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ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Lactate is being produced. Lucas is now nearing the finish line, and is sprinting. By sprinting, Lucas is not inhaling the preferred amount of oxygen, and thus his body is beginning to produce lactate because of the lack of oxygen that exists.

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                               MINUTE 2 

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                               MINUTE 2 

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AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Here, Lucas's cells are undergoing aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle.

Lucas does not want to run too hard in the middle of the race, or else his body will go into anaerobic respiration, and lactate will be produced due to the lack of oxygen that he will be experiencing. To prevent this, Lucas does not run as fast or hard as he can, but instead works on maintaining his pace at a steady speed so that he is taking in enough oxygen so his body will not need to create lactate that will cause him to slow his pace down. This will allow him to sprint in the last minute of the race.

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ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Lucas needs to begin the race at a rather fast speed. By running quite fast, his body will go into anaerobic respiration, and lactate will be produced because of the lack of oxygen that is being experienced by Lucas.

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When the product of a reaction is further utilized so that it regulates its own production.

Feedback inhibition occurs during step 7 of glycolysis, where phosphofructokinase can be inhibited by large amounts of ATP. This large amount of ATP inhibits this enzyme, because there is no longer the need for glycolysis to produce more ATP.

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A form of inhibition that includes an inhibitor molecule acting on an enzyme in a way that causes the enzyme to alter its shape, and thus, reduce its affinity for the desired substrate.

The presence of an allosteric reaction is found during step 7 of glycolysis, when phosphofructokinase acts as a regulator enzyme, and regulates the pathway of glycolysis by means of allosteric inhibition.

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Reactions that are able to release energy, and have a negative change in free energy. In these reactions, energy is exiting a system, and the reactions are spontaneous due to the fact that they can take place without being provided with energy.

An exergonic reaction occurs when a phosphate is removed during step 10 of glycolysis, and phosphoenolpyruvate becomes pyruvate.

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Reactions that are not spontaneous, have a positive change in free energy, and require the addition of energy. In endergonic reactions, more free energy is found in the products than in the reactants.

An endergonic reaction occurs during the first step of glycolysis, when a phosphate is transferred from ATP to a glucose molecule.

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The energy that moving objects or masses are associated with.

While electrons are present in the electron transport chain, their movement as they travel through the chain releases kinetic energy, which is eventually used to pump protons into the intermembrane space.

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Lucas's location while racing.
Time taken to run the 800m: 3 minutes. Each minute, Lucas's status is addressed.

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TERMS IN BLUE: Definitions and where they relate to cellular respiration 

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TERMS IN BLUE: Definitions and where they relate to cellular respiration 

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                                       LEGEND

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                                       LEGEND

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The form of energy that a mass contains that has the potential to do work, and is associated with the matter’s location and structure.

A glucose molecule, which can be seen at the beginning of glycolysis, contains a large amount of potential energy in its bonds. This potential energy can be converted into ATP.

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A metabolic pathway that includes the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules.

A catabolic reaction occurs in cellular respiration during the oxidation of pyruvate, when a carboxyl group from a pyruvate molecule is removed, and carbon dioxide is released.

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A metabolic pathway that includes the building of complex molecules from simpler molecules, which requires the addition of energy.

Anabolism occurs during the third step of glycolysis, when ATP is used by phosphofructokinase in order to transfer a phosphate group to fructose-6-phosphate, thus forming fructose 1,6-biphosphate.

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                     THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN and CHEMIOSMOSIS 

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                     THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN and CHEMIOSMOSIS 

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OCCURS IN THE INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE AND THE MATRIX

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                           CHEMIOSMOSIS 

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                           CHEMIOSMOSIS 

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A concentration and electrical gradient is formed when there is an uneven distribution of H+ ions across the membrane.

ATP synthase is turned by the electrochemical gradient that exists, and adds an inorganic phosphate to ADP. ATP is formed. Most of the ATP produced during cellular respiration occurs in the electron transport chain.

In total, 36-38 ATP molecules can be produced by cellular respiration.

