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It's no surprise to the world that Colombia is obsessed with soccer, and when the national team plays everyone is watching and supporting their country with pride. Colombia's passion for the game is on another level to European countries; while England has some of the best teams in the world and many crazed fans, nothing compares to Colombia's support for their national team.

Colombian national team game days

When the Colombian national team is playing a game, the country goes soccer crazy: people wear their shirts with pride all day long, so at 7AM on the morning of a game there will definitely be someone walking around the city or town wearing a soccer shirt. When games begin in the afternoon (usually at 3PM), many companies give their employees the afternoon off work or let them leave early so they can watch the game. Matches are big social events; bars and restaurants will be brimming with people, watching and cheering on their team. Bogotá is a city with a big traffic problem, especially in rush hours, so it usually takes a long time to get from place to place. But when a game is played in the evening or afternoon, moving around the city becomes easy. Taxis are the only vehicles occupying the roads and the city's streets resemble a ghost town. When Colombia wins a game the whole country becomes involved in a big party: no matter what day of the week, celebrations last long into the night and the atmosphere is amazing, lively and celebratory.

Local teams

While Colombia has a large number of local teams, which a great number of individuals support, their popularity isn't as great as it is for local teams in other countries. Soccer players are idols for children growing up and they follow their favorite players' movements around individual teams. Colombian local teams don't have the financial support like teams in English or European leagues do, so many Colombian national team players head overseas to play for bigger teams. There are Colombian players playing football all over Europe including for Real Madrid, Arsenal, Aston Villa and A.C. Milan. In fact, around 50 percent of the soccer players in the Colombian national team play for clubs outside of Colombia.

History of soccer in Colombia

While soccer is a big sport all over the world, one of the reasons for its popularity in Colombia is the players. Colombian soccer players don't tend to come from the big cities; the majority of players come from small rural villages or towns outside of the major cities. Soccer is a popular sport played in Colombia by people of all ages as the game can be played anywhere: a field, park or back yard. For this reason it's a sport which brings communities together. For example an open space in the middle of the Amazon rainforest could be used for a community to play the game in the evenings - they don't have electricity or running water, but they can play soccer . In Colombia the majority of sports are inaccessible for a large number of people: in the cities swimming pools and tennis courts are confined to luxurious country clubs or private houses, and public swimming pools are located on the outskirts of cities in harder to reach areas. Soccer is accessible to all as a game to play or as a social event with friends or the community. In Colombia, soccer is a way to get communities together and gives individuals a sense of pride and unity.

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Everything You Need to Know About Colombia's Soccer Obsession

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It's no surprise to the world that Colombia is obsessed with soccer, and when the national team plays everyone is watching and supporting their country with pride. Colombia's passion for the game is on another level to European countries; while England has some of the best teams in the world and many crazed fans, nothing compares to Colombia's support for their national team.

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Mesoamerican ballgame

The distinction for the oldest sport played in Mexico often goes to what is commonly called the mesoamerican ballgame. This game was played throughout Central America, and although there are many archeological depictions of this game, those who study it still are not totally sure what all the rules were. From what we know it is most likely that the game was a little like racquet ball or fronton where the goal is to keep the ball in play. The ball was solid rubber and HEAVY, and archeologists believe that players used their hips to keep it in the air. Other versions seemed to exist where forearms and racquets were used. Evidence has been found suggesting that this game was also used in ritual sacrifice, meaning the losers never got a rematch, just a funeral.

Bull fighting

While most of the world has outlawed bullfighting because it is seen as cruelty towards animals, Mexico is one of the eight remaining countries in the world where it is legal. Brought by the Spanish conquistadores over 500 years ago, bullfighting has become a part of the fiber of the country. Outside of Spain, Mexico has the most important bullfighting events and toreros (bull fighters) in the world. The performance takes place in three rounds, each progressively bloodier as the bull is stabbed and brought to exhaustion by the bull fighter and picador until, in the final act, the torero stabs the bull between the shoulder blades and kills it. A bloody tradition, it is nevertheless full of pomp, circumstance and, some would say, beauty.

Also called Basque pelota, the first versions of this game were created in the Basque country of Spain in the 1800s. The sport eventually made its way to Mexico and several important fronton clubs opened in Mexico City from the 1890s to the 1920s, including Fronton Mexico, which just last year re-opened with a new season of a Jai Alai (a type of Basque pelota played with scoop-like baskets on the players' hands). The idea of the game is similar to handball - on a rectangular court players hit a hard ball (usually with their hands) against a main wall (called a fronton, or front wall) and get points for where it bounces back on the court, while their opponents have to try to return the serve. Where once there were fronton courts all over Mexico, they are slowly becoming extinct and the game is losing popularity to other sports, like soccer.

By far Mexico's most popular sport to watch, to play, and to complain about is soccer. The sport was brought to Mexico by the British who founded the Orizaba Athletic Club in 1898. The club's main sport was cricket, but they started a soccer team in 1901 the same year that the Cornish workers for the company Real del Monte formally founded the Pachuca Athletic Club. One year later the first national soccer competition was held - a collection of teams from the Orizaba club, Reforma club, and México Cricket and British club. The sport is played across the country but is particularly popular in the central and northern parts of the country with the teams from Mexico City, Guadalajara, Pachuca, and Monterrey some of the most famous.

While soccer dominates the airwaves, baseball is quite a popular sport in Mexico, albeit not as much as in other Latin American countries like Cuba and Venezuela. Mexico has two leagues, a northern and southern league, that play a similar seasonal schedule as the United States. Many of the best U.S. player are actually from Mexico and recruitment across the border has a long tradition of uniting the two countries. Mexican baseball is slightly more popular on the border with the United States and in the country's port cities because it was brought to those areas of the country first by U.S. soldiers stationed in Mexico. Despite its popularity, baseball is not enough of a money-maker in Mexico for lots of cash to flow in to it. Most stadiums are medium-sized and only a portion of games are broadcast on television.

Out of the ranch and animal-handling competitions of Colonial Mexico came the grand gala that is today the charrería. Similiar to rodeos in the U.S. but with more formality and grace, the charreado includes events like cattle roping, horse riding and horse preformances, riding bareback and other skill-based contests and competitions. A now-famous visual of the charreando is the Escaramuza, a show of female horse-riders dressed in traditional rodeo dresses and cowboy hats. With the break up of the hacienda system at the turn of the century, charros would have traditionally preformed from hacienda to hacienda from a charro association that has kept the tradition alive to this day.

Mexico is one of the most important boxing countries in the world. Mexico boxers have won 13 Olympic medals as well. Big names in boxing have graced the stages of Mexico's incredible boxing rings, including: Julio César Chávez, Ricardo "El Finito" López, Carlos Zárate, Rubén "El Púas" Olivares, Raúl "El Ratón" Macías, Salvador Sánchez, Marco Antonio Barrera, Érik "El Terrible" Morales, Lupe Pintor, and Juan Manuel Márquez. Boxing matches are country-wide events that bring all Mexicans together, regardless of who they are rooting for.

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Seven Sports That Make Mexico the Country It Is

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Mesoamerican ballgame The distinction for the oldest sport played in Mexico often goes to what is commonly called the mesoamerican ballgame. This game was played throughout Central America, and although there are many archeological depictions of this game, those who study it still are not totally sure what all the rules were.

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Vida Nocturna en Columbia - Katelin Jorge

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Vida Nocturna en Columbia - Katelin Jorge

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Colombia nightlife offers something for everyone, from sipping mojitos in the plazas of old Cartagena to dancing the night away in the salsa clubs of Cali.

Every big city features a host of theaters for inexpensive music and dance performances. And the rural pueblos in Colombia offer the opportunity to escape the noise and relax in the country.

Colombia Nightlife - How to Party in Colombia

Every Colombian city features a Zona Rosa, or central nightlife district, where you'll find the highest density of bars, discotecas (clubs), and restaurants. In Medellin, it's Parque Lleras.

In Cali, it's La Sexta. The more popular pueblos, such as Guatape and Jardin, can have a surprisingly lively bar scene, usually focused around the central plaza.

Best Colombia Hostels for Nightlife
Medellin Cartagena
Republica Hostel - Located in the old walled city. It has a swimming pool, bar, and patio with great music and great vibes, and breakfast is included. Dorms available from $16.50, private rooms also available. Check availability on Hostelworld.
Bogota Calí
When to Go Out

Colombia nightlife is pretty quiet Sunday through Wednesday unless you know the right places to go to (ask the locals).

Otherwise, Wednesday and Thursdays offer ladies night at certain discotecas, which can help bring out the locals.

Friday nights are popular. However, Saturday nights are the busiest nights of the week.

Arrive early (before 11 PM) to get a good table at discotecas on the weekends, and avoid any lines at the popular places.

Closing times vary by location. However, most regular bars close by 2 AM, while discotecas stay open until 4 AM. Some late, late-night venues in big cities remain open until dawn.

What to Wear

Dress codes apply to a tiny minority of high-end clubs in the big cities. 99% of the time, you won't need to worry about dressing up for a night of partying.

For both men and women, jeans, t-shirts, and sneakers are fine. Colombian women take great care in their appearance and tend to dress up more than men.

Crossover Clubs

The majority of bars and discotecas in Colombia play what's known as "crossover" music.

This means the DJ's mix up various genres of Latin music, including salsa, merengue, vallenato, reggaeton, bachata, and cumbia.

This can be a little confusing if you're not already familiar with Latin music. However, the variety is appreciated by most Colombians (versus going to an all-reggaeton or all-salsa club).

Social Dynamics

Most Colombians go out partying in groups mixed with friends, boyfriends/girlfriends, and family. It's not unusual to see girls out partying with their sisters, cousins, aunts, and moms.

At the start of the night (9 - 11 PM), everyone will be inside the bar or discoteca drinking and talking within their social groups.

As more alcohol is consumed, and the venue fills up, there's a tipping point where more and more people start getting up to dance.

If you get to a club early, don't be surprised if you see everyone sitting around.

Give it time, and an hour or two later the girls may be dancing on the tables and chairs without abandon.

As a result of the group dynamic, it can be hard for travelers to meet Colombians at bars and clubs.

The best approach is to be friendly and straightforward. The guys should ask a girl to dance or start a casual conversation.

Offer the people at the table next to you shots of Aguardiente to help break the ice. When all else fails, have fun and go with the flow.

Dancing

Dancing is central to the Colombia nightlife experience. To get the most fun out of your nights, take a few salsa lessons ($10 - $12/hour for private lessons).

Colombians are polite, and most will dance with someone when invited (out of proper etiquette).

For the guys, reggaeton music is easy to dance to - ask the woman to dance (Bailamos?).

For foreign women, even if you're used to inviting guys to dance in your home country, it's not normal in Colombia, and the Colombian guys *might* feel uncomfortable if you ask them.

Dating Tips

Colombian Women

Overall, Colombian women have a positive reputation as being very friendly and approachable.

The prettier the girl, the more important it is that you speak Spanish if you expect to talk with her and build rapport.

The most beautiful ones know it and may not have the patience for a foreigner who can't speak the local language.

Unlike in some English-speaking countries, women will more freely give out their phone numbers, which is in no way an assurance that you'll see her again.

The man is expected to initiate calls and texts, at least in the beginning.

Colombian society is still very traditional, and many women are on the lookout for their (foreign) knight in shining armor. Or at least a proper first date (dinner, drinks, dancing, movie), before things get physical.

All men, both Colombian and foreign, should be on high alert for women using them for their money.

Colombian Men

Colombian men are passionate, have an especially macho persona, and are known to be jealous (just like the women).

There's a high degree of infidelity in Colombia (which works both ways).

While foreign women do date (and marry) Colombian men, most foreign women I've talked to are not so interested in the local guys.

Of course, there are always exceptions.

Sex in Colombia

Most Colombians live with their parents or extended family until they are married.

Unless you're dating a professional, it's unlikely you'll be spending the night at a Colombian man or woman's home.

Out of necessity, love motels are widely available throughout the country and offer privacy and comfort for couples looking for intimacy.

Always use protection. Condoms are available at all pharmacies and drug stores, and even the cheap ones from a bar or discoteca bathroom are better than nothing. If possible, bring your favorites from home as the selection is limited.

The morning-after pill is available at pharmacies. Abortion is illegal.

In all seriousness, Colombian women are often left to raise children as single parents, supported by their parents and grandparents.

The lack of choice women have to terminate unwanted pregnancies means many of the younger ones get stuck in a generational cycle of poverty.

Be responsible. Don't contribute to this situation.

____________

The 138-page, all-original Medellín Travel Guide by David Lee is available for Kindle and PDF.

Last Updated on

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Colombia Nightlife: Bars, Discotecas, Dating Tips

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Colombia nightlife offers something for everyone, from sipping mojitos in the plazas of old Cartagena to dancing the night away in the salsa clubs of Cali. Every big city features a host of theaters for inexpensive music and dance performances. And the rural pueblos in Colombia offer the opportunity to escape the noise and relax in the country.

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Vida Nocturna en Republica Dominicana - Katelin Jorge

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Dominican Republic Nightlife

The nightlife in the Dominican Republic is terrific. There are fun local bars, clubs at the resorts, and big dance parties. The favored local drink is a rum concoction called the "Cuba Libra," which means "Free Cuba." Cuba may not be free; however, the Dominican Republic definitely is very free and fun too.

Punta Cana Nightlife

Go to Mangu. It is pretty much the best place to party in Punta Cana, just ask anybody. It's wild and fun.

Imagine nightclub is one of the best off resort nightlife options in Punta Cana. Located inside a cave it's about a 15-30 meters underground and packed with hot-looking tourists during the high season.

A disco club that is popular in Punta is Pasha. At Pasha, you will have fun dancing to disco music and enjoying the occasional live concerts.

Partying at Resorts

Nights at a resort are designed to suit all preferences. The options are the bar, where you can listen to music and the shows on special occasions, or the dance club for weekend madness.

