Greek and Roman worlds, with the under-robe standard, the mantle could become shorter and more decorative. The fringe becomes more common and the draping, especially beneath the breasts, becomes more pronounced.

Researchers are in a chicken-and-egg situation when it comes to figuring out when and how the Isis Knot first came to be used so prominently in Greek and Roman images of the Goddess and Her devotees. It is, as yet, unknown when Isis was first represented wearing the characteristic knot. We don't know whether devotees began wearing the knot because they saw images of Isis depicted that way or whether devotees adopted the Egyptian fashion, then artists started creating images of Isis wearing the knot because they saw devotees wearing it. Some scholars think it may have been Cleopatra VII who was responsible for spreading the use of the Isis-knotted mantle; Plutarch tells us that she sometimes dressed as Isis and called herself "the New Isis" though he does not describe the ritual clothing Cleopatra wore on these occasions. Personally, I tend to think the Isis Knot ensemble was earlier than Cleopatra. Perhaps Plutarch did not describe it because everybody already knew what Isis would be wearing. (On an interesting additional note, the long corkscrew curled locks so frequently shown in Greco-Roman images of Isis are also thought to have a genuine Egyptian antecedent; the long curls may have been in imitation of the long wavy or braided wigs favored by many Egyptians.)

If you would like to tie your own Isis Knot into your ritual clothing, here's the diagram from Isis Magic, reproduced for your knot-tying pleasure. Oh, by the way, be sure you use linen or some other non-slippery fabric for your mantle. My first mantle was made from a silk-like fabric and the knot slipped right off!

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Last week, we talked about the symbolism of the Knot of Isis. This time, let's talk about actually wearing the amulet. It's relatively easy to find a jewelry version of the amulet and that's certainly the easiest way to wear a symbol of the Goddess. If that's the way you'd like to go, purify and...

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ГРЪЦКИ ХИТОН

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ГРЪЦКИ ХИТОН

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Cool cartoons that will have you experimenting with food, light, sound, clothes, and a whole lot more!

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Антична Гърция - облекло 

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Антична Гърция - облекло 

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The Ancient Greek costumes. The Tunic or Chiton.

IT is precisely in its earliest periods that the Grecian attire, whether of the head or of the body, exhibits in its arrangement the greatest degree of study, and if I may so call it, of foppishness. In those Grecian basso-relieves and statues which either really are of very early workmanship, or which at least profess to imitate the style of work of the early ages (formerly mistaken for Etruscan), every lock of hair is divided into symmetrical curls or ringlets, and every fold of the garment into parallel plaits; and not only the internal evidence of those monuments themselves, but the concurring testimony of authors, shows that in those remote ages heated irons were employed both to curl the hair and beard, and to plait the drapery. It was only in later times that the covering, as well of the head as of the body, was left to assume a more easy and uncontrolled flow.

Description: Coiffures. The Beautiful Lines of the Greek Costumes.

At first, as appears both from ancient sculpture and paintings, men and women alike wore their hair descending partly before and partly behind in a number of long separate locks, either of a flat and zig-zagged, or of a round and corkscrew shape. A little later it became the fashion to collect the whole of the hair hanging down the back, by means of a riband, into a single broad bundle, and only to leave in front one, two, or three long narrow locks or tresses hanging down separately; and this queue was an ornament which Minerva, a maiden affecting old fashions and formality, never seems to have quitted; and which Bacchus, though not originally quite so formal, yet when on his return from amongst the philosophers of India he also chose to assume the beard and mien of a sage, thought proper to readopt. Later still, this queue depending down the back was taken up; and doubled into a club; and the side locks only continued in front, as low down as the nipple. But these also gradually shrunk away into a greater number of smaller tufts or ringlets, hanging about the ears, and leaving the neck quite unconfined and bare. So neatly was the hair arranged in both sexes round the forehead, and in the males round the chin, as sometimes to resemble the cells of a beehive, or the meshes of wire-work.

With regard to the attire of the body, the innermost article,- that garment which does not indeed appear always to have been worn, but which, whenever worn, was always next the skin,- seems to have been of a light creasy stuff, similar to the gauzes of which to this day the eastern nations make their shirts. The peculiar texture of this stuff not admitting of broad folds or drapery, this under garment was in early times cut into shapes fitting the body and arms very closely, and joined round the neck, and down the sleeves, by substantial hems or stays of some stouter tissue. But even this part of the attire seems in later times to have been worn very wide and loose round the body, and often at the shoulders; where, as in the figures of Minerva and of the bearded Bacchus, the sleeves are gathered up in such a way as totally to lose their shape.

