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Top 10 Types of Employee Training Methods | EdgePoint Learning

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From eLearning to instructor-led training to simulations and more, this is your guide to the best types of training methods for your workforce.

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FreeFeast.info : Interview Questions ,Awesome Gadgets,Personality Motivation Guide, Famous IT personalities

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Structured Programming is designed which focuses on process/ logical structure and then data required for that process.

Object Oriented Programming is designed which focuses on data.

Structured programming follows top-down approach.

Object oriented programming follows bottom-up approach.

Structured Programming is also known as Modular Programming and a subset of procedural programming language.

Object Oriented Programming supports inheritance, encapsulation, abstraction, polymorphism, etc.

In Structured Programming, Programs are divided into small self contained functions.

In Object Oriented Programming, Programs are divided into small entities called objects.

Structured Programming is less secure as there is no way of data hiding.

Object Oriented Programming is more secure as having data hiding feature.

Structured Programming can solve moderately complex programs.

Object Oriented Programming can solve any complex programs.

Structured Programming provides less reusability, more function dependency.

Object Oriented Programming provides more reusability, less function dependency.

Less abstraction and less flexibility.

More abstraction and more flexibility.

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Difference between Structured Programming and Object Oriented Programming | Structured Programming vs. Object Oriented Programming - FreeFeast.info : Interview Questions ,Awesome Gadgets,Personality Motivation Guide, Famous IT personalities

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Structured Programming is designed which focuses on process/ logical structure and then data required for that process. Object Oriented Programming is designed which focuses on data. Structured programming follows top-down approach. Object oriented programming follows bottom-up approach. Structured Programming is also known as Modular Programming and a subset of procedural programming language.

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Show the critical path in the Gantt Chart view

The Gantt Chart view will likely be your most used view for showing the critical path.

Tasks on the critical path now have red Gantt bars.

Show the critical path in other task views

You can see the critical path in any task view by highlighting it.

1. Staying on the View tab, select Critical from the Highlight list.
The critical path shows up in yellow.

2. To see only the tasks on the critical path, choose the Filter arrow, then pick Critical.

Tip: In a Network Diagram, tasks on the critical path automatically show up in red. No highlighting is needed.

Video: Show the critical path

This video demonstrates how to display the critical path in your project, in both the Gantt Chart view and other views.

View the critical path in a master project

When you're managing a master project, whole subprojects can be on the critical path. You can see if this is true by telling Project to treat the subprojects like they are summary tasks.

Make sure the Inserted projects are calculated like summary tasks box is selected.

Tip: This setting does not affect other projects. That is, it only applies to the master project you're working on.

Change what tasks show up on the critical path

Typically, critical tasks have no slack. But you can tell Project to include tasks with one or more days of slack on the critical path so you can see potential problems coming from farther away.

Add a number to the Tasks are critical if slack is less than or equal to box.

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Show multiple critical paths

You can set up your project schedule to display as many critical paths as you need to keep tabs on your project.

By default, Project shows only one critical path, the one that affects the project's finish date. But you might need to see more than one for a couple reasons:

To make sure each subproject of a master project is on time.

To track the progress of different phases or milestones.

To keep an eye on any series of tasks for any reason.

Project management tip: When viewing multiple critical paths, don't forget that there's still only one main critical path. If it falls behind schedule, the whole project falls behind schedule. Try these tips to make better use of multiple critical paths in a project once you've set them up.

Try this

Here's how

Work with multiple projects in one schedule

1. Choose File > Options.

2. Choose Schedule, scroll to the bottom, and then select Inserted projects are calculated like summary tasks.

Show only critical tasks

On the Gantt Chart, choose View > Filter > Critical.

To display all tasks again, select No filter in the filter list.

Group critical tasks

On the Gantt Chart, choose View > Group By > Critical.

To display all tasks again, select No Group in the group list.

More about critical path analysis

If you have saved a baseline for your project, the critical path can show you if your project will finish on time and where the danger points are. To get the most out of critical path analysis:

Regularly view the critical path. Be aware that the critical path can change from one series of tasks to another as you progress through the schedule. The critical path can change as critical tasks are completed or as other series of tasks are delayed.