Local Theaters

If you understand the Spanish language you will find a wonderfully thriving element in the local theaters that put on intimate performances of some of the newest pieces by modern playwrights and avant-garde theater on the cutting edge that are delightful

Beach Bars

If you are hanging out in Sousa, you don't need to go far to find a party. Just take a 15-minute cab ride and you will find a beach bum's paradise at the beach clubs.

Cabbing It for Party Time

You can catch a cab from your resort to go to other resorts that have night life until all hours. It is safe to get in a cab and let the driver give you advice about where to go to find the best parties.
Editor's note: The information contained on this page was compiled using real traveler reviews about nightlife in the Dominican Republic.
We hand-pick everything we recommend and select items through testing and reviews. Some products are sent to us free of charge with no incentive to offer a favorable review. We offer our unbiased opinions and do not accept compensation to review products. All items are in stock and prices are accurate at the time of publication. If you buy something through our links, we may earn a commission.

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Dominican Republic Nightlife - Clubs, Bars & Nightlife Tips

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The nightlife in the Dominican Republic is terrific. There are fun local bars, clubs at the resorts, and big dance parties. The favored local drink is a rum concoction called the "Cuba Libra," which means "Free Cuba." Cuba may not be free; however, the Dominican Republic definitely is very free and fun too.

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El Centro Histórico de la Ciudad de México ofrece un panorama del país desde lo precolombino a lo contemporáneo: la arquitectura, la historia económica, el comercio, la política y también los museos y el arte público.

Toda la historia de México puede conocerse en el Centro Histórico a través de las obras que alberga, las cuales van desde la época precolombina hasta la era contemporánea. Arquitectura y piezas monumentales, junto a sus museos y arte público, conforman el patrimonio que puede ser visitado actualmente.

El recorrido inicia por el asta bandera de la Plaza Mayor, conocida como el Zócalo. Este punto marca el centro de medición de distancia para todo el país, es decir, es el punto cero de referencia. Toda ubicación geográfica se vincula a ésta, que le da el nombre de Centro y con el paso de los siglos su apellido: Histórico.

El nombre de Zócalo viene de la apropiación popular, debido a que en lugar del asta bandera actual se encontraba la obra monumental de Carlos IV (1796), conocida como El Caballito, escultura ecuestre realizada por Manuel Tolsá en el último periodo colonial.

Durante los primeros años del México independiente, tanto pueblo como miembros del nuevo gobierno estaban convencidos de destruirla y, ante las arcas vacías, se pensó en fundirla para producir monedas de uso corriente. Fue gracias a la intervención de Lucas Alamán, Secretario del Interior y Exterior (1824), que se resguardó en el patio de la Academia de San Carlos, edificio del mismo autor que la escultura. Por tal motivo el zócalo o peana quedó por muchos años vacío, convirtiéndose en un punto de referencia urbano.

En el Zócalo se ubican los edificios icónicos de distintos periodos, entre ellos el despacho presidencial de la República, el Palacio Nacional. En su patio principal podemos ver una fuente que remata con una escultura de un Pegaso, obra de Humberto Peraza, también resaltan los Murales de Diego Rivera, tocando temas como la Independencia y otros momentos de la historia, mientras que a un costado de uno de los pasillos del segundo piso el muralista ofrece su interpretación acerca del mundo precolombino.

Al costado sur de Palacio, dos edificios gemelos, construidos en distintos periodos, son actualmente las oficinas y despacho del Jefe de Gobierno de la ciudad de México. Desde allí se analizan y se toman decisiones, de diversas índoles, como las del plan de desarrollo urbano, de donde depende el trazo y regulación de la infraestructura de toda la ciudad de México.

Al frente de los edificios del gobierno de la ciudad está la Catedral Metropolitana. Su construcción, que llevó poco más de dos siglos, es una de las más excelsas representaciones del Barroco. En el atrio se encuentran vestigios del periodo precolombino. Están protegidos con cristal, por lo que los visitantes pueden observarlos o caminar sobre ellos.

No hace más de cuatro décadas tuvo lugar la reaparición de los restos del Templo Mayor, que formara parte del antiguo Tenochtitlan, eje del imperio Mexica. Flanquea la Catedral por su lado oriente, mientras que por la esquina poniente se encuentra actualmente el Nacional Monte Piedad, donde se ubicara la última residencia de Moctezuma Zocoyotzin o Moctezuma II.

En la época colonial se estableció en el lugar el Monte de Piedad y de las Ánimas, creada por Pedro Romero de Terreros en el siglo XVIII, para préstamos prendarios.

En el Centro Histórico podemos encontrar más de una veintena de relevantes museos, que se van esparciendo como una onda en el agua.

A un costado de Palacio Nacional, en la calle de Moneda, en el antiguo Palacio del Arzobispado, está la Colección de Pago en Especie de la SHCP. Las obras de este museo son esculturas y pinturas fundamentalmente, entregadas como parte del pago de impuestos por los artistas plásticos.

El Museo José Luis Cuevas, a espaldas de Palacio Nacional, muestra exposiciones de arte contemporáneo y la colección del propio artista. Sobre la misma calle de Academia, el museo escuela Academia de San Carlos. Aquí se encuentran réplicas del arte clásico griego y romano, además de muchas otras piezas que han servido para la formación de estudiantes de arte. Actualmente allí se realizan los grados académicos de maestría y doctorado en artes plásticas, entre otros.

El Museo del Templo Mayor resguarda y exhibe los hallazgos de la excavación en el sitio. Sobresale la escultura de la diosa Coyolxahuqui, que en lengua Náhuatl significa Adornada de Cascabeles.

A un costado del Templo Mayor, en la calle de Donceles, se localiza la puerta trasera de un edificio de arquitectura Jesuita de la época de la Colonia (1537). Hoy alberga el sitio de origen del muralismo mexicano, pues aquí dio inicio esta escuela hacia los años 20 del siglo pasado, siendo Secretario de Educación (1921) José Vasconcelos, quien propone que tanto nacionales como visitantes conozcan la historia de México a través de las obras de arte. Fundadores y disidentes de esta corriente pintan muros con la técnica al fresco, entre ellos Ramón Alva de la Canal -El desembarco de la cruz- y Jean Charlot -La masacre de Templo Mayor-.

Rescatando la vieja técnica del encausto, los primeros murales que visten una parte importante de las paredes del conjunto arquitectónico son de Fernando Leal, con La fiesta del Señor de Chalma (1922), y de Diego Rivera en el foro del teatro con su obra La Creación (1922). El resto de los murales fueron realizados por Fermín Revueltas y posteriormente José Clemente Orozco. Este museo de San Ildefonso es indispensable en todos los recorridos, además de las exposiciones temporales para artistas nacionales e internacionales.

Muy cerca de aquí, el Centro Cultural de España en México presenta exposiciones de arte contemporáneo. Está localizado atrás de la Catedral, en la calle de Tacuba.

Sobre la calle de Donceles, que se convierte en Justo Sierra hacia el oriente, se puede encontrar un conjunto de arquitectura jesuita, el ex convento de Santa Teresa, y la primera sinagoga de México, Monte Sinaí, recién restaurada (2009), que hoy ofrece una importante vida cultural.

A poca distancia, sobre Justo Sierra, a dos calles de San Idelfonso, el Museo de La Luz ofrece un contenido de ciencia y tecnología, aunque los niños lo disfrutan mucho, no deja de ser para todos.

En el Mercado Abelardo Rodríguez, que continúa funcionando como mercado de abasto alimentario, se pueden disfrutar más de 1,200 m ² de pinturas murales de artistas como Isamu Noguchi (Historia de México); Ángel Bracho (Influencia de las vitaminas); Antonio Pujol (Los alimentos y el problema obrero), o de Pablo O´Higgins (La lucha de los obreros contra los monopolios). Se encuentra ubicado en República de Venezuela.

El Museo Nacional de las Culturas, en la calle de Correo Mayor, está dedicado a las diferentes etnias que conforman el grupo social mexicano. Sobre la calle de Pino Suárez está el Museo de la Ciudad de México y el Hospital de Jesús, fundado por Hernán Cortés, en donde se localiza el único busto que retrata a este personaje de la Conquista de Tenochtitlan (1531).

Esta zona, conocida como el primer cuadro, contiene la trama de la red subterránea del Metro, transporte colectivo cuya construcción diera inicio en 1967, rodando los primeros trenes en septiembre de 1969. En estaciones como Pino Suárez, millones de usuarios pueden compartir maquetas y algunas excavaciones que permanecieron en sitio por la construcción de este subterráneo. El Metro cuenta con un enorme Programa Cultural, por lo que se pueden encontrar desde librerías y exposiciones temporales, como es el caso del Pasaje Zócalo-Pino Suárez, donde también hay obras murales.

Es importante no dejar de ver los murales de Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Roberto Montenegro, Federico Canessi y otros tantos más en el interior de la Secretaría de Educación Pública, en la calle República de Argentina.

En la esquina de República del Brasil y República de El Salvador se encuentra otro edificio barroco, el Palacio de la Inquisición (1847). Actualmente es un edificio de la UNAM, renombrado Palacio de Medicina. Fue construido en 1732 por el arquitecto Pedro Arrieta, en él se encuentran el Departamento de Historia y Filosofía de la Medicina, el Archivo Histórico de la Facultad y el Museo de la Medicina Mexicana.

Caminando por las calles, ya sea 5 de Mayo, 16 de Septiembre, Madero o Venustiano Carranza, que desembocan hacia el Parque de la Alameda, podemos encontrar templos, museos, comercios, viviendas, que distinguen el desarrollo social y económico del México independiente y los siglos posteriores que nos traen hasta el presente.

En la calle Francisco I. Madero se encuentra el Palacio de Iturbide, quien fuera el primer emperador de México. Hoy alberga la colección de arte de Banamex, y en algún momento sobre la avenida Venustiano Carranza, actuales oficinas de Banamex, se ubicaron las instalaciones del primer banco comercial extranjero nombrado Banco de Londres y México (1864). Sobre esta misma avenida está el Club de Banqueros.

En el recorrido por la calle 5 de Mayo se encuentran el Nacional Monte de Piedad, el conocido Bar La Ópera, en donde estuvieran desayunando los triunfales zapatistas de la Revolución Mexicana (1910), mientras que los villistas desayunaron en contraesquina, en el famoso edificio de la Casa de los Azulejos, antes Palacio de los Condes del Valle de Orizaba (hoy Sanborns), anticipando su arribo al Palacio Nacional, de donde proviene la fotografía de Casasola con los generales Francisco Villa y Emiliano Zapata, en la silla presidencial.

Casa de los Condes de Miravalle, en la calle Isabel la Católica 30, es hoy centro comercial que cuenta con hotel y restaurantes, entre ellos La Botica, en la que se pueden degustar poco más de 30 variedades de mezcal. Allí se puede contemplar otro mural de Manuel Rodríguez Lozano en el remate de la escalera, propiedad de una conocida cadena comercial.

A una calle de avenida Madero, se encuentra el Museo del Estanquillo que alberga la colección de Carlos Monsiváis.

En la calle 5 de mayo se encuentra el Anexo Guardiola, un edificio de estilo Art Nouveau de principios del siglo XX, y el Banco de México, banco central del país, fundado en 1925. Es la bóveda nacional. Desde aquí se establece el control cambios, la cantidad de circulante del dinero y la regulación de la banca comercial, entre otras muchas funciones.

A su espalda está el Palacio Postal y la Plaza Manuel Tolsá, con la actual ubicación de la ya mencionada escultura de Carlos IV, la que ve de frente el Palacio de Minería, construido y diseñado por el mismo escultor, en donde se localizaba la Facultad de Ingeniería antes de trasladarse a la Ciudad Universitaria de la UNAM. Este palacio cada año se convierte en el recinto internacional para la Feria del Libro.

El Munal o Museo Nacional colecta pintura y escultura desde el periodo Colonial hasta las primeras décadas del siglo XX.

En ocasión del Bicentenario de la Independencia (2010) se colocó la escultura ecuestre de Francisco I. Madero realizada por Javier Marín, esta hace alusión a su entrada triunfal a la ciudad de México, momento trascendente de los actos de la Revolución (1910).

El Centro Histórico es un imán poderoso, ha atraído a cientos de millones de personas, habitantes y visitantes tanto cercanos como los más distantes, viajeros de lo más disímbolos, en él se han realizado los actos políticos más relevantes del país, en él han florecido instituciones académicas, financieras, comerciales y religiosas. Será Alexander von Humboldt, quien durante su estadía en 1803 la llamara la Ciudad de los Palacios.

Recuperación de espacios públicos e inmuebles

A este primer cuadro de la ciudad se le cambiaron drenajes y el cableado quedó subterráneo, al mismo tiempo se fundó el Patronato para la Conservación del Centro Histórico. Con la restauración de la Alameda Central se devolvió a la ciudad uno de los espacios públicos más concurridos, visitados y antiguos: iluminación, jardines, fuentes y esculturas, así como el reordenamiento del comercio ambulante, dieron un respiro a tan importante zona.

Destaca el Hemiciclo a Juárez, escultura realizada por el italiano Lanzaroni, con motivo del festejo del primer centenario de la Independencia de México (1910). Fue un encargo del entonces presidente Porfirio Díaz.

En el perímetro de la Alameda se alberga un número importante de recintos culturales: el Templo de San Hipólito, Centro Cultural José Martí, Laboratorio Arte Alameda, Museo Mural Diego Rivera, Plaza Juárez, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Iglesia de la Santa Veracruz, Museo Nacional de la Estampa, Museo Franz Mayer, Hotel de Cortés y el Museo Memoria y Tolerancia, el más reciente.

Resulta fundamental mencionar que más de 100 edificios han sido restaurados, entre los cuales se encuentran la Antigua Bolsa Mexicana de Valores, en calle de República de Uruguay 68, donde actualmente opera un Call Center; el Atrio de San Francisco, en la calle de Madero, una visión del periodo Colonial, y Casa Venecia, espacio cultural recuperado por la Fundación del Centro Histórico, el cual se puede disfrutar como un paseo peatonal o en bicicleta en el que también se encuentran restaurantes y un aire europeo con sabor mexicano.