The outer garment assumes in the figures of the old style an infinite variety of shapes, but seems always to have been studiously plaited; so as to form a number of flat and parallel folds across its surface, a zig-zag line along its edge, and a sharp point at each of its angles.
Though the costume of the Greeks appears to have been more particularly of the sort just described, at the periods when the sieges of Troy and of Thebes were supposed to have taken place, and is in fact represented as such in the more ancient monuments relative to those events, the later works of art, nevertheless, even where they profess to represent personages belonging to those early ages, usually array them in the more unconfined habiliments of more recent times. In the male figures even of such primeval heroes as a Hercules, an Achilles, and a Theseus, we generally find the long formal ringlets of the heroic ages omitted for the short crops of the historic periods.
I shall now enter into a somewhat greater detail with regard to the different pieces of which was composed the Grecian attire.

The principal vestment both of men and of women, that which was worn next the skin, and which, consequently, whenever more than one different garment were worn one over the other, was undermost, bore in Greek the name of χίτων; in Latin that of tunica. It was of a light tissue; in earliest times made of wool, in later periods of flax, and last of all, of flax mixed with silk, or even of pure silk. Its body was in general composed of two square pieces sewed together on the sides. Sometimes it remained sleeveless, only offered openings for the bare arms to pass through, and was confined over the shoulders by means of clasps or buttons; at other times it had very long and wide sleeves; and these were not infrequently, as in the figures of Minerva and of the bearded Bacchus, gathered up under the arm-pits, so as still to leave the arms in a great measure bare. Most usually however the body of the tunic branched out into a pair of tight sleeves reaching to near the elbow, which in the most, ancient dresses were close, with a broad stiff band running down the seams, and in more modern habiliments open in their whole length, and only confined by means of small buttons carried down tile arms, and placed so near the edge of the stuff as in their intervals to show the skin. In very richly embroidered tunics the sleeves sometimes descended to the wrists; in others they hardly reached half way down the upper arm.

The tunic was worn by females either quite loose, or confined by a girdle: and this girdle was either drawn tight round the waist, or loosely slung round the loins. Often, when the tunic was very long, and would otherwise have entangled the feet, it was drawn over the girdle in such a way as to conceal the latter entirely underneath its folds. It is not uncommon to see two girdles of different widths worn together, the one very high up, and the other very low down, so as to form between the two in the tunic a puckered interval; but this fashion was only applied to short tunics by Diana, by the wood nymphs, and by other females fond of the chase, the foot race, and such other martial exercises as were incompatible with long petticoats.

Among the male part of the Greek nation, those who, like philosophers, affected great austerity, abstained entirely from wearing the tunic, and contented themselves with throwing over their naked body a simple cloak or mantle; and even those less austere personages who indulged in the luxury of the tunic, wore it shorter than the Asiatic males, or than their own women,and almost always confined by a girdle.

From Greek vases and paintings we learn that the tunic often was adorned with sprigs, spots, stars, &c., worked in the ground of the stuff; and rich scrolls, meanders, &c., carried round its edges; and this tunic was frequently, as well out of doors as within, worn without any other more external garment. In mourning, when the Grecian ladies cut their hair close to the head, they wore the tunic black. Over this tunic or under garment, which was made to reach the whole length of the body down to the feet, Grecian females generally, though not always, wore a second and more external garment, only intended to afford an additional covering or protection to the upper half of the person. This species of bib seems to have been composed of a square piece of stuff, in form like our shawls or scarfs, folded double, so as to be apparently reduced to half its original width, and was worn with the doubled part upwards, and the edge or border downwards next the zone or girdle. It was suspended round the chest and back, in such a way that its centre came under the left arm, and its two ends hung down loose under the right arm; and according as the piece was square or oblong, these ends either only reached to the hips, or descended to the ankles. The whole was secured by means of two clasps or buttons, which fastened together the fore and hind part over each shoulder.
In later times this bib, from a square piece of stuff doubled, seems to have become a mere single narrow slip, only hanging down a very short way over the breasts; and allowing the girdle, even when fixed as high as possible, to appear underneath.(1)*

The peplum constituted the outermost covering of the body. Among the Greeks it was worn in common by both sexes, but was chiefly reserved for occasions of ceremony or of public appearance, and as well in its texture as in its shape, seemed to answer to our shawl. When very long and ample, so as to admit of being wound twice round the body-first under the arms, and the second time, over the shoulders-it assumed the name of diplax. In rainy or cold-weather it was drawn over the head. At other times this peculiar mode of wearing it was expressive of humility or of grief, and was adopted by men and women when in mourning, or when performing sacred rites; on both which accounts it was thus worn by Agamemnon, when going to sacrifice his daughter.