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An oxygen molecule is reduced by being held by the cytochromes, and makes water by grabbing two hydrogen ions from its surrounding environment. Doing so benefits the hydrogen ion gradient.

This complex pumps 2 protons into the inter membrane space.

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Electrons are given to cyctochrome c (accepts electron from Q), which transports them to complex IV.

This complex pumps 4 protons into the inter membrane space.

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FADH₂ is brought to this separate complex, and donates 2 electrons. Ubiquinone (Q) is the connector of the two complexes in the chain.

Electrons are delivered to the next complex by reduced ubiquinone.

A complex formed from succinate dehydrogenase and FADH₂ transports electrons to the electron transport chain.

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NADH is oxidized into NAD⁺, and transports two electrons to the complex, which contains the enzyme NADH dehydrogenase.

Four hydrogen ions are able to be pumped by this complex into the inter membrane space from the matrix, creating a hydrogen ion gradient.

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Malate ---Malate dehydrogenase ---> Oxaloacetate

A final NADH molecule is produced.In total, the Krebs cycle generates 2 CO₂, 1 GTP or ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH₂.

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Fumarate ---Fumarase---> Malate

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Succinate ---Succinic dehydrogenase ---> Fumarate

An FADH₂ molecule is produced.

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Succinyl-CoA ---Succinyl-CoA synthetase---> Succinate

GTP is produced.

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α - ketoglutarate ---α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase---> Succinyl-CoA

A molecule of CO₂ is lost once again, and NADH is gained.

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D-Isocitrate ---Isocitrate dehydrogenase---> α - ketoglutarate

A molecule of CO2 and two electrons are produced, and NAD⁺ becomes NADH.

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cis-Aconitate
---Aconitase--->
D-Isocitrate

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Citrate ---Aconitase---> cis-Aconitate

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Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA
---Citrate Synthase---> Citrate

This step is highly exergonic.

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                                                       THE KREBS CYCLE

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                                                       THE KREBS CYCLE

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OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
6 TOTAL TURNS

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2 Pyruvate ---lactate dehydrogenase---> 2 Lactate

NADH transfers electrons to pyruvate molecules, creating the byproduct lactate.

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Acetyl group (enzyme bound)
---transferred to CoA--->
acetyl CoA

The transfer of the acetyl group results in one molecule of acetyl CoA.

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Hydroxylethyl group ---oxidized---> acetyl group

NAD+ picks up the resulting electrons, and becomes NADH.

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Pyruvate ---removal of carboxyl group---> pyruvate dehydrogenase

A carbon dioxide molecule is released as a carboxyl group is removed from a pyruvate molecule. This takes place twice.

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OCCURS IN THE                       CYTOPLASM

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OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX

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                                                     PYRUVATE OXIDATION

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                                                     PYRUVATE OXIDATION

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                                          STEP 10

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                                          STEP 10

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Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) ---Pyruvate Kinase---> Pyruvate

A phosphate is taken from the reactant molecules, forming 2 ATP molecules.

2 NADH, 2 ATP, AND 2 Pyruvate are the products of glycolysis.

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                                                    STEP 9

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                                                    STEP 9

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2-Phosphoglycerate ---Enolase---> Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)

A dehydration reaction occurs when enolase removes the hydroxyl group from the reactant.

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                                        STEP 8

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                                        STEP 8

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3-Phosphoglycerate ---phosphoglycerate mutase--->
2-Phosphoglycerate

The enzyme rearranges the reactants structure.

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1,3,-Biphosphoglycerate ---Phosphoglycerate kinase--->
3-Phosphoglycerate

A phosphate is taken from the reactant molecules, forming 2 ATP molecules.

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Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
---Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase--->
1,3,-Biphosphoglycerate

An H⁻ is moved onto an electron acceptor, and 2 molecules of NADH are created.

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                                             STEP 5

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                                             STEP 5

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Dihydroxyacetone-phosphate ---Triose phosphate isomerase---> Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

The reactant is transformed into it's isomer.