También han sido recuperados cien por ciento para la habitación el edificio art déco en 5 de Mayo y los edificios de Motolinía 33 y 37, junto al llamado Marconi en la calle de Donceles. Esto convierte a estas calles en transitables en el corazón de la megalópolis.

La Sede de la Comisión de Derechos Humanos, en la calle de Cuba 60, nos recuerda de manera permanente la importancia de la coexistencia y del multiculturalismo.

No solo se trata de la recuperación de espacios públicos como tales, sino de la recuperación del espíritu de la mexicanidad a través de sus habitantes, recreado en el Centro Histórico por sus arquitectos y artistas plásticos del ayer y del presente.

Texto Miguel Peraza

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El Centro Histórico de la Ciudad de México ofrece un panorama del país desde lo precolombino a lo contemporáneo: la arquitectura, la historia económica, el comercio, la política y también los museos y el arte público.

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Pequeñas iglesias prerrománicas y románicas, tallas góticas de madera, trípticos y manuscritos iluminados son buenos ejemplos del arte cristiano medieval español, mientras que en el territorio musulmán, los palacios árabes y las mezquitas del Al-Ándalus también son muy representativas del patrimonio cultural del país.

La España del siglo XVI recibió la influencia del Renacimiento italiano, puesto que muchos artistas españoles visitaban la península itálica para aprender y adquirir, de primera mano, las innovaciones estéticas y técnicas que allí estaban surgiendo. El Renacimiento español se caracteriza por la prominencia que adquirió la temática religiosa, ya que la Iglesia ejercía el principal mecenazgo de las artes. La pintura y la literatura florecerían especialmente durante el siglo XVII en el llamado . Sevilla, Madrid y Valladolid fueron activos centros artísticos que reunieron a artistas como El Greco, El Españoleto y Velázquez y a escritores como Cervantes, Quevedo y Góngora. Aunque los motivos pictóricos apenas cambiaron, los temas religiosos empezaron a reproducirse con un realismo naturalista. Los reyes encargaban retratos y escenas históricas en los que los artistas fueron introduciendo nuevas fuentes de inspiración, a menudo sacadas de la vida cotidiana.

La decadencia del Barroco llevó al Rococó y a continuación al Neoclasicismo, movimientos deudores de sus equivalentes franceses. El pintor más significativo del siglo XVIII español fue Francisco de Goya. Autor de espléndidos retratos de la monarquía ( La familia de Carlos IV), posteriormente se centraría en temas políticos y sociales; usó como eje temático la ocupación francesa de España para representar los horrores de la guerra. Prácticamente confinado en su casa de la Quinta del Sordo (llamada así debido a la enfermedad del artista), Goya dedicó sus últimos días a temas oscuros, incluso lúgubres.

La contribución española al arte del siglo XX puede resumirse en dos movimientos tan revolucionarios como esenciales: el cubismo y el surrealismo.

El cubismo fue una reacción a los modos tradicionales de representación caracterizados por una perspectiva monofocal. Pablo Picasso y Georges Braque abandonaron esta premisa, introduciendo de este modo la cuarta dimensión -el tiempo- en la pintura. Dicho estilo se caracteriza por el uso de formas geométricas, intercalando planos y una gama de colores austera. También recibió la influencia del arte primitivo, especialmente de las máscaras tribales africanas y la cerámica ibera.

El surrealismo, surgido del radical movimiento iconoclasta del dadaísmo, buscaba explorar y expresar el subconsciente tanto en la pintura como en la literatura. La imaginería irracional de los sueños, muy inspirado en las teorías freudianas, constituirían una fuente importante de inspiración para los poetas y artistas plásticos del Surrealismo, tanto figurativo como abstracto, como queda patente en las obras de Salvador Dalí y Joan Miró.

La pintura actual española acaba de sufrir la pérdida de uno de los grandes maestros de la abstracción: Antoni Tápies. Este catalán, junto al internacional Miquel Barceló y al espléndido Antonio López formar un triángulo de oro dentro del panorama actual de la pintura española.

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Arte Español - Pintores y Artistas Españoles | don Quijote

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Pequeñas iglesias prerrománicas y románicas, tallas góticas de madera, trípticos y manuscritos iluminados son buenos ejemplos del arte cristiano medieval español, mientras que en el territorio musulmán, los palacios árabes y las mezquitas del Al-Ándalus también son muy representativas del patrimonio cultural del país.

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Arte español desde los Grandes Maestros hasta los pintores más emblemáticos que han salido de España

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Si te interesa el arte mexicano en el siguiente artículo te presentamos muchos datos sobre el arte de México. Descubre el origen del Arte Mexicano y conoce de la mano de nuestros expertos las etapas más importantes del arte Mexicano.

¿Qué es el Arte Mexicano?

Podemos definir el Arte Mexicano como aquel cuyo desarrollo se debió a los indígenas de este territorio, quienes fueron vinculando arte, arquitectura, religión y clases dominantes. Más tarde llegaría la colonización y éstos empezarían a aplicar este arte en las decoraciones y construcciones de las iglesias, trasladando este tipo de arte incluso a algunas zonas de España y otros países europeos.

Este arte destaca sobre todo porque representa imágenes cotidianas como alimentos, animales, cosas, etc. Asimismo, se trata de un tipo de arte donde las tradiciones y las creencias tienen mucha importancia y se fabrican de forma manual todo tipo de productos artesanos. Normalmente se tratan también temas funcionales, pero a la vez poéticos y artísticos. Sobre todo llama la atención que se trata de un arte muy colorido y llamativo, con tonalidades muy vivas.

Origen del Arte Mexicano

El origen del Arte Mexicano hay que buscarlo en el arte de Mesoamérica elaborado por las diferentes culturas sedentarias que crearon ciudades durante muchos siglos. Más tarde con la conquista este estilo se europeizó hasta que apareció el muralismo en la zona de México. Se trata de un estilo que a partir de aquí creció y se fue transformando también en otros estilos más allá de la pintura y la escultura: por ejemplo hasta la fotografía o la artesanía.

Etapas más importantes del Arte Mexicano

En primer lugar encontramos la primera etapa, la de los orígenes, que se corresponde a la etapa prehispánica. Este arte se comenzó a crear y difundir en Mesoamérica, justo en el centro de México y data de 1500 A.X hasta el 1500 actual. Además de entro de esta gran etapa mexicana podemos diferenciar entre el período pre-clásico, el clásico y el post-clásico. La primera cultura que dominó Mesoamérica, la de los olmedas, configuraba figuras en cerámica y también esculturas de gran tamaño que sobre todo tenían que ver con motivos religiosos y políticos.

Más tarde llegó la etapa colonial con la colonización española. Durante esta etapa el arte de México entremezcló las visiones y los materiales que usaban los nativos con los materiales y visiones europeos. A partir de aquí se hicieron muchas representaciones con la evangelización como tema central y la construcción de diferentes iglesias como eje básico.

Más tarde, en el siglo XIX, el Arte Mexicano recibió una gran influencia del arte neoclásico, con lo que muchas obras que se pueden ver actualmente cuentan con distintas técnicas de este período. Si te interesa conocer más, como nos recomiendan desde CanalChat Tapatios, debes saber que más tarde resurgieron los temas de los indígenas y se aplicaron también algunas muestras de estilo romántico y también del costumbrismo. A finales del XIX y principios del XIX, cuando la independencia empezó a bajar se realizó sobre todo arte de estilo europeo.

Finalmente en el siglo XX con la revolución mexicana sin duda cambió el arte y se creó una producción de arte muy cercana a la propaganda política: el Movimiento Muralista Mexicano, con lo que sin duda el arte de México quedó redefinido totalmente. Destacan sobre todo José Vasconcelos como creador y Diego Rivera o Gerard Murillo como principales valedores del movimiento muralista cuyo punto más alto tuvo lugar en la década del 30 del pasado siglo. Más tarde llegó la Generación de la Ruptura en los años 50, dónde se incorporó el surrealismo para llegar después el neo-expresionismo y el neo-mexicanismo en los 80. Desde los 90 hasta la actualidad el arte mexicano es postmoderno y cuenta con grandes exponentes como Mónica Castillo o Betsabé Romero.

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Arte Mexicano: origen y etapas más importantes

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Si te interesa el arte mexicano en el siguiente artículo te presentamos muchos datos sobre el arte de México. Descubre el origen del Arte Mexicano y conoce de la mano de nuestros expertos las etapas más importantes del arte Mexicano.

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Ya hay cuatro ciclos especializados y aún falta el regreso de "Función privada".

La pantalla grande se está metiendo cada vez con más frecuencia en la pantalla chica. Muestra de esto es que, hasta el momento, se emiten por lo menos tres programas de cine en la renaciente Argentina Televisora Color, y uno en América. También en estos días se habla del posible retorno de "Función privada", uno de los clásicos ciclos de cine de la TV local que durante 22 años condujeron Carlos Morelli y Rómulo Berruti.

En la actual oferta cinematográfico-televisiva, los cuatro programas ofrecen distintos formatos. En cuanto a los de la TV estatal, los viernes, de 22 a 24, se emite "Cineclub", que en realidad es el reestreno de un ciclo de películas clásicas que el crítico de cine y fundador del Cine Club Núcleo, Salvador Samaritano, presentó en el mismo canal en 1985, y que después paseó por varios canales de cable hasta volver al lugar donde nació. En esa emisora, uno de los críticos de la revista de cine El Amante, Eduardo Antín ("Quintín"), comenzó a presentar estrenos de las últimas décadas.

Y para completar esta trilogía de la TV oficial, Argentina Televisora Color estrenó "Haciendo cine", un programa sobre cine argentino e independiente con invitados, que se emite los sábados, a las 20, conducido por Hernán Gerschuny y Pablo Udenio, directores de la revista de cine que lleva el mismo nombre del programa.

Por su parte, América cambió el programa "Alucine" (que en 1999 condujo Axel Kutchevasky) por "Movie", un ciclo de novedades y estrenos, también de media hora, que conduce, todos los jueves, a las 23.30, Mabel Marchesini, la ex conductora del noticiero del ex Canal 9.

Convocado por La Nación , el crítico Quintín explica que la afluencia de programas de cine en el canal estatal surgió cuando "bajó del aire la programación de emergencia. Hay una intención de hacer del cine un elemento nuevo de la programación. Aunque también hay que tener en cuenta que en un canal que está reprogramándose y que está prácticamente desmantelado, la emisión de ciclos de cine es una de las cosas más inmediatas que puede hacerse para ocupar la programación y les permite tener material al aire sin necesidad de poner dinero o producir".

Los conductores de "Haciendo cine" cuentan que la llamada de la propuesta surgió el 31 de diciembre último, a las cuatro de la tarde. "Quiero que nos juntemos, quiero hacerles una propuesta deshonesta -cuentan que les dijo entre bromas el director de producción de Argentina Televisora Color, Rodolfo Hermida-. ¿Pueden venir ahora?" En otra llamada, le dijo a Quintín: "¿Querés venir a presentar películas? Eso sí: gratis y sin posibilidades de hacer canjes". En su incursión en la TV y como presentador de films, Quintín reconoce seguir el camino que marcó Salvador Samaritano, quien permitió conocer el cine de calidad, también a través de la TV, con películas subtituladas, nunca dobladas. Y que siguió una regla de oro que hoy intenta mantener intacta en una TV que necesita de protagonistas: "La película debe ser la estrella, no yo".

Sin rigidez ni solemnidad

"El rompió con la estética de la TV, del presentador que vende películas para promover productos, rompió con la rigidez y la falsa solemnidad -señaló Quintín-. Además, logró una comunicación importante con los espectadores." Samaritano cuenta una de las mejores anécdotas de su oficio de mediador entre el cine y el público. "Mucha gente me preguntaba por qué se había terminado aquel programa en ATC. Recuerdo que caminando por el interior del país, un hombre del pueblo Chañar Ladeado, amante del cine, me dijo que se sentía muy mal porque hasta ese programa sólo sabía de las películas a través de los libros. Y por la TV había podido ver por primera vez "El acorazado Potemkin", a Chaplin o clásicos del cine francés."

"Tuve suerte -dice Samaritano-. Siempre pude elegir las películas que quería presentar. Después de la dictatura, hice el primer programa de TV que pasó largometrajes polacos, de Wajda, de Zanussi. Y recuerdo aquellos ciclos de Eisenstein, Mijalkov y Tarkovski. En aquella época, yo sugería y el canal compraba los derechos. Claro que ahora sólo se exhiben películas que son de dominio público. Según me dijo Hermida, el canal está por adquirir nuevo material clásico."

Quintín señala que sigue su "propia línea editorial": "Creo que todas las películas merecen exhibirse, sean buenas o malas. Claro que nunca presentaría una película de Porcel y Olmedo diciendo que es maravillosa. De todas maneras, me gustaría contar con un mejor material para presentar. En este canal lo que hay es muy viejo y son muy pocas las películas de la década del noventa que el canal puede exhibir legalmente."

Otras propuestas

Los jóvenes conductores de "Haciendo cine" tienen su propio sitio en Internet (http://www.haciendocine.com.ar ), en donde anuncian la programación de cada sábado. El programa se propone presentar en una hora "todo lo que pasa en el cine argentino y en el cine independiente del mundo". Para hoy anuncian entrevistas con Eliseo Subiela, con el coleccionista de cine Octavio Fabiano, con el nuevo director de cine del Incaa y con un joven realizador, Christian Bernard, entre otras cosas.

Mabel Marchesini, que presenta su programa desde el Village Recoleta, dice que "Movie" se propuso cubrir un espacio diferente, "no el de los especialistas". "En todo caso, una propuesta integradora que informe las novedades sin olvidar el pasado del cine. No soy una especialista -agrega- ni pretendo serlo. Como el ciclo es informativo, la idea fue buscar una periodista a la que le gustara el cine y que pudiera hablar como una espectadora más."