Closely monitor critical tasks. Any task on the critical path is a critical task. Monitor these tasks regularly to see if any of them slip. If a critical task slips, so does your finish date. Save a baseline and use the Tracking Gantt view to see slipped tasks.

Review series of tasks that may become the critical path. If a non-critical series of linked tasks slips its dates enough, that series of tasks will become the critical path. You can view other potentially risky tasks by showing multiple critical paths in a project.

Protect yourself by viewing tasks that can slip without affecting the critical path. By default, the critical path shows the tasks that cannot slip at all or the project date will slip. You may want to view tasks that currently can slip by a day without affecting the critical path, because if they slip by more than a day, they will become critical tasks. Viewing these tasks with slack helps alert you to tasks that are becoming critical while you still have some buffer.

Tip: To change the sensitivity of critical tasks, choose File > Options > Advanced. In the Tasks are critical if slack is less than or equal to list, enter the number of days under which a task will be considered critical.

When you display the project's critical path, Project shows only a single, overall critical path, which is the only critical path that controls the project's finish date. However, you can set up your plan so that you can also see an additional critical path for each independent network or each series of tasks. You might find this useful for keeping track of each of the subprojects within a master project, or of each phase or milestone of a project that is divided into multiple phases.

By knowing and tracking the critical path for your project, as well as the resources that are assigned to each critical task, you can identify the tasks that can affect your project's finish date and thus discover whether your project will finish on schedule.

Learn more by reading Manage your project's critical path.

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The critical path is a series of tasks (or sometimes only a single task) that controls the calculated start or finish date of the project. The tasks that make up the critical path are typically interrelated by task dependencies. There are likely to be many such networks of tasks throughout your project plan. When the last task in the critical path is complete, the project is also complete.

Learn more about critical path analysis.

Display the critical path for your project

To verify that adjustments that you make to the project plan don't adversely affect the critical path, you can review the critical path and critical tasks in any of several ways.

Note: By default, Project 2007 does not display a project's critical path.

To do this

Follow these steps

Show the critical path in the context of all tasks

On the View menu, choose More Views > Detail Gantt, and then choose Apply.

Show only critical tasks

On the View menu, choose Gantt Chart, and then select Critical in the Filter list on the toolbar.

To display all tasks again, select All Tasks in the Filter list on the toolbar.

You can also group all critical tasks together. On the Project menu, point to Group by, and then select Critical.

Show the critical path by using the Gantt Chart Wizard

On the View menu, choose Gantt Chart, and then choose Gantt Chart Wizard on the Formatting toolbar. Follow the instructions in the Gantt Chart Wizard to format the critical path.

By default, the Gantt chart bars and link lines for critical tasks are displayed in red. This format change overrides any direct formatting changes previously made to bar styles or to individual bars.

Note that this formatting of critical tasks applies only to the current Gantt Chart view in the current file. To use the same formatting in another file, you can use the Organizer ( Tools menu) to copy formatted Gantt Charts to other files.

Show multiple critical paths in a single project

On the Tools menu, choose Options, select the Calculation tab, and then select the Calculate multiple critical paths check box.

Show the overall critical path across multiple projects

Important: This procedure is only effective in a consolidated project. If you don't have a consolidated project, you must first create one.

On the Tools menu, choose Options, select the Calculation tab, and then select the Inserted projects are calculated like summary tasks check box.

This is a project-level setting. All projects inserted into this project will be calculated like summary tasks.

Change which tasks are defined as critical

In Project 2007, a critical task has zero days of slack (float). However, you can change this default value and define a task as critical that has, for example, one or two days of slack.

1. On the Tools menu, choose Options, and then select the Calculation tab.

2. In the Tasks are critical if slack is less than or equal to box, enter the maximum amount of slack, in days, that you want to use to define critical tasks.

3. If you want this value to be the default value for all of your projects, choose Set as Default.

To learn how to find a task's slack, see Show slack in your project.

For instructions about changing a task's slack, see Set lead or lag time (float) between tasks.