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                                                   STEP 4

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                                                   STEP 4

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Fructose 1,6 bi-phosphate ---Fructose biphosphate aldose--->
Dihydroxyacetone-phosphate and Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

The reactant is split into two three-carbon isomers.

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                                        STEP 3

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                                        STEP 3

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Fructose 6-phosphate ---Phosphofructo kinase--->
Fructose 1,6-biphosphate

An ATP donates a phosphate to the reactant, becoming ADP.

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                                     STEP 2

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                                     STEP 2

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Glucose-6-phosphate ---Phosphoglucose isomerase---> Fructose 6-phsophate

The enzyme rearranges the reactants structure.

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Glucose ---hexokinase---> Glucose 6-phosphate

An ATP donates a phosphate to glucose, becoming ADP.

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                                                             GLYCOLYSIS

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                                                             GLYCOLYSIS

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OCCURS IN THE CYTOPLASM

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Some of the glucose that is being stored in the form of glycogen will eventually be used in the process of cellular respiration, where it will transported into the cytoplasm to be broken down and used to provide energy for the body. A glucose molecule will become part of glycolysis, where it will be the first reactant.

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Glucose that is not required for energy immediately is converted into glycogen through glycogenesis. This glycogen is used for storage in muscle cells, as well as liver cells.  Glucose is first converted into glucose-6-phsophate by hexokinase, and during this ATP is converted into ADP. Glucose-6-phosphate is then converted into glucose-1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase. This is then converted into UDP-glucose by the enzyme UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase. Glycogen chains (created by the enzyme glycogenin), are created. Seven glucose monomers form a chain, and are binded to the glycogen chain by glycogen synthase. Through the use of more enzymes and reactions, glycogen is formed.

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Upon reaching the liver, the two separate monosaccharides that once made up sucrose are broken down further and stored.

Fructose is converted into three separate molecules: glycogen, lactate, and glucose. Most of the fructose (29% - 54%) is converted into glucose. The remaining fructose is converted into lactate, and 15%-18% is converted into glycogen by fructolysis.

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Facilitated diffusion is the primary means by which fructose is transported. When exiting the cells of the intestinal lining, fructose uses the same transporter molecules to transport it to the capillaries as glucose does.

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If there is a low concentration of glucose, the molecules are brought to epithelial cells in the intestine through the mucosal lining, and this is done by a transporter that is sodium dependent. If there are relatively high concentrations of the monosaccharide, the sodium dependent transporters as well as another, different transporter both utilize facilitated diffusion, thus getting the glucose to capillaries nearby.

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At this point in the digestion of the disaccharide sucrose, sucrose has been split into its monosaccharide components, glucose and fructose.
Fructose and glucose cross the small intestinal lining by the use of specific transporters. Fructose needs to travel to the liver, where it will be converted into glucose and other molecules. The glucose also travels to the liver, where it is converted to glycogen. This takes place via the portal vein, and both of the molecules enter the hepatic portal system.

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In this intestine, a hydrolysis reaction takes place. A water molecule is used to break the existing glycosidic bond, and the glucose and fructose molecules are separated. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme sucrase. Sucrase is an enzyme with the role of catalyzing the hydrolysis reaction of sucrose into the components glucose and fructose.

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The digestion of sucrose begins in the small intestine. This means that sucrose molecules must enter the body through the mouth, be chewed into a bolus with the aid of salivary amylase, and enter the esophagus, traveling into the stomach before reaching the small intestine.

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Sucrose is a disaccharide, and consists of a glucose and fructose. The chemical formula for sucrose is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁. In order for sucrose to be digested, it needs to broken down into its components, which will then enter the bloodstream.

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All of the foods in Lucas’ bowl contain sucrose. For example, 1 baked sweet potato contains 2599 mg of sucrose, and an avocado contains 0.1 g. A 0.75 cup of quinoa contains 1.64 g of sugars, including sucrose. Spinach, chickpeas, and lean chicken also contain sucrose, though in varying amounts.

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         The Digestion, Transport, Storage, and  Breakdown of Sucrose   

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         The Digestion, Transport, Storage, and  Breakdown of Sucrose   