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el cine se muda a la televisión - la nacion

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Ya hay cuatro ciclos especializados y aún falta el regreso de "Función privada". La pantalla grande se está metiendo cada vez con más frecuencia en la pantalla chica. Muestra de esto es que, hasta el momento, se emiten por lo menos tres programas de cine en la renaciente Argentina Televisora Color, y uno en América.

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Buenos Aires is one of the greatest places in the world to go out. The South American flair for living is at its peak when Argentines are out and about this vibrant city.

Cosmopolitan Buenos Aires offers the visitor a plethera of different kinds of entertainment. Plays, tango shows and movies along with clubs and bars all await the socially active visitors.

Tango Shows:
Watch the best tango dancers in Buenos Aires perform tango in it's essence or listen to great tango orchestras playing classics and modern tango songs.
More

Theater and Plays:
Avenida Corrientes, the central avenue running through Buenos Aires is the home of many theaters and play houses. Take this as yet another opportunity to further explore Argentinean culture by watching a Broadway play, an opera or a the philharmonic. While most plays are in spanish, you will still find enough enjoyment in the activity.
More

Nightlife:
Experience the worlds best nightlife in Buenos Aires clubs and bars. See lively people and enjoy the festive atmosphere when it is nighttime in this great city.
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Buying Tickets:
Once you know what you want to see, you still need to buy your tickets. TicketMaster and other ticketting offices are found in the Buenos Aires Events Tickets Buying Guide.
More

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Argentina Travel Guide - Argentina Entertainment Information

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Buenos Aires is one of the greatest places in the world to go out. The South American flair for living is at its peak when Argentines are out and about this vibrant city. Cosmopolitan Buenos Aires offers the visitor a plethera of different kinds of entertainment.

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(EUROPA PRESS). -Más de la mitad de los hogares de Cuba viven por debajo del umbral de la pobreza, según un informe el Observatorio Cubano de Derechos Humanos (OCDH) que pone de manifiesto la incapacidad de la amplia mayoría de los hogares para vivir de una forma digna y con acceso a suministros básicos como agua o electricidad.

El estudio concluye que el 55,4% de los hogares ingresa menos de 100 dólares al mes en un país donde el salario mínimo es de apenas 16 dólares. Uno de cada cuatro familias ingresa entre 50 y 100 dólares, mientras que algo más de un 12% no llega siquiera a los 20 euros, según el Observatorio de Derechos Sociales, que no contempla los fondos procedentes de remesas.

Un 45,6% considera que puede salir adelante con limitaciones y un 43,2% directamente tacha de "insuficientes" los fondos que ingresa

Solo el 11% cree que el dinero que percibe es suficiente para vivir dignamente, ya que un 45,6% considera que puede salir adelante con limitaciones y un 43,2% directamente tacha de "insuficientes" los fondos que ingresa. Pese a ello, tres de cada cuatro hogares cubanos no recibe ningún tipo de asistencia, mientras que el 13% tiene ayuda del Estado y el 7% de alguna ONG.

El Observatorio ha cuestionado las estadísticas oficiales del régimen en cuanto al nivel de empleo, habida cuenta de que solo un 21,5% de las personas entrevistadas dice trabajar a tiempo completo y un 23,2% dispone de un empleo a tiempo parcial.

Un 22% admite que su alimentación es deficiente y un 38,4% la considera repetitiva -la dieta se basa en arroz, pan y frijoles y escasean la carne de vacuno y el pescado-. Un tercio de la población come dos o menos veces al día, reza el informe, elaborado a partir de 1.082 casos en once de las 16 provincias de la Isla.

En cuanto a la atención médica, más de cuatro de cada diez personas que necesitaron algún medicamento recientemente no pudieron conseguirlo. En este sentido, solo un 18,6% de los cubanos encuentran las medicinas que necesitan en el sistema de salud cubano.

El informe también examina el estado de los suministros básicos y determina que casi el 70% de los cubanos no cuenta con suministro permanente de agua: un 32% lo tiene entre cuatro y cinco días y un 28% dispone de él menos de tres días. El 8,1% no dispone de ningún servicio de agua potable.

El Observatorio ha denunciado la situación general de la vivienda en Cuba, donde aproximadamente la mitad de los hogares necesita trabajos de reparación, con el 7,6% de los inmuebles en riesgo de derrumbe. Solo una de cada cuatro casas se conserva en buen estado.

Las carencias se extienden también al suministro eléctrico, inaccesible de forma continua para el 80% de la población

Las carencias se extienden también al suministro eléctrico, inaccesible de forma continua para el 80% de la población. Seis de cada diez ciudadanos afirma que ha sufrido hasta diez cortes en los últimos meses, mientras que el 18,8% ha padecido más de una decena de apagones.

El director ejecutivo del OCDH, Alejandro González Raga, ha destacado durante la presentación del estudio que "es la evidencia de la realidad que vive Cuba". "No de la realidad que dice el Gobierno, sino la que cuentan los cubanos", ha enfatizado.

El informe, el primero de este tipo divulgado por el Observatorio se ha elaborado a partir de entrevistas personales realizadas entre el 15 de agosto y el 8 de septiembre de 2019 y cuenta con un margen de error del 3% y un nivel de confianza del 95%.

_______________________________________________________________________

El equipo de 14ymedio está comprometido con hacer un periodismo serio que refleje la realidad de la Cuba profunda. Gracias por acompañarnos en este largo camino. Te invitamos a que continúes apoyándonos, pero esta vez haciéndote miembro de 14ymedio. Juntos podemos seguir transformando el periodismo en Cuba.

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Más de la mitad de los hogares de Cuba viven por debajo del umbral de la pobreza, según un informe

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(EUROPA PRESS). -Más de la mitad de los hogares de Cuba viven por debajo del umbral de la pobreza, según un informe el Observatorio Cubano de Derechos Humanos (OCDH) que pone de manifiesto la incapacidad de la amplia mayoría de los hogares para vivir de una forma digna y con acceso a suministros básicos como agua o electricidad.

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Guatemala es indígena -o con herencia indígena-. Cuatro de cada diez personas se consideran a sí mismas como indígenas. El porcentaje podría ser mayor, pero durante años se ha instalado un sentimiento de rechazo hacia estos pueblos que lleva a muchos a negar sus orígenes y convertir esta herencia en un insulto. En esta sociedad, indígena es un "indio", una palabra que es sinónimo de tonto y necio. Un discurso de odio puesto en evidencia en acciones cotidianas.

Ilustración: Diego Orellana

1. El racismo de todos los días

Esta escena ocurrió en el Centro Histórico de la Ciudad de Guatemala, pero se repite constantemente en otros puntos del país. Cada medio día, cientos de oficinistas se apresuran a almorzar en los comedores de la zona 1. A unos 100 metros del Congreso de la República hay un pequeño restaurante. En una de las mesas con manteles cuadrados comen cuatro mujeres con uniforme que las identifica como trabajadoras del Ministerio Público, conversan entre risas.

Una de las mujeres interrumpe la conversación para contar una anécdota.

-¡Van a ver! -comienza- el 'indio chaparro' de lentes del segundo nivel me invitó a salir. ¡Qué se cree el igualado!- dice y sus acompañantes se carcajean.

Ninguna de las cuatro parece entender que detrás de esas palabras, en apariencia inocentes, hay una fuerte carga de racismo.

Durante años, la palabra "indio" ha servido en Guatemala para referirse a las personas que pertenecen a los pueblos indígenas y, a la vez, es el sinónimo de una persona tonta, necia, que vale menos que los demás. Las palabras, como parte de un discurso de odio, fomentan la discriminación.

Eva Tecún León, coordinadora general del Movimiento de Mujeres Indígenas Tz'ununija', ha buscado durante años cómo identificar estas muestras de racismo y cómo hallar un camino que conduzca a detenerlo.

-El racismo es un síntoma de dominación, se reproduce en una diversa serie de formas, en la vivencia cotidiana-, dice.

La diputada Sandra Morán también intenta explicar el fenómeno:

-El racismo hay que identificarlo. No es un problema que la mayoría de la gente identifique como tal, es un problema estructural que hasta en los medios educativos se da... los dichos, los chistes es una parte de un problema estructural.

¿Por qué una frase como la escuchada en el comedor de la zona 1 se dice en voz alta y sin cuestionarse? Para empezar, porque no es un delito.

2. El racismo no tiene castigo

-En Guatemala, el racismo no es delito. Sí lo es la discriminación, pero solo es un delito menor-, explica la directora técnica de la sede de Guatemala de la Comisión Presidencial contra la Discriminación y el Racismo (Codisra), Carmen Quiej.

Aun así, Codisra se encarga de recibir denuncias por discriminación para asesorar y dar acompañamiento a las víctimas. Durante 2018 se recibieron 51 casos, en lo que va de 2019, 16. Cinco de estos, son casos colectivos.

El artículo 202 Bis, del Código Penal de Guatemala, explica: "se entenderá como discriminación toda distinción, exclusión, restricción o preferencia basada en motivos de género, raza, etnia, idioma, edad, religión, situación económica, enfermedad, discapacidad, estado civil, o en cualesquiera otro motivo, razón o circunstancia, que impidiere o dificultare a una persona, grupo de personas o asociaciones, el ejercicio de un derecho legalmente establecido incluyendo el derecho consuetudinario o costumbre, de conformidad con la Constitución Política de la República y los Tratados Internacionales en materia de derechos humanos."

El castigo a quien se encontrara culpable de este delito es de uno a tres años de prisión y una multa de 500 a 3 mil quetzales.

Sin embargo, casi ningún caso llega a una sentencia y en los que se llega el acusado debe enfrentar la pena menor.

Quiej recuerda un caso que sí alcanzó sentencia. Ocurrió en Quiché, entre dos mujeres que vendían sus productos en un mercado. Una de ellas, que se reconocía como ladina menospreció a la otra, que se reconocía como indígena.

Los insultos eran cosa de todos los días. Le gritaba "india sucia", hasta el punto de rociar con agua los productos que la víctima tenía a la venta. La denuncia se presentó en 2016 y la sentencia, después de decenas de audiencias, se logró en 2018. La pena de cárcel y la multa fue la mínima y la mujer que atacó durante meses nunca llegó a la cárcel, a pesar de que los peritajes del MP demostraron que la víctima sufrió consecuencias psicológicas.

-Ser racista en Guatemala sale barato-, resume la coordinadora de Tz'ununija'.

Eva Tecún también sabe de esto. Su organización ha acompañado procesos de denuncia, pero asegura que es muy difícil lograr que se llegue a una sentencia y que, en el mejor de los casos, lo que se logra es una disculpa pública.

-¿Cómo demostrar que hicieron de menos a alguien por ser racistas?-, se pregunta Tecún y agrega que uno de los principales problemas que enfrenta es el poco conocimiento y experiencia que tienen los fiscales del Ministerio Público en estos casos.

3. El insulto sin consecuencia: las redes sociales

La población indígena representa al 41% de la población del país, según el censo oficial de 2002 -entre julio y septiembre del 2018 se hizo el último censo, pero aún no han publicado resultados-.Son mayoría en 168 municipios y en algunos departamentos hasta llegan a ser más del 95% de la población.

A pesar de ello, siguen siendo el blanco de los insultos y el menosprecio de los que se auto-consideran ladinos. En las redes sociales es común observar una costumbre que en la vida cotidiana prácticamente todos han escuchado: se cree que el indígena es tonto, necio, sucio y de menor categoría. Teclear la palabra "indio" en el buscador de Twitter es la puerta para observar una de las muestras más grandes de racismo en Guatemala.

Insultos como "el pisto no da educación, el pisado ha de tener billete porque el tata tiene su negocio de burras pero lo indio ni bañándose en cloro se va"

El pisto no da educación, el pizado ha de tener billete porque el tata tiene su negocio de burras pero lo indio ni bañándose en cloro se va.

- Meliodas (@IanElBroko) August 30, 2013

o

"Ese pisado se cree albino y es más indio que los marchantes de la terminal"

Ese pizado se cree albino y es mas indio que los marchantes de la terminal.

- Azul G. (@StrongLungs_) August 27, 2013

o

"Hoy vi a un pisado tan pero tan indio que parecía tataranieto de Tecún Umán el desgraciado"

Hoy vi a un pizado tan pero tan indio que parecía Tataranieto de Tecún Human el desgraciado.

- Rgarzarovi (@TottenGother) May 27, 2014

...son parte del racismo diario que llena la red social, la mayoría de los casos protegido por cuentas anónimas y que promueven discursos de odio.

¿Se le puede poner un fin al uso del lenguaje para insultar y discriminar? Legalmente hay pocas posibilidades. Carmen Quiej explica que muchas veces las personas no consideran denunciar esta clase de insultos porque se volvió normal.

-Mucha gente ya no lo denuncia, porque se ha vuelto algo muy cotidiano-, explica Quiej.

La directora técnica de Codisra añade otro detalle importante: casi ninguna denuncia prospera. Esto ocurre, la mayoría de veces, porque el Ministerio Público no realiza una investigación exhaustiva ya que la discriminación termina siendo algo "muy subjetivo".

¿Cómo se siente una persona de descendencia maya ante estos insultos?

-Provoca indignación. Me hace pensar que en este país no pensamos lo que decimos y no nos reconocemos porque muchas veces esos insultos vienen de personas que tienen rasgos indígenas, pero que seguramente no conocen de historia-, responde Tecún.

4. Quezalteca, no indita

En Guatemala existe un licor que se llama Quezalteca. Muestra en su etiqueta una mujer vestida con el traje tradicional de Quetzaltenango. Sin embargo, en el país es ampliamente conocido por una palabra que la marca no ha puesto en la etiqueta y que tampoco usa en su publicidad: Indita.