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More about critical path analysis

If you have saved a baseline for your project, the critical path can show you if your project will finish on time and where the danger points are. To get the most out of critical path analysis:

Regularly view the critical path. Be aware that the critical path can change from one series of tasks to another as you progress through the schedule. The critical path can change as critical tasks are completed or as other series of tasks are delayed.

Closely monitor critical tasks. Any task on the critical path is a critical task. Monitor these tasks regularly to see if any of them slip. If a critical task slips, so does your finish date. Save a baseline and use the Tracking Gantt view to see slipped tasks.

Review series of tasks that may become the critical path. If a non-critical series of linked tasks slips its dates enough, that series of tasks will become the critical path. You can view other potentially risky tasks by showing multiple critical paths in a project.

Protect yourself by viewing tasks that can slip without affecting the critical path. By default, the critical path shows the tasks that cannot slip at all or the project date will slip. You may want to view tasks that currently can slip by a day without affecting the critical path, because if they slip by more than a day, they will become critical tasks. Viewing these tasks with slack helps alert you to tasks that are becoming critical while you still have some buffer.

Tip: To change the sensitivity of critical tasks, on the Tools menu, choose Options. On the Calculation tab, under Tasks are critical if slack is less than or equal to, specify the number of days under which a task will be considered critical.

When you display the project's critical path, Project 2007 shows only a single, overall critical path, which is the only critical path that controls the project's finish date. However, you can set up your plan so that you can also see an additional critical path for each independent network or each series of tasks. You might find this useful for keeping track of each of the subprojects within a master project, or of each phase or milestone of a project that is divided into multiple phases.

By knowing and tracking the critical path for your project, as well as the resources that are assigned to each critical task, you can identify the tasks that can affect your project's finish date and thus discover whether your project will finish on schedule.

Learn more by reading Manage your project's critical path.

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The Gantt Chart view will likely be your most used view for showing the critical path. Tasks on the critical path now have red Gantt bars. You can see the critical path in any task view by highlighting it. Staying on the View tab, select Critical from the Highlight list.

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Vendor Management, Well-designed Chart of Accounts,
Comprehensive Stock Management,
Customizable Financial Reports and more,
Deskera ERP meets all your business needs.

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ERP Software, ERP Systems, ERP Solution for SMEs, Deskera

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With Invoices and Books, Easy Purchase Management, Sales and Billing Management, Customer and Vendor Management, Well-designed Chart of Accounts, Comprehensive Stock Management, Customizable Financial Reports and more, Deskera ERP meets all your business needs.

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for Jamed Co.

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Project Resources in Developing a System

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Project Resources in Developing a System

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Microsoft Visio: Data Flow Diagram (DFD)

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Microsoft Visio: Data Flow Diagram (DFD)

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SLIDES 1 - Slide Data flow diagram (DFD) with MICROSOFT VISIO

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The system-development life cycle enables users to transform a newly-developed project into an operational one.

The System Development Life Cycle, "SDLC" for short, is a multistep, iterative process, structured in a methodical way. This process is used to model or provide a framework for technical and non-technical activities to deliver a quality system which meets or exceeds a business"s expectations or manage decision-making progression.

Traditionally, the systems-development life cycle consisted of five stages. That has now increased to seven phases. Increasing the number of steps helped systems analysts to define clearer actions to achieve specific goals.

Similar to a project life cycle (PLC), the SDLC uses a systems approach to describe a process. It is often used and followed when there is an IT or IS project under development.

The SDLC highlights different stages (phrases or steps) of the development process. The life cycle approach is used so users can see and understand what activities are involved within a given step. It is also used to let them know that at any time, steps can be repeated or a previous step can be reworked when needing to modify or improve the system.

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Following are the seven phases of the SDLC

1. Planning

This is the first phase in the systems development process. It identifies whether or not there is the need for a new system to achieve a business"s strategic objectives. This is a preliminary plan (or a feasibility study) for a company"s business initiative to acquire the resources to build on an infrastructure to modify or improve a service. The company might be trying to meet or exceed expectations for their employees, customers and stakeholders too. The purpose of this step is to find out the scope of the problem and determine solutions. Resources, costs, time, benefits and other items should be considered at this stage.