This peplum was never fastened on by means of clasps or buttons, but only prevented from slipping off through the intricacy of its own involutions. Endless were the combinations which these exhibited; and in nothing do we see more ingenuity exerted, or more fancy displayed, than in the various modes of making the peplum form grand and contrasted draperies. Indeed the different degrees of simplicity or of grace observable in the throw. of the peplum, were regarded as indicating the different degrees of rusticity or of refinement inherent in the disposition of the wearer.
For the sake of dignity, all the goddesses of the highest class, Venus excepted, wore the peplum; but for the sake of convenience, Diana generally had hers furled up and drawn tight over the shoulders and round the waist, so as to form a girdle, with the ends hanging clown before or behind. Among the Greeks the peplum never had, as among the barbarians, its whole circumference adorned by a separate fringe, but only its corners loaded with little metal weights or drops, in order to make them hang down more straight and even.

A veil of lighter tissue than the peplum was often worn by females. It served both as an appendage of rank, and as a sign of modesty. On the first account it is seen covering the diadem of Juno, the mitra of Ceres, and the turreted crown of Cybele, and of the emblematical figures of cities and of provinces; and on the latter account it is made, in ancient representations of nuptials, to conceal the face of the bride. Penelope, when urged to state whether she preferred staying with her father, or following her husband, is represented expressing her preference of the latter, merely by drawing her veil over her blushing features.

Gods and heroes, when traveling, or on some warlike expedition, and men in inferior stations or of simple manners, at all times used instead of the ample peplum to wear a shorter and simpler cloak called chlamys, which was fastened over the shoulder or upon the chest with a clasp. Such is the mantle we observe in the Belvedere Apollo; and in many statues of Mercury, a traveller by profession; as well as in those of heroes and of other simple mortals.

Besides these dresses common among all ranks and stations, the Greeks had certain other vestments appropriate to certain peculiar characters and offices. Apollo, when in the company of the Muses, wore in compliment to the modesty of those learned virgins, a long flowing robe, similar to that of females. Bacchus, and his followers of both sexes, often appear wrapped up in a faun or tiger (2)* skin; and heralds distinguish themselves by a short stiff jacket, divided in formal partitions, not unlike the coats of arms of the same species of personages in the times of chivalry. Actors, comic and tragic, as well as other persons engaged in processions sacred or profane, wore fantastical dresses, often represented on vases and other antique monuments.

The numerous colourless Greek statues still in existence, are apt at first sight to impress us with an idea that the Grecian attire was most simple and uniform in its hue; but the Greek vases found buried in tombs, the paintings dug out of Herculaneum and of Pompeya (Pompeii was an ancient Roman city near Naples), and even a few statues in marble and in bronze, enriched with stained or with inlaid borders, incontestably prove that the stuffs were equally gaudy in their colours and varied in their patterns. The richest designs were traced upon them, both in painting and needle-work.
Greatly diversified were, among the Grecian females, the coverings of both extremities. Ladies reckoned among the ornaments of the head the mitra, or bushel-shaped crown peculiarly affected by Ceres; the tiara, or crescent-formed diadem, worn by Juno and by Venus; and ribands, rows of beads, wreaths of flowers, nettings, fillets, skewers, and gewgaws innumerable. The feet were sometimes left entirely bare. Sometimes they were only protected underneath by a simple sole, tied by means of thongs or strings, disposed in a variety of elegant ways across the instep and around the ankle; and sometimes they were also shielded above by means of shoes or half-boots, laced before, and lined with the fur of animals of the feline tribe, whose muzzle and claws were disposed in front. Ear-rings in various shapes, necklaces in numerous rows, bracelets in forms of hoops or snakes for the upper and lower arms, and various other trinkets were in great request, and were kept in a species of casket or box, called pyxis, from the name of the wood of which it was originally made; and these caskets, as well as the small oval hand mirrors of metal, (the indispensable insignia of courtesans) the umbrella, the fan formed of leaves or of feathers, the calathus or basket of reeds to hold the work, and all the other utensils and appendages intended to receive, to protect, or to set off whatever appertained to female dress and embellishment, are often represented on tho Grecian fictile vases.