Cientos de jóvenes piden cada fin de semana ese aguardiente con ese nombre y parecen ignorar la carga de racismo que lleva llamarlo de esa manera solo por la imagen que tiene en la etiqueta.

Durante la Semana Santa de 2019, en Facebook se abrió un debate sobre este nombre. La organización Movimiento de Mujeres Indígenas Tz'ununija' hizo un análisis sobre el racismo en el lenguaje cotidiano.

La publicación original tiene más de 300 comentarios, pero la mayoría de estos son de personas que no entienden qué está mal o porqué llamar así al licor es racismo. También muchos de estos son insultos, burlas o señalamientos sobre que este planteamiento es una exageración.

La discusión llegó a Twitter, donde algunos usuarios señalaban que no veían nada de malo en llamar "indita" al licor y hacían alusión a la cerveza Indio en México o al equipo de béisbol "Indians" de Cleveland, a pesar de que estos ejemplos sí se llamaban de esta manera, pero el licor guatemalteco, no.

El antropólogo y columnista Diego Vásquez Monterroso tomó la batuta de la discusión en esa red social y mostró los puntos por los que llamar al aguardiente Quezalteca como "indita" sí es una actitud racista.

-Hay que entender que el éxito del racismo, y el que sea tan difícil de eliminar, está precisamente en que se inserta como "orden natural de las cosas"-, tuiteó el antropólogo Vásquez Monterroso .

Gracias Pancho por la aclaración.

Lo pongo acá de esta manera porque es más fácil para mí responder así. Bueno, primero hay que entender que el éxito del racismo, y el que sea tan difícil de eliminar, está precisamente en que se inserta como "orden natural de las cosas", en lo https://t.co/NoLIeCIfWZ

- Diego Vásquez Monterroso (@diegovasquezmo) April 21, 2019

Una teoría que, como ya se ha señalado, sostienen otras personas, como la diputada Sandra Morán. El racismo es difícil de eliminar porque está tan arraigado que no se reconoce.

Tecún dice que esta publicación tenía el objetivo generar la discusión y lograr un impacto.

-Dejar la duda, que la gente se planteara si eso era racismo y provocar que más de alguien se informara-, explica.

5. La campaña política y el racismo

Guatemala ha tenido 50 presidentes, todos hombres, blancos y mestizos. Ninguna persona representante de los pueblos indígenas ha ostentado el cargo de Presidente de la República. En esta contienda electoral, de las 48 personas (para cargos de presidente y vicepresidente), al menos seis son indígenas, sin embargo, su camino se ha visto marcado por ataques racistas.

El más fuerte, hasta ahora, se dio a través de redes sociales contra Blanca Estela Colop, candidata a la vicepresidencia por el partido URNG. El día que recibió, junto al candidato presidencial, Pablo Ceto, sus credenciales, una cuenta de Twitter desde el anonimato de su autor y bajo el nombre de "Guate. Nacionalista" la llamó "la señora del aseo". Colop es en realidad licenciada en Pedagogía y Ciencias de la Educación.

(https://twitter.com/guanacionalista/status/1110593162907697152).

Colop interpuso una denuncia ante el Ministerio Público por discriminación, pero la investigación aún no ha dado resultados. La cuenta Guanacionalista sigue activa, tiene cerca de 2 mil seguidores y el tuit que contiene el insulto racista ni siquiera fue borrado.

Al contrario, horas después hizo otro en el mismo tono: aseguró que la Premio Nobel de la Paz, Rigoberta Menchú, también era una mujer que solo hacía limpieza. Este tampoco ha sido borrado.

Mientras tanto, la candidata a la presidencia del partido Movimiento para la Liberación de los Pueblos (MLP), Thelma Cabrera, realiza sus mítines portando el traje tradicional de las comunidades y no pierde la oportunidad de asegurar que otras candidatas, como Sandra Torres o Zury Ríos, han usado este traje solo como un disfraz.

6. Un acuerdo de paz sin resultados

La población indígena fue la que más sufrió la guerra interna de Guatemala. Los duros enfrentamientos entre ejército y guerrilla se dieron en sus territorios y fueron aldeas indígenas las arrasadas por las masacres perpetradas por lo soldados.

Por ello mismo, durante el proceso de la firma de la paz, un acuerdo se dedicó especialmente para las comunidades indígenas: el acuerdo sobre identidad y derechos de los pueblos indígenas.

En este acuerdo, el capítulo llamado "Lucha contra la discriminación" ya se reconocía, hace más de 20 años, el problema:

"Para superar la discriminación histórica hacia los pueblos indígenas, se requiere el concurso de todos los ciudadanos en la transformación de mentalidades, actitudes y comportamientos.

Dicha transformación comienza por un reconocimiento claro por todos los guatemaltecos de la realidad de la discriminación racial, así como de la imperiosa necesidad de superarla para lograr una verdadera convivencia pacífica."

Para lograrlo, el acuerdo proponía una serie de acciones a ejecutarse. Entre estas, brindar educación para terminar con el racismo, realizar reformas al Código Penal y dar mayor acompañamiento legal a las víctimas de discriminación.

El acuerdo fue firmado el 31 de marzo de 1995. Es decir, han pasado 29 años sin lograr cambios significativos. Los pueblos indígenas siguen sufriendo discriminación y son víctimas del racismo.

7. "Un indio domesticado"

Fernando Us, activista político, quien ha sufrido la discriminación por ser indígena y homosexual explica que muchas veces sufren del racismo en pequeños detalles, que hacen que siempre se les vea con otros ojos.

-Me siento como un indio domesticado-, asegura Us.

Es su manera de explicar cómo muchos profesionales indígenas debieron adaptarse a un entorno que los obliga a prepararse más y tener que buscar una mayor aprobación que sus pares ladinos.

Mientras tanto, ese racismo interiorizado que permite esto sigue creciendo en los niños. La costumbre de que los niños lleguen vestidos de indígenas para celebrar "el día de mercado" solo refuerza la idea de que el papel de una persona indígena es en el campo, cultivando verduras y vendiéndolas en el mercado, ignorando así a los cientos de profesionales que a diario trabajan en el país y son de descendencia maya.

Es por ello, analistas y expertos coinciden en que la única manera de terminar con este racismo estructural es la educación en los centros educativos y admitir que el racismo es un mal cotidiano y tan usual, que muchas veces es imperceptible.

8. El racismo es violencia

Eva Tecún dice que la lucha para erradicar el racismo está cuesta arriba, debido a que es un problema tan arraigado que muchas veces no se reconoce, pero que es real.

-El racismo es violencia porque duele, lastima, hace daño-, explica.

La propuesta de Tecún para detenerlo es un diálogo que permita alcanzar y ejecutar una política pública de eliminación del racismo, pero sobre todo, la educación.

Esos mismos colegios que celebran "el día del mercado" deben ser los primeros en reconocer su racismo e iniciar procesos de cambio.

-En las escuelas nos forman, allí aprendemos qué es correcto y qué no-, dice Tecún y por ello ahí debe empezar el cambio.

***
Más de la serie
Reportaje: El país de los hombres que no aman a las mujeres
Infografía: Un gráfico que confirma cómo no se protege a las mujeres
Video: La violencia contra las mujeres es una epidemia de odio
Reportaje: El país en donde se asesina a personas por no ser heterosexual
Infografía: Números que evidencian el peligro de ser gay
Video: Morir por ser gay en pleno 2019
***

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El país en el que ser racista es normal y no un delito - Nómada, Guatemala.

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Guatemala es indígena -o con herencia indígena-. Cuatro de cada diez personas se consideran a sí mismas como indígenas. El porcentaje podría ser mayor, pero durante años se ha instalado un sentimiento de rechazo hacia estos pueblos que lleva a muchos a negar sus orígenes y convertir esta herencia en un insulto.

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la vida nocturna en republica dominicana

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la vida nocturna en republica dominicana

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Matt M

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La música y el baile son parte integral de la vida en República Dominicana. No importa si te encuentras en Santo Domingo, con la mejor vida nocturna y presentaciones en vivo, o si estás en un pueblo pequeño en el centro del país, los ritmos dominicanos se escucharán desde los colmados hasta los clubes, mientras las personas bailan en el interior o incluso en el exterior, en parques y espacios públicos. Vive la música folclórica las noches de los viernes y sábados en la Plaza España de Santo Domingo, o baila toda la noche al ritmo de bandas de son y merengue en vivo los domingos en las ruinas de San Francisco. Ve de bar en bar y celebra en el centro de Santiago o descubre los almacenes de licores de Puerto Plata donde reinan la bachata y el merengue. La vida nocturna en la playa cobra un nuevo sentido en Cabarete, donde puedes ir de fiesta toda la noche a uno de sus bares frente al mar. Punta Cana con sus ostentosos clubes y marinas es igual de popular, con música house o sofisticados bares de vino.

Siempre es una buena época para bailar y escuchar música en vivo en República Dominicana.

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Música + Vida Nocturna - GoDominicanRepublic.com

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La música y el baile son parte integral de la vida en República Dominicana. No importa si te encuentras en Santo Domingo, con la mejor vida nocturna y presentaciones en vivo, o si estás en un pueblo pequeño en el centro del país, los ritmos dominicanos se escucharán desde los colmados hasta los clubes, mientras las personas bailan en el interior o incluso en el exterior, en parques y espacios públicos.

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La vida nocturna en republica dominicana

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La vida nocturna en republica dominicana

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Matt M

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Las noches en Santo Domingo invitan a disfrutar de los ritmos Caribeños, del calor de la costa y del extraordinario sabor de exóticas bebidas refrescantes. En esta ciudad la fiesta no termina nunca, así que prepárese para pasarla genial toda la noche con sus múltiples opciones de entretenimiento nocturno y sus extraordinarios bares y restaurantes nocturnos. Definitivamente, Santo Domingo es el mejor lugar en toda la República Dominicana para disfrutar de una variada y emocionante vida nocturna.

Tanto en la zona del Malecón como en los hoteles de las avenidas Independencia, Abraham Lincoln y George Washington hay discotecas que reciben a todos los que gustan de la vida nocturna y son bastante comunes como centros de reunión y encuentro. También en la calle peatonal El Conde dentro de la Zona Colonial, se pueden encontrar excelentes bares y discotecas para disfrutar la noche al máximo, así como en calles como las Damas, las Mercedes, La Atarazana, Isabel la Católica y Padre Billini, en las que puede comenzar la diversión nocturna con una deliciosa cena en un rico restaurante y luego quedarse en el bar toda la noche o irse a bailar a una disco o a oír cadenciosa música en vivo. No se quede en su habitación, mejor como dicen los dominicanos: "a gozar".

Bares y pubs

Desde sofisticados cocteles caribeños preparados con el clásico ron, hasta las más tradicionales cervezas, o "frías" como se les dice en este país, están a su completa disposición en los diversos bares de la ciudad, misma que ofrece infinidad de opciones para satisfacer a todos, pues desde la tarde comienzan a sonar las bocinas de los establecimientos y a servirse copas de licor y vasos de cerveza.

La fervorosa sangre de los dominicanos permite que en la mayoría de los bares se pueda bailar y hasta cantar, por lo que son frecuentes los bares de karaoke o los de música en vivo. Dependiendo de su presupuesto podrá encontrar opciones tan exclusivas como los cómodos bares estilo "lounge", hasta económicos pubs o centros cerveceros a los que se les llama "colmadones", que es donde se reúne la gente de la ciudad que sale de trabajar para refrescarse con unas "frías" y relajarse bailando con al ritmo de las máquinas tocadiscos.

Desde las 5:00 p.m o 6:00 p.m, se pueden ver abiertos muchos de estos lugares ofreciendo promociones en su tempranera "hora feliz", que a veces se extiende hasta las 10:00 de la noche, hora en la que las discos comienzan a atraer a los noctámbulos; sin embargo, en toda la República Dominicana no hay ningún límite de horario para el consumo de bebidas alcohólicas ni para el cierre de los establecimientos, por lo que sus noches podrán ser tan largas como usted lo desee.

Música en vivo

La herencia criolla y mestiza de la isla ha dado origen a ritmos musicales que se oyen por toda la ciudad tanto de día como de noche. El Merengue es un ritmo dinámico y cadencioso tocado con instrumentos como la tambora, la güira, acordeón, bajo y hasta saxofón. También está la Bachata, un poco más sensual y rítmica; el Perico Ripiao, que es un merengue pero de estilo más autóctono, y otros más folclóricos como la mangulina y el carabiné, que son danzas de origen evidentemente español.

Los grupos de música llenan las discotecas, los casinos e incluso algunos cafés, bares y restaurantes, dándole a la vida nocturna de Santo Domingo un constante fondo musical lleno de ritmo y sabor Caribeño. Así encontrará lugares como el Merengue Bar del Hotel Jaragua, el Bachata Rosa, propiedad del famoso músico dominicano Juan Luis Guerra, y la Guácara Taina, que lleva el calor de la vida nocturna bajo tierra, en cuevas naturales donde se baila, canta y se vibra con la música en vivo. Hay muchos otros lugares más que también vale la pena explorar.

Discotecas

Los jóvenes dominicanos y la mayor parte del turismo se juntan para desahogar sus energías cantando y bailando todas las noches en las discotecas de Santo Domingo, por lo que con gran seguridad usted encontrará a mucha gente bonita luciendo sus mejores pasos y su ropa más exclusiva en las discos de esta ciudad. Podrá encontrar lugares especializados en ritmos latinos como el merengue o reggaeton, y también los que brindan una oferta de ritmos más eclécticos incluyendo la música electrónica, el pop latino e internacional, e incluso lugares de blues y jazz.

Muchas de los clubes de más éxito están dentro de los hoteles, por lo que podrá hacer su recorrido en todas las calles hoteleras de la ciudad y de la playa, en donde encontrará excelentes opciones para bailar al ritmo de su música favorita. La Zona Colonial también aprovecha su antigua arquitectura para dar hogar a muchas discos que son parte importante de la vida social de Santo Domingo.

