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Identifies 9 steps that should be included in any instructional lesson.

Reading: Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp. 372-380). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Driscoll 9 Events (PDF)

Media: On this website, view the video that is below the initial graphic of Gagne’s model. The video describes how Gagne’s model was applied to an online training course. Think about how the model can be applied to other settings.

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Robert Gagne, an instructional theorist, surmised that there was a nine-step process for creating good instruction. In his book The Conditions of Learning first published in 1965, Gagne outlined the Nine Events of Instruction. These nine events are widely used as a foundation upon which to structure an online course.

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Holds that instruction should be organized in increasing order of complexity and proposes seven major strategy components.

Reading: Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). The elaboration theory: Guidance for scope and sequence decisions. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models, Volume II: A new paradigm in instructional theory (pp. 425-453). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Media: This video gives a brief overview of elaboration theory and then gives examples of elaboration theory using technology approaches. It also provides guidelines for how to implement elaboration theory.

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Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction

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Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction

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Relates to problem-centered instruction and states five principles for effective instruction.

Reading: First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research & Development (PDF)

Media: In this video, Dr. Merrill himself discusses instructional design and his first principles.

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Also called “spiral curriculum,” this method of instruction involves revisiting topics or themes throughout an educational program or event.

Reading: Harden, R. M. & Stamper, N. (1999). What is a spiral curriculum? Medical Teacher, 21(2), 141-143 (Harden Stamper Spiral Learning.pdf)

Media: In this video, a school principal discusses spiral curriculum/instruction to teach math. Although this video is geared towards the K-12 environment, the concepts apply to other learning environments.

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Spiraling the curriculum to get sticky learning | Kristin Phillips | TEDxKitchenerED

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Transactional model that emphasizes teacher/student interaction at each step: presentation, practice, assessment and evaluation, and monitoring and feedback.

Reading: Huitt, W., Monetti, D., & Hummel, J. (2009). Designing direct instruction. Pre-publication version of chapter published in C. Reigeluth and A. Carr-Chellman, Instructional-design theories and models: Volume III, Building a common knowledgebase (pp. 73-97). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/designing-direct-instruction.pdf (Huitt Direct Instruction.pdf)

Media: This website provides a series of videos that explain direct instruction. The videos are geared towards K-12 instruction, but you can translate the concepts to an adult learning or higher education environment.

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NIFDI - National Institute for Direct Instruction

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Students learning content and thinking strategies through the experience of solving problems. Facilitated problem solving where students work on a complex problem that does not have a single correct answer.

Reading: Instructional Design Theories & Models V3, chp. 8

Media: This video explains the problem-based learning approach at Maastricht University. Although it is specific to higher education, the concepts can be applied to other learning settings.

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Problem-Based Learning at Maastricht University

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Built upon the theory of situated cognition, this approach to instruction posits that learning happens best when it is done within the context in which the skills or knowledge will be applied.

Reading: Choi J., & Hannafin, M. (1995). Situated cognition and learning environments: Roles, structures, and implications for design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 43(2), 53-69. (Choi Hannafin Situated Learning.pdf)

Media: This video from the University of Wisconsin-Madison explains situated learning and then talks about how it can be facilitated using educational technology-based games.

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2.5 Situated Learning and Place-Based Games (David Gagnon)

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Students apply preexisting knowledge and available resources to “discover” solutions to problems.

Reading: Svinicki, M. D. (1998). A theoretical foundation for discovery learning. Advances in Physiology Education, 20(1), 54-57. (Svinicki Discovery Learning.pdf)

Media: This video from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, shows how a classroom built around the concept of discover learning is used in chemistry courses. Think about how discovery learning could be applied to other settings, especially technology-based settings.

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Tools are used to mediate between the student and their learning goals.

Reading: Acting with Technology, Chapter 3

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“A place where learners work together and support each other as they use a variety of tools and information resources in their guided pursuit of learning goals and problem-solving activities” (Wilson, 1996, p. 5). The place or environment may be a physical or virtual environment.