2. Systems Analysis and Requirements

The second phase is where businesses will work on the source of their problem or the need for a change. In the event of a problem, possible solutions are submitted and analyzed to identify the best fit for the ultimate goal(s) of the project. This is where teams consider the functional requirements of the project or solution. It is also where system analysis takes place-or analyzing the needs of the end users to ensure the new system can meet their expectations. Systems analysis is vital in determining what a business"s needs are, as well as how they can be met, who will be responsible for individual pieces of the project, and what sort of timeline should be expected.

There are several tools businesses can use that are specific to the second phase. They include:

CASE (Computer Aided Systems/Software Engineering)

Requirements gathering

Structured analysis

3. Systems Design

The third phase describes, in detail, the necessary specifications, features and operations that will satisfy the functional requirements of the proposed system which will be in place. This is the step for end users to discuss and determine their specific business information needs for the proposed system. It"s during this phase that they will consider the essential components (hardware and/or software) structure (networking capabilities), processing and procedures for the system to accomplish its objectives.

4. Development

The fourth phase is when the real work begins-in particular, when a programmer, network engineer and/or database developer are brought on to do the major work on the project. This work includes using a flow chart to ensure that the process of the system is properly organized. The development phase marks the end of the initial section of the process. Additionally, this phase signifies the start of production. The development stage is also characterized by instillation and change. Focusing on training can be a huge benefit during this phase.

5. Integration and Testing

The fifth phase involves systems integration and system testing (of programs and procedures)-normally carried out by a Quality Assurance (QA) professional-to determine if the proposed design meets the initial set of business goals. Testing may be repeated, specifically to check for errors, bugs and interoperability. This testing will be performed until the end user finds it acceptable. Another part of this phase is verification and validation, both of which will help ensure the program"s successful completion.

6. Implementation

The sixth phase is when the majority of the code for the program is written. Additionally, this phase involves the actual installation of the newly-developed system. This step puts the project into production by moving the data and components from the old system and placing them in the new system via a direct cutover. While this can be a risky (and complicated) move, the cutover typically happens during off-peak hours, thus minimizing the risk. Both system analysts and end-users should now see the realization of the project that has implemented changes.

7. Operations and Maintenance

The seventh and final phase involves maintenance and regular required updates. This step is when end users can fine-tune the system, if they wish, to boost performance, add new capabilities or meet additional user requirements.

Importance of the SDLC

If a business determines a change is needed during any phase of the SDLC, the company might have to proceed through all the above life cycle phases again. The life cycle approach of any project is a time-consuming process. Even though some steps are more difficult than others, none are to be overlooked. An oversight could prevent the entire system from functioning as planned.

Systems development specialists at Innovative Architects possess extensive experience in managing these type of projects. If you have a situation at your organization and you think a customized software solution may be what you need, contact us today. Consultants at Innovative Architects will be able to quickly guide you through each of these steps, ensuring you can have your new system online as soon as possible.

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SDLC: Seven Phases of the System Development Life Cycle

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The system-development life cycle enables users to transform a newly-developed project into an operational one. The System Development Life Cycle, "SDLC" for short, is a multistep, iterative process, structured in a methodical way. This process is used to model or provide a framework for technical and non-technical activities to deliver a quality system which meets or exceeds a business"s expectations or manage decision-making progression.

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Roles of IT Department Team in Developing System

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Roles of IT Department Team in Developing System

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Dave Bourgeois and David T. Bourgeois
Please note, there is an updated edition of this book available at https://opentextbook.site. If you are not required to use this edition for a course, you may want to check it out.
Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

describe each of the different roles that people play in the design, development, and use of information systems;

understand the different career paths available to those who work with information systems;

explain the importance of where the information-systems function is placed in an organization; and

describe the different types of users of information systems.

In the opening chapters of this text, we focused on the technology behind information systems: hardware, software, data, and networking. In the last chapter, we discussed business processes and the key role they can play in the success of a business. In this chapter, we will be discussing the last component of an information system: people.