The men, when travelling, protected their heads from the heat or the rain by a flat broad-brimmed hat tied under the chin with strings, by which, when thrown off, it hung suspended on the back. Mercury, and heroes on their journeys, are represented wearing this hat. There was also a conical cap, without a rim, worn chiefly by sea-faring people, and which therefore characterises Ulysses.

The same variety in the covering of the feet was observable among men as among women. Soldiers fastened a coarse sole, by means of a few strings, round the ankle; philosophers wore a plain shoe. Elegant sandals, with straps and thongs cut into various shapes, graced the feet of men of rank and fashion.

Crowns and wreaths of various forms and materials were much in use among the Greeks. Some of these were peculiarly consecrated to particular deities, as the turreted crown to Cybele, and to the figures emblematic of cities; that of oak leaves to Jupiter, of laurel leaves to Apollo, of ivy or vine branches to Bacchus, of poplar to Hercules, of wheat-ears to Ceres, of gold or myrtle to Venus, of fir twigs to the fauns and sylvans, and of reeds to the river gods. Other wreaths were peculiarly given as rewards to the winners in particular games. Wild olive was the recompense in the Olympic, laurel in the Pythiac, parsley in the Nemean, and pine twigs in the Isthmic games. Other similar ornaments, again, served to indicate peculiar stations or ceremonies. The diadem or fillet called credemnon, was among gods reserved for Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, and Bacchus, and among men, regarded as the peculiar mark of royalty.

The radiated crown, formed of long sharp spikes emblematic of the sun, and always made to adorn the head of that deity, was first worn only on the tiaras of the Armenian and Parthian kings, and afterwards became adopted by the Greek sovereigns of Egypt and of Syria. A wreath of olive branches was worn by ordinary men at the birth of a son, and a garland of flowers at weddings and festivals. At these latter, in order that the fragrance of the roses and violets with which the guests were crowned might be more fully enjoyed, the wreath was often worn, not round the head, but round the neck.
As a symbol of their peaceful authority, gods, sovereigns, and heralds, carried the scepter, or hasta, terminated not by the metal point, but by the representation of some animal or flower. As the emblem of their missive and conciliatory capacity, Mercury and all other messengers bore the caduceus twined round with serpents.

The defensive armor of the Greeks consisted of a helmet, breast-plate, greaves, and shield, of the helmet there were two principal sorts; that with an immovable visor, projecting from it like a species of mask, and that with a movable visor, sliding over it in the shape of a mere slip of metal. The helmet with the immovable visor, when thrown back so as to uncover the face, necessarily left a great vacuun between its own crown and the skull of the wearer, and generally had, in order to protect the cheeks, two leather flaps, which, when not used, were tucked up inwards. The helmet with the movable visor usually displayed for the same purpose a pair of concave metal plates, which were suspended from hinges, and when not wanted were turned up outwards. Frequently one or more horses manes cut square at the edges, rose from the back of the helmet, and sometimes two horns or two straight feathers issued from the' sides, Quadrigræ, sphinxes, griffins, sea-horses, and other insignia, richly embossed, often covered the surface of these helmets.

The body was guarded by a breast-plate or cuirass; which seems sometimes to have been composed of two large pieces only, one for the back and the other for the breast, joined together at the sides; and sometimes to have been formed of a number of smaller pieces, either in the form of long slips or of square plates, apparently fastened by means of studs on a leather doublet. The shoulders were protected by a separate piece, in the shape of a broad cape, of which the ends or points descended on the chest, and were fastened by means of strings or clasps to the breast-plate. Generally, in Greek armor this cuirass is cut round at the loins; sometimes, however, it follows the outline of the abdomen, and from it hang down one or more rows of straps of leather or of slips of metal, intended to protect the thighs.

The legs were guarded by means of greaves rising very high above the knees, and probably of a very elastic texture, since, notwithstanding they appear very stiff, their opposite edges approach very near at the back of the calf, where they are retained by means of loops or clasps. Those greaves are frequently omitted, particularly in figures of a later date. The most usual shield was very large and perfectly circular, with a broad flat rim, and the centre very much raised, like a deep dish turned upside down. The Theban shield, instead of being round, was oval, and had two notches cut in the sides, probably to pass the spear or javelin through. All shields were furnished inside with loops, some intended to encircle the arm, and to be laid hold of by the hand. Emblems and devices were as common on ancient shields "as on the bucklers of the crusaders. Sometimes, on, fictile vases, we observe a species of apron or curtain suspended from the shield, by way of a screen or protection to the legs.