Reading: Constructivist Learning Environments by Wilson, Chapter 1

Media: This video from McGill University shows an active learning classroom, which is an example of a constructivist learning environment. Think about how this concept could be applied in other settings or to a technology-enabled environment.

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Active Learning Classrooms: Everyone is engaged!

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Aimed at improving the motivation of learners; includes four major conditions that have to be met for learners to be motivated to learn.

Reading: Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2-10. (Keller ARCS.pdf)

Media:

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John M. Keller's ARCS Motivational Design Model explained

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Tools used to organize and present concepts in advance of instruction to aid with comprehension.

Reading: Story, C. M. (1998). What instructional designers need to know about advance organizers. International Journal of Instructional Media, 25(3), 253-261. (Story Advance Organizers.pdf)

Media:

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ADVANCED ORGANIZERS FOR LESSONS, LECTURES, PRE-READING

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Learners learn to perform a task or solve problems from others who already perform well; behavioral and cognitive modeling are involved.

Reading: LeGrand Brandt, B., Farmer Jr., J. A., & Buckmaster, A. (1993). Cognitive apprenticeship approach to helping adults learn. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1993(59), 69-78. (Brandt Farmer Buckmaster Cognitive Apprenticeship.pdf)

Media: This website from the University of Kansas includes a short video discussing how to implement cognitive apprenticeship in a college classroom. The website also includes tips for implementing this strategy. Cognitive apprenticeship can easily be applied to other settings.

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Cognitive apprenticeship

What is cognitive apprenticeship?

If I want to use this approach, where do I start?

How can I model it in a course?

Click below to watch CTE's 2-Minute Mentor video on this topic:

Cognitive Apprenticeship video transcript (doc)

What is cognitive apprenticeship?

Similar to the traditional apprenticeship model, cognitive apprenticeship (CA) is based on learning by doing; i.e., students learn by engaging in the activity they want to learn about, supported by others knowledgeable in the field and through interaction with peers. Both of those support systems are key components of CA. In the classroom, lab, or studio, a teacher serves as a "knowledgeable other" by making visible his or her thought processes while engaging in a task. Peers also play an important role, since students benefit from group work by together finding multiple solutions to problems, discovering many ways to solve problems, and confronting ineffective strategies and misconceptions.

How to implement a cognitive apprenticeship approach

Collins, Brown, and Newman (1987) identified six teaching methods for implementing CA. The first three are the core of CA, since they help students acquire skills through observation and guided practice. The next two help students focus their observations and gain control of their own problem-solving strategies. The final method encourages learner autonomy, not only in solving problems but also in defining or formulating problems to be solved.

Modeling involves showing an expert carrying out a task so that students can observe and develop a conceptual model of the processes required to complete the task.

Coaching consists of observing students while they carry out a task and offering feedback, hints, modeling, and reminders.

Scaffolding involves a kind of cooperative problem-solving by the teacher and student, precluded by an accurate diagnosis of the student's current skill level and identification of an intermediate step (or steps) at the right level of difficulty to help the student complete the task.

Articulation includes any way to get students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving processes.

Reflection involved enabling students to compare their own problem-solving processes with that of an expert, as well as with other students.

Exploration involves pushing students into a mode of problem solving on their own. Exploration is critical for students to learn how to frame questions or problems that they can solve. This may include helping students develop subgoals that lead them to completing a general goal.

References:

Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1987). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics (pdf), p. 21-23.

"Major Learning Theories of the Twentieth Century" on Tomorrow's Professor.

More about cognitive apprenticeship

The following links provide more information related to cognitive apprenticeship:

Explore Lendol Calder's work on "Thinking Like a Historian."

CTE Resources:

These portfolios in the CTE Gallery illustrate the use of cognitive apprenticeship:
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What is cognitive apprenticeship? If I want to use this approach, where do I start? How can I model it in a course?

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Reviews how information is processed in the mind and moved t memory and strategies for helping students learn information, skills, and ideas.

Reading: Slavin. R. E. (2018). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (12th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. (pp. 122-130)

Media: This video reviews how the brain processes information and moves it to memory.

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Learning and Memory: The Information Processing Theory