People are involved in information systems in just about every way you can think of: people imagine information systems, people develop information systems, people support information systems, and, perhaps most importantly, people use information systems.

The first group of people we are going to look at play a role in designing, developing, and building information systems. These people are generally very technical and have a background in programming and mathematics. Just about everyone who works in the creation of information systems has a minimum of a bachelor's degree in computer science or information systems, though that is not necessarily a requirement. We will be looking at the process of creating information systems in more detail in chapter 10.

Systems Analyst

The role of the systems analyst is to straddle the divide between identifying business needs and imagining a new or redesigned computer-based system to fulfill those needs. This individual will work with a person, team, or department with business requirements and identify the specific details of a system that needs to be built. Generally, this will require the analyst to have a good understanding of the business itself , the business processes involved, and the ability to document them well. The analyst will identify the different stakeholders in the system and work to involve the appropriate individuals in the process.

Once the requirements are determined, the analyst will begin the process of translating these requirements into an information-systems design. A good analyst will understand what different technological solutions will work and provide several different alternatives to the requester, based on the company's budgetary constraints, technology constraints, and culture. Once the solution is selected, the analyst will create a detailed document describing the new system. This new document will require that the analyst understand how to speak in the technical language of systems developers.

A systems analyst generally is not the one who does the actual development of the information system. The design document created by the systems analyst provides the detail needed to create the system and is handed off to a programmer (or team of programmers) to do the actual creation of the system. In some cases, however, a systems analyst may go ahead and create the system that he or she designed. This person is sometimes referred to as a programmer-analyst.

In other cases, the system may be assembled from off-the-shelf components by a person called a systems integrator. This is a specific type of systems analyst that understands how to get different software packages to work with each other.

To become a systems analyst, you should have a background both in the business and in systems design. Many analysts first worked as programmers and/or had experience in the business before becoming systems analysts.

Programmer

Programmers spend their time writing computer code in a programming language. In the case of systems development, programmers generally attempt to fulfill the design specifications given to them by a systems analyst. Many different styles of programming exist: a programmer may work alone for long stretches of time or may work in a team with other programmers. A programmer needs to be able to understand complex processes and also the intricacies of one or more programming languages. Generally, a programmer is very proficient in mathematics, as mathematical concepts underlie most programming code.

Computer Engineer

Computer engineers design the computing devices that we use every day. There are many types of computer engineers, who work on a variety of different types of devices and systems. Some of the more prominent engineering jobs are as follows:

Hardware engineer. A hardware engineer designs hardware components, such as microprocessors. Many times, a hardware engineer is at the cutting edge of computing technology, creating something brand new. Other times, the hardware engineer's job is to engineer an existing component to work faster or use less power. Many times, a hardware engineer's job is to write code to create a program that will be implemented directly on a computer chip.

Software engineer. Software engineers do not actually design devices; instead, they create new programming languages and operating systems, working at the lowest levels of the hardware to develop new kinds of software to run on the hardware.

Systems engineer. A systems engineer takes the components designed by other engineers and makes them all work together. For example, to build a computer, the mother board, processor, memory, and hard disk all have to work together. A systems engineer has experience with many different types of hardware and software and knows how to integrate them to create new functionality.

Network engineer. A network engineer's job is to understand the networking requirements of an organization and then design a communications system to meet those needs, using the networking hardware and software available.

There are many different types of computer engineers, and often the job descriptions overlap. While many may call themselves engineers based on a company job title, there is also a professional designation of "professional engineer," which has specific requirements behind it. In the US, each state has its own set of requirements for the use of this title, as do different countries around the world. Most often, it involves a professional licensing exam.

Another group of information-systems professionals are involved in the day-to-day operations and administration of IT. These people must keep the systems running and up-to-date so that the rest of the organization can make the most effective use of these resources.

Computer Operator

A computer operator is the person who keeps the large computers running. This person's job is to oversee the mainframe computers and data centers in organizations. Some of their duties include keeping the operating systems up to date, ensuring available memory and disk storage, and overseeing the physical environment of the computer. Since mainframe computers increasingly have been replaced with servers, storage management systems, and other platforms, computer operators' jobs have grown broader and include working with these specialized systems.