The chief offensive weapon of the Greeks was the sword. It was short and broad, and suspended from a belt on the left side, or in front.(3)* Next in rank came the spear; long, thin, with a point at the nether end, with which to fix it in the ground; and of this species of weapon warriors generally carried a pair.

Hercules, Apollo, Diana, and Cupid, were represented with the bow and arrows. The use of these, however, remained not, in after-times, common among the Greeks, as it did among the Barbarians. Of the quivers some were calculated to contain both bow and arrows, others arrows only. Some were square, some round, Many had a cover to them to protect the arrows from dust and rain, and many appear lined with skins. They were slung across the back or sides by means of a belt passing over the right shoulder.
Independent of the arms for use, there was other armour of lighter and richer texture, wrought solely for processions and trophies; among the helmets belonging to this latter class some had highly finished metal masks attached to them.

The car of almost each Grecian deity was drawn by some peculiar kind of animal; that of Juno by peacocks, of Apollo by griffins, of Diana by stags, of Venus by swans or turtledoves, of Mercury by rams, of Minerva by owls, of Cybele by lions, of Bacchus by panthers, of Nepture by sea-horses.
In early times warriors among the Greeks made great use in battle of cars or chariots drawn by two horses, in which the hero fought standing, while his squire or attendant guided the horses, In after times these bigræ, as well as the quadrigræ drawn by four horses abreast, were chiefly reserved for journeys or chariot races.

The Gorgon's head, with its round chaps, wide mouth and tongue drawn out, emblematic of the full moon, and regarded as an amulet or safeguard against incantations and spells, is for that reason found not only on the formidable ægis of Jupiter and of Minerva, as well as on cinerary urns and in tombs, but on the Greek shields and breast-plates, at the pole-ends of their chariots, and in the most conspicuous parts of every other instrument of defence or protection to the living or the dead.

Of the Greek galleys, or ships of war, the prow was decorated with the cheniscus, frequently formed like the head and neck of an aquatic bird; and the poop with the aplustrum, shaped like a sort of honeysuckle. Two large eyes were generally represented near the prow, as if to enable the vessel, like a fish, to see its way through the waves.
I shall not make this short sketch an antiquarian treatise, by launching into an elaborate description of Grecian festivals. In the religious processions of the Greeks masks were used, as well as on their theatre, in order to represent the attendants of the god who was worshipped. Thus, in Bacchanalian processions, (the endless subject of ancient bas-reliefs and paintings) the fauns, satyrs, and other monstrous beings, are only human individuals masked; and in initiations and mysteries, the winged genii are in the same predicament: and the deception must have been the greater as the ancient masks were made to cover the whole head. Of these masks (which together with all else that belonged to the theatre were consecrated to Bacchus) there was an infinite variety. Some representing abstract feelings or characters, such as joy, grief, laughter, dignity, vulgarity, expressed in the various modifications of the comic, tragic, and satyric masks; others offering portraits of real individuals, living or dead. The thyrsus, so frequently introduced, was only a spear, of which the point was stuck in a pine cone or wound with ivy leaves; afterwards, in order to render less dangerous the blows given with it during the sports of the Bacchanalian festival, it was made of the reed called ferula.
Above picture description
Musical instruments

Infinitely varied were the Greek dances; some slow, some quick, some grave, some gay, some voluptuous, some warlike. It was common at feasts to have women that professed dancing and music, called in to entertain the guests.

As of musical modes, so of musical instruments there was a great diversity. The phorminx, or large lyre, dedicated to Apollo, and played upon with an ivory instrument, called plectrum, seems, from certain very intricate and minute parts always recurring in its representations, to have been a very complicated structure. It was usually fastened to a belt slung across the shoulders, and sometimes suspended from the wrist to the left hand, while played upon with the right. The cithara, or smaller lyre, dedicated to Mercury, and, when its body was formed of a tortoise shell and its handles composed of a pair of goat's horns, more strictly called chelys, was played upon by the fingers.
The barbitos was a much longer instrument, and emitting a graver sound. To these may be added the trigonum, or triangle; an instrument borrowed by the Greeks from Eastern nations, and much resembling the harp.