Casinos

Otra de las maravillas de la República Dominicana son sus casinos, pues dan la oportunidad de volverse millonario a cualquiera con sólo tener los 18 años cumplidos, así que si se considera todo un "as" jugando poker, veintiuno, o si confía en su mano para tirar los dados, entonces tal vez esta pueda ser su noche de suerte. Las apuestas se pueden hacer tanto en pesos dominicanos como en dólares estadounidenses.

Los casinos son parte de los principales hoteles de Santo Domingo, algunos de los cuales harán su noche mucho más placentera e interesante con la música en vivo de bandas de jazz o de merengue, permitiéndole bailar entre partidas de póker. Algunos de los casinos más famosos son el del hotel Sheraton, el del Reinassance Jaraguá y el Hispaniola, pero son más de 30 casinos en todo Santo Domingo que le esperan para entretenerle.

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Clubes nocturnos en Santo Domingo República Dominicana,Noche en Santo Domingo,Vida Nocturna En Santo Domingo|República Dominicana

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Vida Nocturna En Santo Domingo República Dominicana. En BestDay.com.ar, encuentre una guia de la Noche en Santo Domingo. La Vida Nocturna en Santo Domingo domina la escena y se ofrece música en vivo en Bares en Santo Domingo y Discotecas en Santo Domingo. Disfrute de los mejores Antros en Santo Domingo, República Dominicana.

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During the colonial period, literature flourished in the Iberian metropolis; in the American colonies there was also a remarkable cultivation of the arts, especially architecture, fine arts, and music. There were significant barriers, however, to a comparable emergence in literature. Religious authorities zealously controlled the lives of recent converts to Christianity, insisting that literary expression be in the service of faith and under their careful scrutiny. Despite this, an important secular literary tradition emerged in the viceregal courts of Mexico and Lima. This literature tended to imitate the metropolitan canons, though occasionally nourished an original and memorable voice like that of Mexican poet Juana Inés de la Cruz.

The Salvadorean territory was far from the centers of culture. Literature may have enjoyed popularity among small circles of educated criollos, but there is little evidence of this. What evidence does exist confirms that literary development was sporadic, ephemeral, and even accidental. An example of such development is the house of Andalusian Juan de Mestanza, who was the mayor of Sonsonate between 1585 and 1589, mentioned in Miguel de Cervantes' " Viaje del Parnaso". In the colonial era there was considerable theatrical activity, a central aspect of popular entertainment in the settlements' festivities. During these events religious or comic plays were presented.

Catholic faith and rites were the unifying factor in a heterogeneous and highly stratified society. Some literary expression was linked to religiously-themed dramatic productions, staged during celebrations in villages and neighborhoods. On the other hand, some literature was addressed to a smaller, more elite readership. In the latter group are pious works, hagiographies portraying the lives of saits, and theological treatises, written by clergy born in the county, but generally published in Europe.

Among this last category is Juan Antonio Arias, a Jesuit born in Santa Ana. He wrote treatises including Misteriosa sombra de las primeras luces del divino Osiris and Jesús recién nacido. Father Bartolomé Cañas, also a Jesuit, sought asylum in Italy after being expelled from his order in the Spanish territories; in Bologna he wrote a major apologetic dissertation. Diego José Fuente, a Francisco born in San Salvador, published a variety of religious works in Spain. Juan Díaz, a native of Sonsonate, authored the biography Vida y virtudes del venerable fray Andrés del Valle.

A major non-religious work was a manual for the manufacture of indigo El puntero apuntado con apuntes breves, by Juan de Dios del Cid, who made a rudimentary printing press to publish his work, which may have been the first press in the territory of El Salvador. The document is printed with the date 1641, but Salvadorean literary critic Luis Gallegos Valdés asserts that this date was a typographical error, and some historical references place it in the next century. Another major work was the Carta de Relación, written by the conquistador Pedro de Alvarado for practical reasons; it narrates major episodes in the conquest of the Americas.

By the last decades of Spanish rule there already existed considerable secular cultural activity in Central America. It was centered on the University of San Carlos in Guatemala. There, educated criollos gathered to discuss and exchange ideas of the Enlightenment. This encouraged the emergence of a literature more political than aesthetic, manifested principally in oratory and argumentative prose, both polemic and doctrinal, in which authors demonstrated their ingenuity and use of classical rhetoric.

One major figure of this era was Father Manuel Aguilar (1750-1819), whose famous homily proclaimed the right of insurrection of oppressed peoples, provoking scandal and censorship. The priest José Simeón Cañas (1767-1838) is known for his 1823 speech in the Constituent Assembly, in which he demanded the emancipation of slaves. Presbyterian Isidro Menéndez (1795-1858), the author of much of the era's legislation, was also renowned for his oratory.

The aesthetic of Salvadorean literature of this era did not have a role comparable to that of eloquent speech or journalistic writing. Literature was used only occasionally, such as anonymous verses offering satirical comment on contemporary politics, or other poetry celebrating the good name and deeds of important figures. Examples of the latter category include the prose work Tragedia de Morazán ( Tragedy of Morazán) (1894) by Francisco Díaz (1812-1845) and the ode Al ciudadano José Cecilio del Valle ( To the Citizen José Cecilio del Valle (1827) by Miguel Álvarez Castro (1795-1856).

The weakness of the state, the lack of urban life, and the consequently non-existent cultural infrastructure limited authors' ability to support themselves. Under these conditions, artists were dependent on private patrons and oriented toward serving their tastes and increasing their social prestige.

The birth of a distinctly Salvadoran literature must be placed in historical context. It was with the rise of Rafael Zaldívar in 1876 that liberals defeated their conservative rivals. As they founded a national state from the ground up, literature became increasingly relevant.

Proponents of the national project hoped that the development of an economy oriented toward agricultural exports, with coffee as the main product, would progress from barbarism (for liberals synonymous with warlordism, Catholicism, and an uneducated public) to civilization (synonymous with political and social achievements like those of advanced European nations).

After many reforms state and its structure, the country was losing its indigenous cultural identity and began to forge a new identity. An enlightened elite was necessary to assist in this process. Thus, the University of El Salvador and the National Library were founded in 1841 and 1870, respectively. In the late 19th century, the National Library had strengthened considerably; it sponsored the publication of works by local authors, in addition to its own magazine. The semi-official Salvadoran Academy of Language was also nominally founded in 1876, though it did not begin to operate until 1914.

In parallel, an independent elite culture emerged. This activity coalesced around scientific and literary societies, most of which had a brief existence. The society La Juventud, founded in 1878, was an exception to this rule. Despite its small membership, it was a very active forum with respect to the latest scientific and artistic trends. Thus took shape an intellectual elite composed largely of the economic elite. Many of the important literary works of this era were scientific. In the natural sciences, doctor and anthropologist David Joaquín Guzmán, author of la Oración a la Bandera Salvadoreña, was a major figure. Santiago I. Barberena was a major figure in geography and history.

Despite this scientific emphasis, the elite had special respect for aesthetic culture, particularly literature. For the liberal elites, literacy and familiarity with the latest trends in European literature (particularly French literature) were unmistakable marks of spiritual superiority. This peculiar attitude toward the aesthetic contributed to the increased social standing of poets and made literature an important element in the legitimization of the state.

The history of modernismo in El Salvador dates to the controversy over the influence of romanticism that took place in the pages of La Juventud. La Juventud denounced the teaching of Fernando Velarde, a Spaniard who lived in the country during the 1870s, influencing young writers with his dreamy and grandiloquent poetry. His teaching produced poetic work influenced by Spanish romanticism. Among these authors were Juan José Cañas (1826-1918) (lyricist of the national anthem), Rafael Cabrera, Dolores Arias, Antonio Guevara Valdés, and Isaac Ruiz Araujo.

While still teenagers, Rubén Darío (1867-1916)-the famous Nicaraguan poet who then lived in San Salvador- and Francisco Gavidia (1864-1955) attacked Velarde's poetry and drew attention instead to the model of Parnassian symbolist poetry from France. Both studied this poetry with rigor and enthusiasm, trying to unravel its intricate constructive mechanisms and translating them into the Spanish language.

Francisco Gavidia took on the founding of a national literature, a preoccupation that is seen throughout his voluminous writings. His writings are the greatest expression of the liberal spirit in the arts. His vision of the Salvadoran literature advocates for the dominance of Western traditions, while not forgetting the need to preserve and to know native traditions.

Other important authors of the period included Vicente Acosta, Juan José Bernal, Calixto Velado, and Víctor Jerez. Some of them participated in the publication The Literary Fortnight, which played an important role in disseminating the turn-of-the-century aesthetic.

During the first decades of the 20th century modernismo continued to dominate Salvadorean literature, though new trends began to be seen. The model of liberal cultural modernization appeared to be consolidated under the short-lived government of Manuel Enrique Araujo, who enjoyed support among intellectuals and seemed committed to a policy encouraging science and the arts. Araujo tried to give a stronger institutional base to the model of scientific literary societies with the founding of the Ateneo de El Salvador (association for the study of national history and writing), but this impulse was cut short by his assassination in 1913.

During the Meléndez-Quiñones dynasty that followed, any progress was overshadowed by the return of evils of past times: nepotism, intolerance and clientelism, especially within the intellectual class.

Costumbrismo and introspection

The Salvadoran literary scene, which had previously embodied a cosmopolitan aesthetic spirit, was poorly equipped to deal with the country's new political reality. As a result, different manners of portraying local customs and everyday life arose, whether satirical or analytic, and writers began to turn their attention to matters previously neglected in literary expression. One major writer in the costumbrismo tradition was General José María Peralta Lagos (1873-1944), Minister of War under Manuel Enrique Araujo and, under the nom de plume T.P. Mechín, a very popular author of polemics and social satire. His narrative works and his drama Candidato humorously depict typical aspects of provincial life. Other important costumbristas included Francisco Herrera Velado and Alberto Rivas Bonilla.

The popularity of writing about everyday life went hand in hand with the growing importance of journalism. The rise of journalism meant more independent writing, and consequently more writing critical of the state of affairs in the county. Journalists also engaged in persuasive political writing. Alberto Masferrer (1868-1932), for example, wrote many political essays, which-though more political than artistic in nature-contributed to the changing literary trends of the era.

In this era, aesthetic concerns were generally subordinate to ideological concerns. This was not the case, however, for Arturo Ambrogi (1985-1936), who was the most read, most prestigious writer in El Salvador. He published many literary portraits and chronicles, culminating in the 1917 El libro del trópico. Ambrosi's originality lay in his thematic shift toward traditions native to El Salvador and his synthesis of literary language and vernacular dialect.

The representation of popular speech was often present in costumbrista works, providing local color and typifying ignorant characters. Ambrogi's approach was novel: he showed the literary possibilities of popular speech, suggesting the merit of vernacular culture. The lyric work of poet Alfredo Espino (1900-1928), popular themes and language were similarly transformed into poetic material. While his poetry may seem anachronistic and puerile to modern readers, his work was thus important in Salvadoran literary history. The first decades of the 20th century were important because they marked the change from Europeanized, elite literary culture to a more inclusive national literary culture, which made reference to the native to define itself.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Salvadorean society experienced various social and political shocks that disrupted the fragile literary society. On the economic front, the crisis on Wall Street resulted in a drastic drop in coffee prices. President Pío Romero Bosque had begun a process to return to institutional legality, calling the first free elections in Salvadorean history. Engineer Arturo Araujo was elected on a reform platform inspired by the ideas of Alberto Masferrer. The economic crisis and resulting political conflict led to six decades of military authoritarianism that dramatically suppressed the proliferation of literature.

Writers actively searched for alternatives to Western modernism. Modernists in the mold of Rubén Darío frequently condemned the prosaic nature of the times, yet were dazzled by the opulence and refinement of turn-of-the-century Europe. While modernists condemned the vulgarity of the new rich, they were not inclined to denounce the art that wealth produced. Among new literary generations this attitude changed; they began to reject even the foundations of modernism.

From his post as consul in Antwerp, Alberto Masferrer observed this crisis; the writings of Alberto Guerra Trigueros (1898-1950) also reflected the trend towards otherness as a model of progress. This search for alternatives led many to embrace Eastern mysticism, Amerindian cultures, and primitivism that saw the antithesis of disenchanted modernity in traditional ways of life.

Theosophy and other sui generis adaptations of eastern religions gained popularity. These ideas were particularly attractive to a group of writers including Alberto Guerra Trigeros, Salarrué (1899-1975), Claudia Lars (1899-1974), Serafín Quiteño, Raúl Contreras, Miguel Ángel Espino, Quino Caso, Juan Felipe Toruño. These writers found their aesthetic creed in an art defined as a radical antagonist of social modernity.

Guerra Trigueros was the artist with the most solid theoretical training of this group and the most familiar with the intellectual trends and aesthetics in Europe. Apart from being a respected author, he also played an important role as a diffuser of new aesthetic ideas. In his essays, he advocated for a radical redefinition of the language and themes in poetry, which had been dominated by the modernist aesthetic. He promoted free verse and poetry with a colloquial tone, redeeming everyday language in what he called "vulgar" poetry. Though lyricism of a classical mold was more popular among his contemporaries (who also were distancing themselves from modernism), Guerra Trigueros's became more visible in the following generations (for example, in the writing of Pedro Geoffroy Rivas, Oswaldo Escobar Velado, and Roque Dalton).

In the early 1930s, Salvadorean fiction was centered on the work of Salarrué, which is as diverse as it is voluminous. While uneven, his work formed the continuation and culmination of the synthesis of cultivated literary language with the popular voice begun by Ambrogi. His Cuentos de barro (1933), which may be considered the most popular Salvadorean book, uses popular speech and elevates the primitivism of country life to the status of national utopia. He often employed themes of fantasy and of Eastern religion.