Database Administrator

A database administrator (DBA) is the person who manages the databases for an organization. This person creates and maintains databases that are used as part of applications or the data warehouse. The DBA also consults with systems analysts and programmers on projects that require access to or the creation of databases.

Help-Desk/Support Analyst

Most mid-size to large organizations have their own information-technology help desk. The help desk is the first line of support for computer users in the company. Computer users who are having problems or need information can contact the help desk for assistance. Many times, a help-desk worker is a junior-level employee who does not necessarily know how to answer all of the questions that come his or her way. In these cases, help-desk analysts work with senior-level support analysts or have a computer knowledgebase at their disposal to help them investigate the problem at hand. The help desk is a great place to break into working in IT because it exposes you to all of the different technologies within the company. A successful help-desk analyst should have good people and communications skills, as well as at least junior-level IT skills.

Trainer

A computer trainer conducts classes to teach people specific computer skills. For example, if a new ERP system is being installed in an organization, one part of the implementation process is to teach all of the users how to use the new system. A trainer may work for a software company and be contracted to come in to conduct classes when needed; a trainer may work for a company that offers regular training sessions; or a trainer may be employed full time for an organization to handle all of their computer instruction needs. To be successful as a trainer, you need to be able to communicate technical concepts well and also have a lot of patience!

The management of information-systems functions is critical to the success of information systems within the organization. Here are some of the jobs associated with the management of information systems.

CIO

The CIO, or chief information officer, is the head of the information-systems function. This person aligns the plans and operations of the information systems with the strategic goals of the organization. This includes tasks such as budgeting, strategic planning, and personnel decisions for the information-systems function. The CIO must also be the face of the IT department within the organization. This involves working with senior leaders in all parts of the organization to ensure good communication and planning.

Interestingly, the CIO position does not necessarily require a lot of technical expertise. While helpful, it is more important for this person to have good management skills and understand the business. Many organizations do not have someone with the title of CIO; instead, the head of the information-systems function is called vice president of information systems or director of information systems.

Functional Manager

As an information-systems organization becomes larger, many of the different functions are grouped together and led by a manager. These functional managers report to the CIO and manage the employees specific to their function. For example, in a large organization, there is a group of systems analysts who report to a manager of the systems-analysis function. For more insight into how this might look, see the discussion later in the chapter of how information systems are organized.

ERP Management

Organizations using an ERP require one or more individuals to manage these systems. These people make sure that the ERP system is completely up to date, work to implement any changes to the ERP that are needed, and consult with various user departments on needed reports or data extracts.

Project Managers

Information-systems projects are notorious for going over budget and being delivered late. In many cases, a failed IT project can spell doom for a company. A project manager is responsible for keeping projects on time and on budget. This person works with the stakeholders of the project to keep the team organized and communicates the status of the project to management. A project manager does not have authority over the project team; instead, the project manager coordinates schedules and resources in order to maximize the project outcomes. A project manager must be a good communicator and an extremely organized person. A project manager should also have good people skills. Many organizations require each of their project managers to become certified as a project management professional (PMP).

Information-Security Officer

An information-security officer is in charge of setting information-security policies for an organization, and then overseeing the implementation of those policies. This person may have one or more people reporting to them as part of the information-security team. As information has become a critical asset, this position has become highly valued. The information-security officer must ensure that the organization's information remains secure from both internal and external threats.

Emerging Roles

As technology evolves, many new roles are becoming more common as other roles fade. For example, as we enter the age of "big data," we are seeing the need for more data analysts and business-intelligence specialists. Many companies are now hiring social-media experts and mobile-technology specialists. The increased use of cloud computing and virtual-machine technologies also is breeding demand for expertise in those areas.

These job descriptions do not represent all possible jobs within an information-systems organization. Larger organizations will have more specialized roles; smaller organizations may combine some of these roles. Many of these roles may exist outside of a traditional information-systems organization, as we will discuss below.

Working with information systems can be a rewarding career choice. Whether you want to be involved in very technical jobs (programmer, database administrator), or you want to be involved in working with people (systems analyst, trainer), there are many different career paths available.