Independent of these instruments with cords, the Greeks had several wind instruments, principally the double flute, and the syrinx, or Pan's flute. To these may be added certain instruments for producing mere noise, such as the tympanon, or tambourine, a metal hoop covered with skin adorned with ribands or bells, chiefly used in the festivals of Bacchus and of Cybcle; the crembala, or cymbals, formed of metal cups; and tlio crotals, or castagnets, formed of wooden shells.
Above Picture: Kylix by Douris. Above is an Ornamental Manuscript Basket. Above Picture: From the Kylix of Douris. A Writing-Roll, a foldet Tablet, a Ruling Square, etc.
With respect to Grecian architecture, I shall only observe that the roofs and pediments of buildings were generally very richly fringed with tiles of different shapes to turn off the rain, and with spouts of various forms to carry off the water. The Sarcophagi, made to imitate the forms of houses, generally had covers wrought in imitation of those roofs.
Terms, or square pillars, first only surmounted with heads of Mercury, from whom they derived their name, afterwards with those of other gods, of heroes, of statesmen, and of philosophers, were much used for the division and support of book-presses, of galleries, of balustrades, of gates, and of palings. Tripods, some of marble, and with stationary legs, others of metal, and with detached legs, made to unhook from the basin and to fold up by means of hinges and sliders, were in great request both for religious and for domestic purposes; as well as candelabra and lamps, either supported on a base or suspended from a chain.
To afford repose to the frame, the Greeks had couches covered with skins or drapery, on which several persons might lie with their bodies half raised; large arm-chairs, with foot-stools, called thrones; other more portable small chairs, divested of arms, and with legs frequently made of elephants' tusks; and, finally, stools without either arms or backs, but with legs imitated from those of animals, and made to fold up.

Related: A collection of Greek Ornaments by Owen Jones

Endless was the variety of Greek vases for religious rites and for domestic purposes. Among the most singular was the rhyton, or drinking horn, terminating in the head of some animal. These vessels depended for their beauty on that elegance of outline which may make the plainest utensil look graceful, and not on that mere richness of decoration which cannot prevent the most costly piece of furniture, where the shape is neglected, from remaining contemptible to the eye of taste.
(1)* No name has been assigned to this well-known portion of Grecian female attire. By some writers it has been confounded with the peplum. There were two other upper garments, called the ampecone and the anahola, of which we have no distinct description. One of these may perhaps have been the square bib above mentioned. (2)* Leopard or panther skin, as it is uniformly spotted and not striped. (3)* The blade was leaf-shaped, and, according to Homer, generally of brass; the hilt was embellished with studs of gold and silver, and the scabbard richly adorned with the same precious metals, The sheath of Agamemnon's sword was all of silver. Iliad, lib, xi.
By Thomas Hope.

It is indispensable to situate precisely in history and clearly to define the place round the Mediterranean Sea in which grew and developed the Greek Empire and its colonies. Such preliminary notions are necessary for a right understanding of the evolution of the sumptuary arts of Greek Antiquity. Thence, indirectly, sprang the Greco-Latin art, i. e. the Roman, the Italian, the Spanish, the Gallic, the French, etc.

The people of Lydia, as well as those of Gonia and of Hellas, the Northern Aryans, Cretans, Etruscans, Archaeans and Dorians, gave birth to the earliest Greeks.
Greece may then be subdivided into: primeval Greece, Mycenae Greece, epic Greece, archaic Greece, the Greece of Athens, of Sparta, of the age of Pericles, then Greece under the Persians. After comes the influence of Rome, the decay of Greece, and her fusion into the Roman Empire into which she inculcates her refined tastes and sumptuary arts.

The formation of Greece may approximately be fixed about the year 2400 B. C. A rapid glance over the following little chronological table will no doubt prove helpful to our readers.

Pre-history; 2400 B. C. to 507 B. C.
War between the Medes and the Athenians; 499 to 438 B. C.
Intestine strifes; 431 to 362 B. C.
Macedonian supremacy ; 360 to 323 B. C.
Kingdom of the Hellenes and its decay; 323 to 146 B. C.

The Greek civilization began in Crete, an island in the Aegean Sea, in the 22nd century before our era. About the same epoch flourished the Middle Empire of Egypt, after the 1st Dynasty, whilst the Hebrew Patriarchs were settling in Syria and the Kings of Elam or Susa were fighting the Assyrians.