Though the members of this generation of writers did not always have direct links with the military dictatorship installed in 1931, their conception of national culture as a negation of an enlightened ideal helped legitimate the new order. The idealization of the traditional peasant and his solitary link with nature permitted the association of authoritarianism with populism, which was essential to the emerging discourse of the military dictatorship.

The 1940s saw the emergence of a group of writers including Pedro Geoffroy Rivas (1908-1979), Hugo Lindo (1917-1985), José María Méndez (b. 1916), Matilde Elena López (b. 1922), Joaquín Hernández Callejas (1915-2000), Julio Fausto Fernández, Oswaldo Escobar Velado, Luis Gallegos Valdés, Antonio Gamero, Ricardo Trigueros de León, and Pedro Quiteno (1898-1962). Pedro Geoffroy Rivas produced lyrical literature marked by avant-gardism and played an important role in the rescue of indigenous traditions and popular language. The poetry of Oswaldo Escobar Velado was characterized by existentialism and the denouncing of social injustices. José María Méndez and Hugo Lindo explored new frontiers in fiction.

Many writings of this generation played an active role in the democratic movement that ended the dictatorship of Hernández Martínez. However, some writers actively collaborated with the regime of Óscar Osorio.

As part of a modernization project, Osoria promoted one of the most ambitious cultural policies in the history of El Salvador. For example, through the Editorial Department of the Ministry of Culture (later Directorate of Publications, Ministry of Education), under the energetic leadership of the writer Ricardo Trigueros de León, developed editorial work of great range, which was a crucial step in laying the foundations of the canon of literature in El Salvador.

In parallel, the culture industry rose and was universalized, a process that would affect the development of literature. By 1950 the media were displacing the fine arts and traditional culture in the popular imagination, and literature was relegated to the margins. This weakness made art an easy hostage for the military regime, increasingly delegitimized by corruption and the lack of political freedom.

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In this convulsive context came a literature that formed the legacy of the writers of the "Compromised Generation." In addition, more literature came that advocated the popular struggles for liberation; these struggles largely defined the chorus of Salvadoran artistic literature that existed from the 1950 to the 1980.

In 1984 the poet Salvador Juárez directed the literary workshop which was a university extension in the Universidad de El Salvador. Some young adults became a part of this literary workshop project. In 1985 the young adults would reinforce their practice of literature in the literary workshop of Xibalbá. Some of its members were: Javier Alas, Otoniel Guevara, Jorge Vargas Méndez, Nimia Romero, David Morales, José Antonio Domínguez, Edgar Alfaro Chaverri, Antonio Casquín; including the poets that died in combat, Amílcar Colocho and Arquímides Cruz. This group would be one of the most solid literary groups of the last five years of 1980. They fought in the popular armed movement at the same time that they carried out an intense work of literary production (some of them won awards in various contests of the time, judged by recognized writers such as Matilde Elena López, Rafael Mendoza and Luis Melgar Brizuela. One example of the contests they entered being the Certamen Reforma 89 which was promoted by the Lutheran Church). This group of writers practiced mainly poetry, which was marked by their participation in the popular organization of the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) during the civil war in El Salvador. Some articles or poetic samples can be found in press releases of those years. Their work explored the themes of liberation, love and the future.

Some members of Xibalbá were seriously injured, marched into exile, or died during clashes with security forces. Some of its members remained close to political or military activity; others withdrew from that environment. Reportedly they constitute the last chapter of the (literatura de compromiso) commitment literature, an extension of the "extreme aesthetics" according to Huezo Mixco. Commitment literature? was a way of making literature to give an answer and an option at a critical moment. These "extreme aesthetics" were carved by the anti-Fascist generation and the Compromised Generation.

The group dissolved after 1992. Although the war had taken its toll on the dead and exiles, the legacy of Xibalbá and previous generations have created a great responsibility for other young people and groups of writers who will emerge in the next two decades.

The literary lethargy that existed during the military dictatorship was ending when the civil war approached in the 1980s. Círculo Literario Xibalbá was a circle of writers that appeared during the armed conflict in El Salvador. It was funded by the Universidad de El Salvador in the 1980s. The group constitutes one of the most prominent groups in the literary history of El Salvador and one of the most affected during the civil war. During the war several members were assassinated for their publications and today many members work in very different fields.

Notable members include Amilcar Colocho, Manuel Barrera, Otoniel Guevara, Luis Alvarenga, Silvia Elena Regalado, Antonio Casquín, Dagoberto Segovia, Jorge Vargas Méndez, Álvaro Darío Lara, Eva Ortíz, Arquímides Cruz, Ernesto Deras.

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During the colonial period, literature flourished in the Iberian metropolis; in the American colonies there was also a remarkable cultivation of the arts, especially architecture, fine arts, and music. There were significant barriers, however, to a comparable emergence in literature.

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There are roughly 1.4 million immigrants in the U.S. from El Salvador, but the history and literary contributions of this nation are overwhelmingly unknown, and are much less talked about.

For bookworms, here are 11 women authors that represent the vast talents that come from the smallest country in continental America.

1. Edyka Chilomé

As the daughter of Salvadoran and Mexican immigrant activists, Edyka Chilomé does not shy away from using her words to raise awareness of the plight of her people. In her book " She Speaks | Poetry ," she delves into personal and global politics with a focus on diasporas as well as spiritual activism and traumas sustained by generations of Latinos. The queer Dallas, Texas-based author often writes about women in her homelands and their history of abuse and violence. "This is the beauty of our ways - we survive together and we can heal together. As young U.S. born Salvadoran artists, our work is no different. It remains aligned with our history as un pueblo de lucha, de colores, y de fe - que nuestros cipotxs tendran un mundo major," she told

2. Claribel Alegría

As one of Central America's most prominent writers, Claribel Alegría straddled between her Nicaraguan and Salvadoran roots. Though she was born in Nicaragua in 1924, her mother was from El Salvador and she considered it her homeland, visiting frequently up until 1980. After criticizing the violence committed by the military government, she was unable to return for 12 years. Alegría published numerous works under her pen name, including the book of poetry " Flowers for the Volcano ," and was awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, considered the American equivalent of the Nobel. The famed writer passed away in January 2018 at age 93.

3. Yesika Salgado

The self-proclaimed "LA-born Salvadoran Fat Fly Poet," Yesika Salgado is as much a social media star as she is a successful writer. Her raw honesty about love, dating and heartbreak is captured both in her debut release " " and in her regular Instagram posts . She also writes about family, city life, her culture and "her brown body," and is one half of the founding team behind a Latina feminist poetry collective. Chingona Fire,

4. Daisy Cubías

Daisy Cubias began writing at a young age when she noticed the stark differences between the rich and poor in her country. After moving from El Salvador to the U.S., she dedicated her efforts to raising awareness of the struggles that still plague her homeland, including her 1989 book of poetry, " Children of War: Poems of Love, Pain, Hope and Determination " "We choose to be here to better ourselves and our families. That's all we want. We didn't come here to steal jobs, or to rob, or to anything: just to be better human beings. And that's what I write about," she told

5. Claudia Lars

Born Margarita del Carmen Brannon Vega on December 20, 1899, Claudia Lars adopted her pen name and published her first book of poetry, "Stars in the Well," in 1934. Her most notable book is considered " Land of Childhood ," a memoir exploring a child's self-awareness who bears the observant soul of a poet. In the span of her career, she also published 19 books of poetry. She is nationally recognized for her contributions to poetry and is known as one of the most acclaimed female poets in Latin America.

6. Roxana Méndez

(Photo Credit: Hiberus)

is already making waves in the world of poetry, winning national awards and recognition for her works. She was born in El Salvador in 1979 and has published four books, including " El Cielo en la Ventana ," which was translated into English. She often writes about the beauty of El Salvador as well as its violence and tragedies. She was awarded the country's National Poetry Prize, the National Prize for Children's Narrative and the Alhambra Prize from Spain.

7. Nora Méndez

A poet for la resistencia, Nora Méndez's verses are a direct response to the political turmoil in El Salvador. Having at one point served time in prison for her politics, she's now actively involved with the Salvadoran Association of Cultural Workers. The San Salvador-born writer studied sociology and communication in college and has also written about issues concerning women in her country, particularly domestic violence. She published " Atravesarte a Pie Toda La Vida " in 2002 and " La Estación de los Pájaros " in 2004.

8. Dina Posada

Dina Posada, born 1946, is one of the most recognized contemporary poets in El Salvador. The Salvadoran-Guatemalan writer, who studied journalism, gained fame with the 1996 publication of " Fuego Sobre El Madero ," a collection of poems on love, eroticism and the female body. Born in El Salvador, she has lived in Guatemala since 1970 and published several anthologies, including "Poesia Salvadorena del Siglo XX," "Mujer, Cuerpo y Palabra" and "Voces sin Fronteras."

9. Jacinta Escudos

Jacinta Escudos is a writer and poet who has released several books, including the awarding-winning " Crónicas Para Sentimentales " in 2001 and " " in 2003. In her writing, she explores the complexity of human emotions, including the dark side of humanity as well as the more trivial. In her latest book, " El Asesino Melancólico, " the novel delves into the darker effects of loneliness, frustration and sorrow when the main character hires a man to kill her and they form an unexpected bond. Escudos regularly hosts literary workshops in El Salvador and via Skype, and also maintains a blog .

10. Claudia Hernández González

Salvadoran-born Claudia Hernández González is a short story writer who is recognized as one of the most prominent living authors in her country. Many of her stories concern the grotesque elements of life during and after El Salvador's civil war. Since the late 1990s, González, 43, has published stories in the Salvadoran newspapers and El Diario de Hoy . In 1998, she won a Juan Rulfo prize and in 2004 took home the Anna Seghers Prize. Her stories have been published in several anthologies in Spain, Italy, France and the U.S. Currently, Hernández works as a professor at the Central American University José Simeón Cañas.

11. Matilde Elena López
Read: Read Latina: 7 Cubana Writers Conveniently Left Off Your High School Required Reading Lists
Matilde Elena López was a Salvadoran poet, essayist, playwright and literary critic who was a part of the League of Anti-Fascist Writers, a group of writers that leaned politically left in the 1940s. She's known as a pioneer among women writers in El Salvador, and some of her most prominent works include " Masferrer, Alto Pensador de Centro América " and "Cartas a Grosa." She also wrote "The Ballad of Anastasio Aquino" in 1978, which was dedicated to the Salvadoran indigenous leader of the same name who led a campesino uprising known as the Insurrection of the Nonualcos.

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Latina Reads: 11 Salvadoran And Salvadoran-American Authors Whose Works You'll Want To Pore Over

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There are roughly 1.4 million immigrants in the U.S. from El Salvador, but the history and literary contributions of this nation are overwhelmingly unknown, and are much less talked about. For bookworms, here are 11 women authors that represent the vast talents that come from the smallest countr

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The music of Mexico is very diverse and features a wide range of musical genres and performance styles. It has been influenced by a variety of cultures, most notably the culture of the indigenous people of Mexico and Europe. Music was an expression of Mexican nationalism, beginning in the nineteenth century.

Many traditional Mexican songs are internationally known, including María Grever's first international hit "Júrame" ("Swear to me") and her song "Te Quiero Dijiste" (English version "Magic Is the Moonlight", written for the 1944 Esther Williams film Bathing Beauty), " La noche de los mayas" ("The Night of the Maya") by Silvestre Revueltas, "Huapango" by Moncayo, " Sobre las Olas" ("Over the Waves"), " La Sandunga", " Cielito Lindo" ("Beautiful Sweetheart"), " Perfidia", " Bésame Mucho" ("Kiss Me a Lot"), " Solamente una vez" (English version "You Belong to My Heart"), "Esta Tarde Vi Llover" (English version " Yesterday I Heard the Rain"), " Somos Novios" (English version "It's Impossible" (We Are Dating), " ¡Ay, Jalisco, no te rajes!" (" Jalisco, Don't give up!"), Lilongo, and " Jesusita en Chihuahua" ("Jesusita in Chihuahua").

The foundation of Mexican music comes from its indigenous sounds and heritage. The original inhabitants of the land used drums (such as the teponaztli), flutes, rattles, conches as trumpets and their voices to make music and dances. This ancient music is still played in some parts of Mexico. However, much of the traditional contemporary music of Mexico was written during and after the Spanish colonial period, using many old world influenced instruments. Many traditional instruments, such as the Mexican vihuela used in Mariachi music, were adapted from their old world predecessors and are now considered very Mexican.

There existed regional and local musical traditions in the colonial period and earlier, but a national music began to develop in the nineteenth century, often with patriotic themes of national defense and against foreign invaders. Conservative general and president Antonio López de Santa Anna brought a Catalan music master, Jaime Nunó, from nearby Cuba to create a network of military bands on a national scale. He composed the music to the Mexican national anthem. During the French Intervention in Mexico, which placed Maximilian of Habsburg on the throne of the French empire in Mexico, many musicians accompanied his entourage and he established the National Conservatory of Music in 1866.

Liberal President Benito Juárez saw the need to create military bands. Village brass bands proliferated in the late nineteenth century, with concerts in town squares, often on a central kiosk. During the Porfiriato, musical styles expanded, with Mexican national music, cosmopolitan music brought by foreign elites, and European regional music such as polkas, mazurkas, and waltzes, as well as opera overtures. Musicians had access to and used sheet music, indicating musical literacy. In some indigenous regions, new music and bands helped bring a level of unity. In Oaxaca, a waltz, "Dios nunca muere" (God never dies) became the state's anthem, linking regional patriotism with God. A variety of musical styles from elsewhere were incorporated into Mexican popular music in the nineteenth century, including Afro-Caribbean rhythms from Cuba and Haiti. Music, dance, and poetry flourished in the Porfiriato. Mexico's National Conservatory of Music was strongly influenced by Italian masters, who gave way to French influence at the turn of the twentieth century.