Many times, those in technical jobs who want career advancement find themselves in a dilemma: do they want to continue doing technical work, where sometimes their advancement options are limited, or do they want to become a manager of other employees and put themselves on a management career track? In many cases, those proficient in technical skills are not gifted with managerial skills. Some organizations, especially those that highly value their technically skilled employees, will create a technical track that exists in parallel to the management track so that they can retain employees who are contributing to the organization with their technical skills.

Sidebar: Are Certifications Worth Pursuing?

As technology is becoming more and more important to businesses, hiring employees with technical skills is becoming critical. But how can an organization ensure that the person they are hiring has the necessary skills? These days, many organizations are including technical certifications as a prerequisite for getting hired.

Certifications are designations given by a certifying body that someone has a specific level of knowledge in a specific technology. This certifying body is often the vendor of the product itself, though independent certifying organizations, such as CompTIA, also exist. Many of these organizations offer certification tracks, allowing a beginning certificate as a prerequisite to getting more advanced certificates. To get a certificate, you generally attend one or more training classes and then take one or more certification exams. Passing the exams with a certain score will qualify you for a certificate. In most cases, these classes and certificates are not free and, in fact, can run into the thousands of dollars. Some examples of the certifications in highest demand include Microsoft (software certifications), Cisco (networking), and SANS (security).

For many working in IT (or thinking about an IT career), determining whether to pursue one or more of these certifications is an important question. For many jobs, such as those involving networking or security, a certificate will be required by the employer as a way to determine which potential employees have a basic level of skill. For those who are already in an IT career, a more advanced certificate may lead to a promotion. There are other cases, however, when experience with a certain technology will negate the need for certification. For those wondering about the importance of certification, the best solution is to talk to potential employers and those already working in the field to determine the best choice.

In the early years of computing, the information-systems function (generally called data processing) was placed in the finance or accounting department of the organization. As computing became more important, a separate information-systems function was formed, but it still was generally placed under the CFO and considered to be an administrative function of the company. In the 1980s and 1990s, when companies began networking internally and then linking up to the Internet, the information-systems function was combined with the telecommunications functions and designated the information technology (IT) department. As the role of information technology continued to increase, its place in the organization also moved up the ladder. In many organizations today, the head of IT (the CIO) reports directly to the CEO.

Where in the Organization Should IS Be?

Before the advent of the personal computer, the information-systems function was centralized within organizations in order to maximize control over computing resources. When the PC began proliferating, many departments within organizations saw it as a chance to gain some computing resources for themselves. Some departments created an internal information-systems group, complete with systems analysts, programmers, and even database administrators. These departmental-IS groups were dedicated to the information needs of their own departments, providing quicker turnaround and higher levels of service than a centralized IT department. However, having several IS groups within an organization led to a lot of inefficiencies: there were now several people performing the same jobs in different departments. This decentralization also led to company data being stored in several places all over the company. In some organizations, a "matrix" reporting structure has developed, in which IT personnel are placed within a department and report to both the department management and the functional management within IS. The advantages of dedicated IS personnel for each department are weighed against the need for more control over the strategic information resources of the company.

For many companies, these questions are resolved by the implementation of the ERP system (see discussion of ERP in chapter 8). Because an ERP system consolidates most corporate data back into a single database, the implementation of an ERP system requires organizations to find "islands" of data so that they can integrate them back into the corporate system. The ERP allows organizations to regain control of their information and influences organizational decisions throughout the company.

Outsourcing

Many times, an organization needs a specific skill for a limited period of time. Instead of training an existing employee or hiring someone new, it may make more sense to outsource the job. Outsourcing can be used in many different situations within the information-systems function, such as the design and creation of a new website or the upgrade of an ERP system. Some organizations see outsourcing as a cost-cutting move, contracting out a whole group or department.

New Models of Organizations

The integration of information technology has influenced the structure of organizations. The increased ability to communicate and share information has led to a "flattening" of the organizational structure due to the removal of one or more layers of management.