The Cretans were sailors like the Phoenicians, artisans and merchants at the same time, artists and manufacturers of vases, and greatly given to the practice of athletic sports. Their capital town was Knosse, with the palace of King Minos, and their civilization flourished from the year 2400 BC. to about the year 1400 B. C.

The Hellenes, a nation of invaders probably Aryans from the North, made inroads into Greece. They were also called Acheans, and about 1500 B. C. they founded Mycenae. After the Hellenes came the Dorians. The years rolled on, and the Mycenaean civilization being broken down by successive invasions, the people were emigrating into Asia Minor, when, about the 9th century, there appeared an embryo of Greek civilization. Then took place the eventful Trojan War, recounted in the Iliad and the Odyssey.

It was at this period that these succeeding hordes of invaders, settling south of the Balkans in the scattered isles and along the coasts, formed the Greek nation. Like the Phoenicians, these Greeks established colonies and trading centres. There were several distinct Greek settlements: Greater Greece (South of Italy and Sicily), an Asiatic Greece consisting of Eolide, Ionia, and Doride; then, about the year 500 B. C., some Asiatic Greeks, or Phoenicians, settled at Marseilles.

The religion of the Greeks had a considerable influence on their dress, for the Greeks liked to personify their gods as beautiful women and handsome men, gorgeously dressed. One of their earliest shrines is to be found in the island of Delphi, where rose the temple of Apollo. The Greeks occasionally summonned other nations to huge religious associations called "amphyctnia".

The first, a somewhat warlike city, was Sparta in Laconia in Peloponessus where the Dorian element predominated. Sparta reached the highest point of its fame about the 9th century under the legislature of Lycurgus. The population of Athens was Ionian and consisted of agriculturalists, manufacturers and trading seamen. One of the best known Athenians of the time was Solon; (594 B. C.). Athens was pre-eminently a democracy as Phoenicia had been and as Rome was subsequently to become.

In the 5th century (499 B. C.) Darius attempted to conquer Athens but the Athenians were victorious at Marathon (490 B. C.). The successor of Darius, Xerxes, broke through the Thermopylae and took Athens, but the Greeks destroyed the Persian fleet at Salamis in 480. The Medic war was concluded about the year 448 or 465 B. C.

The illustrious Pericles (449-429) ruled over the country in a wonderful way, giving it that matchless splendor whose light still shines in our modern arts so many centuries later. Under him it was that Athens was embellished, the Acropolis filled with buildings and the famous Parthenon erected with the friezes of the Parthenon that were found on it. We have reproduced many of the costumes of these famos women in the illustrations in this volume. As Napoleon was seconded in his artistic reproductions by the painter David, so was Pericles assisted by Phidias.

The realm or empire of Greece then consisted of a great number of little towns or independent states, according to the democratic conception, whose rivalry was a cause of constant discomfort, and at last of ruin, on account of the incessant struggles of parties and doctrinarians.
At the beginning of the 3rd century, Thebes in Egypt temporarily formed part of the Greek Empire, but the King of Macedonia, about the year 222, regained his protectorate over Greece.
Then the Roman armies marched against Macedonia and destroyed its power, whereat the Greeks greatly rejoiced. But this was only a prelude to their own misfortunes, for between 196 and 146 the Roman tutelage weighed more and more heavily upon them so that, one century before the Christian era, Greece was comprised within the Roman Empire. Her high culture alone served as an intangible model, first to the Roman, next to the Latin and eventually to the whole European civilization.
The chronological landmarks in Greek civilization are therefore: its establishment in Greece about the year 2400, the foundation of Athens about the year 594, the advent of Pericles in the year 449 the expedition into Sicily in 415, the death of Socrates about 399, the liberation about 379, Philip of Macedonia before Byzantium in 340, the advent of Alexander of Macedonia in 336 and his campaigns in Egypt, Asia and India; he died, murdered, in Babylon in 323; the death of Demosthenes in 323 when the Diadochi proclaimed themselves kings, the first apparition of the Gauls in 197, and the sacking of Corinth in 146 which resulted in the complete downfall of Greece.

The Spartan maidens were brought up as severely as the young men, and dressed in the same way. They all wore the short tunic stopping at the knee, Laconian fashion, as is to be seen in the statue of Artemis. They all practised sports, unlike the Athenian Girls who remained at home.
Here is a summary of the phases of Greek art from the remotest antiquity.
Its sources may be traced to Phoenicia and the Isles of Cyprus and Crete (22nd century B. C.).
Then it was from Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Persia that the embryonic Greek art began to develop.
Greek art begins in primeval Greece with the city, the inhabitants and artisans of Mycenae creating the Mycenaean art (16th century B. C.). But it was principally in the 20th century and onwards, in and about The palace of Knossos, which city was destroyed about 1400, that Greek art, and especially the sumptuary art, began to show new and rapid development.
In the 18th century, whilst the Hyksos or" foreigners" were invading Egypt, at the same time as the Hebrews from Syria, the Achaeans were invading Greece.
Mycenaean kings reigned throughout the 16th century, followed by invasions of the Hellenes and the Ionians. In the 13th century the Dorians overran Greece and in the 12th the Achaeans emigrated into Asia Minor.
From the 10th century onwards civilization developed more and more in Greece while Egypt was being parcelled out. In the 9th century Lycurgus gave Sparta a legal code and then Greece began to enter upon the period of her greatest fame.
Years pass away and we discover suddenly an archaic Greece where all the sumptuary and the industrial arts meet together and florish: painting, sculpture, fine pottery and ceramic, and weaving.
Greek art was then at the moment of its greatest purity, and it required the upheavals caused by invasions of the Persians in the 6th century, of the Macedonians in the 4th, and the depradations of the Roman in the 2nd to dislocate its wonderful structure, modifying it and giving it a strange exotic impulse that will lead us to the Greco-Roman period.

1. Assyrian and Babylonian culture and fashion.

2. Egyptian costume history.

3. Minoan costume history.

4. The Amazons.

5. Ancient Roman costume history. B.C. 53 to A.D. 450..

6. Ancient Costumes of the Persians and other Asiatics.

7. Ancient Costume History of Egyptian, Greek, Roman and others.

8. The Roman Tunica or Greek Chiton.

9. The Roman Paenula. The cowl or hood.

10. The Toga and the manner of wearing it.

11. The Gallic and Gallo-Roman costume period.

12. The shields of the Gauls. Clans in the Roman Empire.

13. The Barbarian Invasions. The Migration Period in Europe, 395-527 A. D.

14. Roman legionary in full armor.

15. Roman Britain. Maps, Places, Tribes. Historical atlas.

16. Celt and Roman. History of England 43 BC to 440 AD.

17. Gallic and Gallo-Roman helmets of Celtic warriors.

18. The Roman Paenula. The cowl or hood.

19. Roman, Greece and Egypt. The Corset and the Crinolin fashion history.

20. Frankish Merovingian costume history. 4th and 5th century.

21. Byzantine costume history. 5th to 6th century.

22. The Carolingian fashion period 752-987. Reign of Charlemagne.

23. The Carolingian Fashion Period 987 to 1270.

24. Europe in the time of Charles the Great 768 - 814. Maps and Places.

25. Alfred the Great. The first English king.

26. King Harold II. Last Anglo-Saxon king of England.

27. Monachism. Monastic costumes history.

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Ancient Greek fashion history. The Tunic or Chiton. | Costume & Fashion History

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IT is precisely in its earliest periods that the Grecian attire, whether of the head or of the body, exhibits in its arrangement the greatest degree of study, and if I may so call it, of foppishness.

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Театърът в ЕПИДАВЪР

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Театърът в ЕПИДАВЪР

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The sanctuary of Epidaurus (Επίδαυρος, also transliterated as Epidaurus) was named after the god of medicine, Asklepios, and pilgrims came from all over the Mediterranean seeking healing for their ailments through physical and spiritual means. The god was present at the sanctuary where the faithful underwent treatments ranging from purification with water to feasting with the divine after offering sacrifice.

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АРХИВ на античните театри

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АРХИВ на античните театри

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The Ancient Theatre Archive: Greek and Roman Theatres

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The Ancient Theatre Archive is a non-profit, educational project, located at Whitman College, USA.

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ОТ ОМИР ДО ЕВРИПИД

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ОТ ОМИР ДО ЕВРИПИД

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Антична литература

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Аристотел, За поетическото изкуство, Софи-Р, 1993

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Аристотел, За поетическото изкуство, Софи-Р, 1993

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Аристотел, За поетическото изкуство | Проект Тезей

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След като направихме тези разграничения, нека кажем какъв трябва да бъде съставът на събитията, тъй като това е първото и най-важното в трагедията. Ние приехме, че трагедията е подражание на завършено и цялостно действие с определена величина, защото съществува и цялост, която няма никаква величина. Цяло е това, което има начало, среда и край.