Another organizational change enabled by information systems is the network-based organizational structure. In a networked-based organizational structure, groups of employees can work somewhat independently to accomplish a project. In a networked organization, people with the right skills are brought together for a project and then released to work on other projects when that project is over. These groups are somewhat informal and allow for all members of the group to maximize their effectiveness.

Besides the people who work to create, administer, and manage information systems, there is one more extremely important group of people: the users of information systems. This group represents a very large percentage of the people involved. If the user is not able to successfully learn and use an information system, the system is doomed to failure.

One tool that can be used to understand how users will adopt a new technology comes from a 1962 study by Everett Rogers. In his book, Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers studied how farmers adopted new technologies, and he noticed that the adoption rate started slowly and then dramatically increased once adoption hit a certain point. He identified five specific types of technology adopters:

Innovators. Innovators are the first individuals to adopt a new technology. Innovators are willing to take risks, are the youngest in age, have the highest social class, have great financial liquidity, are very social, and have the closest contact with scientific sources and interaction with other innovators. Risk tolerance has them adopting technologies that may ultimately fail. Financial resources help absorb these failures (Rogers 1962 5th ed, p. 282).

Early adopters. The early adopters are those who adopt innovation after a technology has been introduced and proven. These individuals have the highest degree of opinion leadership among the other adopter categories, which means that they can influence the opinions of the largest majority. They are typically younger in age, have higher social status, more financial liquidity, more advanced education, and are more socially aware than later adopters. These people are more discrete in adoption choices than innovators, and realize judicious choice of adoption will help them maintain a central communication position (Rogers 1962 5th ed, p. 283).

Early majority. Individuals in this category adopt an innovation after a varying degree of time. This time of adoption is significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters. This group tends to be slower in the adoption process, has above average social status, has contact with early adopters, and seldom holds positions of opinion leadership in a system (Rogers 1962 5th ed, p. 283).

Late majority. The late majority will adopt an innovation after the average member of the society. These individuals approach an innovation with a high degree of skepticism, have below average social status, very little financial liquidity, are in contact with others in the late majority and the early majority, and show very little opinion leadership.

Laggards. Individuals in this category are the last to adopt an innovation. Unlike those in the previous categories, individuals in this category show no opinion leadership. These individuals typically have an aversion to change-agents and tend to be advanced in age. Laggards typically tend to be focused on "traditions," are likely to have the lowest social status and the lowest financial liquidity, be oldest of all other adopters, and be in contact with only family and close friends.

These five types of users can be translated into information-technology adopters as well, and provide additional insight into how to implement new information systems within an organization. For example, when rolling out a new system, IT may want to identify the innovators and early adopters within the organization and work with them first, then leverage their adoption to drive the rest of the implementation.

In this chapter, we have reviewed the many different categories of individuals who make up the people component of information systems. The world of information technology is changing so fast that new roles are being created all the time, and roles that existed for decades are being phased out. That said, this chapter should have given you a good idea of the importance of the people component of information systems.

1. Describe the role of a systems analyst.

2. What are some of the different roles for a computer engineer?

3. What are the duties of a computer operator?

4. What does the CIO do?

5. Describe the job of a project manager.

6. Explain the point of having two different career paths in information systems.

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of centralizing the IT function?

8. What impact has information technology had on the way companies are organized?

9. What are the five types of information-systems users?

10. Why would an organization outsource?

1. Which IT job would you like to have? Do some original research and write a two-page paper describing the duties of the job you are interested in.

2. Spend a few minutes on Dice or Monster to find IT jobs in your area. What IT jobs are currently available? Write up a two-page paper describing three jobs, their starting salary (if listed), and the skills and education needed for the job.

3. How is the IT function organized in your school or place of employment? Create an organization chart showing how the IT organization fits into your overall organization. Comment on how centralized or decentralized the IT function is.

4. What type of IT user are you? Take a look at the five types of technology adopters and then write a one-page summary of where you think you fit in this model.

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9 Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems

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Dave Bourgeois and David T. Bourgeois Please note, there is an updated edition of this book available at https://opentextbook.site. If you are not required to use this edition for a course, you may want to check it out.