Following the Revolution, Venustiano Carranza, leader of the winning Constitutionalist faction of the Revolution, mandated that the National Conservatory "recover the national" in its musical education, abandoning rather than privileging foreign music.Younger Mexican composers emerged, including Carlos Chávez, Silvestre Revueltas, and Luis Sandi, who developed Mexican "art music." Chávez was a prolific composer and one who embraced creating Mexican orchestral music drawing on revolutionary corridos, and composed an Aztec-themed ballet. He became the director of the National Conservatory of Music, which became affiliated with the Ministry of Education (SEP). Revueltas composed music for the new, emerging Mexican cinema, and Sandi created choral works, creating music for civic events, as well as incorporating indigenous music from the Yaqui and Maya regions in his compositions. Chávez is seen as the driving force behind the split between of Mexican art music and traditional styles, privileging art music. However, traditional or folkloric music continues to be popular, and the Ballet Folklórico de México, established in 1952, performs regularly at Bellas Artes.

Mexican traditional folk music can be classified in two aspects:

By types of musical forms and styles: corrido, canción Ranchera, Yucatecan trova, Son Huasteco, Yucatecan jarana, Son Jarocho, Mexican Danzón, Mexican Bolero, Son istmeño, Son Jaliscience, Chilena, Son calentano, Son Planeco, and Canto cardenche.

By types of ensembles: banda, Yucatecan trio, conjunto calentano, conjunto huasteco, conjunto jarocho, conjunto norteño, Yucatecan jarana ensemble, mariachi, and marimba.

Its formal structure is based on the alternation of instrumental sections and the singing of short poetic units called coplas. The mode is usually major, with harmonic vocabulary mostly limited to progressions drawing from I, IV, II7, V and V5. Triple meter (6/8, 3/4, or a combination of both) predominates, with many exceptions in duple meter.

Son is performed most often by giant ensembles in which string instruments predominate, with notable region-specific exceptions like marimba ensembles and wind ensembles.

Mexican Son music developed from the mixing of Spanish music with indigenous music of different regions, hence the music exhibited much variation across the country, in rhythm, melody, and instrumentation. Mariachi can be considered one type of Mexican son. Mexican son also includes various miscellaneous styles. The guitar is universally present in nearly all Mexican son subgenres. Other instruments may include trumpets, violins, and accordions.

Abajeño music from Jalisco, Colima, and Michoacán. Indigenous communities have produced their own variants of Mexican son, which is otherwise a primarily mestizo genre. The Purépecha (from Michoacán) are known for the sones abajeños, which are often played alongside pirekuas, a form of native love song. Famous bands include Atardecer and Erandi.

Chilena from the Costa Chica regions in Guerrero and Oaxaca.

Istmeños originates from the Zapotecs of Oaxaca and is known for love songs, and the people's sones istmeños, which are sung in both Zapotec and Spanish. The music has been popularized, primarily by pop stars from outside the area, including Lila Downs.

Son calentano is a melodically complex violin music from the Balsas River Basin of southern Mexico. Juan Reynoso is especially popular, and has won the National Prize for Arts and Sciences.

Sones de arpa grande developed in an arid, hot area of western Mexico. It is dominated by a harp, accompanied by violins and guitars. Originally confined to poor rural areas and urban brothels, sones de arpa grande is now popular among the suburban and urban middle- and upper-class audiences. Juan Pérez Morfín and Beto Pineda are the best-known performers.

Son Huasteco music, from the Huasteca territory, this music is played in the states of Hidalgo, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas and the fiddle is accompanied with jarana huasteca and huapanguera. Two guitarists sing in a falsetto with accompaniment by a violin. Improvisation is common. Los Camperos de Valle, Harmonia Huasteca, Los Hermanos Calderon and Trio Tamazunchale are especially influential performers.

Son Jarocho music comes from the Veracruz area, and is distinguished by a strong African influence. International acclaim has been limited, including the major hit . The most legendary performer is Graciana Silva, whose releases on Discos Corason made inroads in Europe. Southern Veracruz is home to a distinct style of Jarochos that is characteristically lacking a harp, is played exclusively by requinto or jarana guitars, and is exemplified by the popular modern band Mono Blanco.

Son Jalisciense is from Jalisco and Colima and has both instrumental and versed songs in this form, mostly in major keys. Most performers consider this 3/4, but some consider it alternating 3/4 and 6/8.

A common example is la Cucaracha, which derives from an Arabic sailors' song from the Moors from before the Reconquista. The corrido has a rhythm similar to that of the European waltz; corridos, like rancheras, have introductory instrumental music and adornos interrupting the stanzas of the lyrics. However, unlike rancheras, the rhythm of a corrido remains fairly consistent, rancheras can be played at a variety of rhythms. Corridos often tell stories, while rancheras are for dancing. Groups who sing corridos include Los Invasores de Nuevo León and Los Alegres de Terán.

Ensemble specialized in Son Huasteco. It consists of guitarra huapanguera, jarana huasteca, violin.

Ensemble specialized in folk music of traditional marimba. It consists of marimba, double bass and drums.

This folk ensemble performs ranchera, son de mariachi, huapango de mariachi, polka, corrido, and other musical forms. It originated in the southern part of the state of Jalisco during the 19th century. The city of Guadalajara in Jalisco is known as the "Capital of Mariachi". The style is now popular throughout Mexico and the Southwestern United States, and is considered representative of Mexican music and culture.

This style of music is played by a group consisting of five or more musicians who wear charro suits. The golden age of mariachi was in the 1950s, when the ranchera style was common in movies. Mariachi Vargas played for many of these soundtracks, and the long-lived band's long career and popular acclaim has made it one of the best-known mariachi. These movies became very popular in Latin America and mariachi's became very popular in places such as Colombia and Peru until this date.

There are different theories as to the provenance of the word mariachi. Some say it comes from the French word mariage because it was the type of music often played at weddings and by most folk people by the name of Evan Strout. However, mariachi originates from a part of Mexico that the French never visited and, even if they had, it began before their arrival in 1864. Another theory is that the word comes from the indigenous name of the Pilla or Cirimo tree, whose wood is used to make guitars. It has also been said that the name comes from a festival in honor of a virgin known as Maria H. that musicians played for and that over time they were given this name.

The traditional mariachi band consists of the violin, the vihuela, guitar, a guitarrón (large bass guitar) and a trumpet. Other instruments may also be seen in a mariachi band, such as the flute, French horn, accordion, or organ are used. These instruments are used for specific arrangements.

Mexican music was popularized in the United States in the late 1970s as part of a revival of mariachi music led by performers like Linda Ronstadt, Vikki Carr and Pepe Aguilar. Other famous mariachi performers include José Alfredo Jiménez, Jorge Negrete, Pedro Infante, Javier Solís, Miguel Aceves Mejía, Lola Beltrán, Antonio Aguilar, Flor Silvestre, Lucha Villa, Vicente Fernández, Pedro Fernández, Alejandro Fernández, Aida Cuevas, Pablo Montero and Lupita Infante. A well known examples of Mexican music in the United States is the Jarabe Tapatío (called the Mexican Hat Dance in the United States). Other well known mariachi songs are Guadalajara, " La Culebra" (The Viper), Las alazanas (The alazans) and Son de la negra.

In Mexico City, the center of mariachi music remains Garibaldi Plaza. The plaza fills with mariachi musicians to solicit gigs from individual songs for passers-by to being hired for events such as weddings and baptisms. They even stand on Eje Central in front of the plaza to flag down passing cars. In 2010, the government renovated the plaza to make it more tourist-friendly, adding new paving, gardens, police, security cameras, painted facades, and a museum dedicated to mariachi and tequila. Although mariachis can be hired in Mexico City over the phone or on the internet, many people still prefer to come to the plaza, hear the musicians and haggle over the price. About 2,500 mariachis hold union cards to work in the plaza, but as many as 4,000 may circulate through on a busy weekend.

In 2011 UNESCO recognized the music as an Intangible Cultural Heritage, joining six others of this list from Mexico.

Conjunto norteño

Revolutionary leaders like Pancho Villa, also took wind bands with them wherever they went. Banda has to this day remained popular throughout the central and northern states. It has, however, diversified into different styles due to regions, instruments and modernization. Today people associate banda with Sinaloense.

Although banda music is played by many bands from different parts of Mexico, its original roots are in Sinaloa, made popular by bands from Sinaloa.

Banda Sinaloense experienced international popularity in the 1990s. Unlike tamborazo Zacatecano, Sinaloense's essential instrument is the tuba. Sometimes an accordion is also included. Some well-known artists are Banda el Recodo, Banda Cuisillos, La Arrolladora Banda El Limón, Banda Los Recoditos, Banda Machos, Banda Maguey, El Coyote y Su Banda Tierra Santa, La Adictiva Banda San José de Mesillas, Banda Carnaval, Banda MS, Julio Preciado, Graciela Beltrán, Julión Álvarez, and Espinoza Paz etc. Mexican group Calibre 50 receive an award by streaming service Pandora Radio for being the first artists to surpass a billion streams each in that platform.

Tamborazo Zacatecano ("drum-beat from Zacatecas") is a banda style traditionally played by two trumpets, two saxophones, and the al bass drum. An outstanding example is La Marcha de Zacatecas (The March of Zacatecas) by Genaro Codina Fernández, the anthem of the State of Zacatecas and considered the second national anthem of Mexico. Tamborazo is closely related to traditional brass Banda. However, Tamborazo uses saxophones instead of clarinets. Another difference from banda is that Tamborazo uses its drum consistently, as opposed to banda which distributes the use of the other instruments throughout a song. Tamborazo originated in Villanueva in the state of Zacatecas. Tamborazo bands: Tamborazo Jerez 75, Tamborazo Los Originales de Jerez and Tamborazo Pancho Villa.

Duranguense is a genre of Mexican music. It is popular among the Mexican-American community in the United States. Duranguense is closely related to the Mexican styles of banda and norteño. The main instruments, which are held over from banda, are the saxophone, trombone, and bass drum. However, what sets the duranguense ensemble apart from banda is the addition of synthesizers to play both melodies and the tuba bassline. The tempo is also noticeably faster than banda or norteño. Among the duranguense elements carried over from other genres is el tamborazo; a heavy percussion line consisting of the bass drum and varied snare drum rolls. Duranguense groups and singers in Mexico are El Trono de México, Patrulla 81, AK-7, Remmy Valenzuela, and K-paz de la sierra.

Grupera (or onda grupera) is a genre of Mexican popular music. It is influenced by the styles of cumbia, norteño, and ranchera, and reached the height of its popularity in the 1980s, especially in rural areas.

The music has roots in the rock groups of the 1960s but today generally consists of five or fewer musicians using electric guitars, keyboards and drums. Artists in this genre include Los Yonics, Los Temerarios, Los Bukis, La Mafia, Ana Bárbara, Alicia Villarreal, Mariana Seoane, Grupo Bryndis, [[Los, Lidia Ávila, Los Caminantes, Los Humildes, La Migra, Liberación, Pegasso, and Grupo Mojado. The music increased in popularity in the 1990s and became commercially viable, and is now recognized in some Latin music awards ceremonies such as Lo Nuestro and the Latin Grammy Awards.

During the 1960s and 1970s most of the pop music produced in Mexico consisted of Spanish-language versions of English-language rock-and-roll hits. Singers and musical groups like Angélica María, Johnny Laboriel, Alberto Vázquez, Enrique Guzmán or Los Teen Tops performed cover versions of songs by Elvis Presley, Paul Anka, Nancy Sinatra and others.

The Mexican music market serves as a launching pad to stardom for many non-Mexican artists who are interested extending the market-range of their music.[citation needed ] For the last thirty years,[when? ] Mexican pop music has been led by teen pop bands and their former members. Specially teen pop bands of the last decades have been Timbiriche, OV7, Sentidos Opuestos and RBD. Unlike teen pop bands elsewhere, the Mexican audience tends to prefer mixed-gender combos over boys or girls bands.[citation needed ]

In 2000, the century saw the crossover of some of Mexican recording artist like Paulina Rubio and Thalía into the English music industry, with bilingual albums, compilation album, that included hit songs in English and Spanish language, and the firsts solo English-language albums by this Mexican pop artist. The best recording crossover artist has been Paulina Rubio with her first English-language album being Border Girl released on June 18, 2002. Thalia has collaborated with American singer of traditional pop standards Tony Bennett in a duet for the song " The Way You Look Tonight". is the studio album by Tony Bennett, released in October 2012. It consists of electronically assembled duets between Bennett and younger singers from various genres like Frank Sinatras " Duets II". In Duets II, Sinatra personally invited Luis Miguel to participate on a duet in the album for the song " Come Fly with Me". Luis Miguel has been dubbed several times by the press and the media as the "Latin Frank Sinatra".

The Mexican rock movement started in the late 1940s and early 1960s, rapidly becoming popular, and peaking in the 1969 and 1990s with real authentic sounds and styles. One of the early Mexican rock bands came out of the predominantly Mexican barrio community of East Los Angeles, "Los Nómadas" (The Nomads). They were the first racially integrated Rock and Roll band of the 1950s, consisting of 3 Mestizo boys, Chico Vasquez, Jose 'J.D.' Moreno, Abel Padilla, and a Caucasian boy Bill Aken (Billy Mayorga Aken).

The latter are "grandfathers" to the Latin ska movement. Mexico City has also a considerable movement of bands playing surf rock inspired in their outfits by local show-sport lucha libre.[citation needed ] In the late 1990s, Mexico had a new wave "resurgence" of rock music with bands like Jumbo, Zoé, Porter, etc., as well as instrumentalists Rodrigo y Gabriela and Los Jaigüey the band of Santa Sabina's bass player, Poncho Figueroa, along with brothers Gustavo Jacob & Ricardo Jacob in the late 2000s.

Extreme metal has been popular for a long time in Mexico, with bands such as Dilemma, Exanime formed in 1985 in Monterrey, N.L. The Chasm, Xiuhtecuhtli, Disgorge, Brujeria, Transmetal, Hacavitz, Sargatanas, Mictlayotl, Yaoyotl, Ereshkigal, Xibalba, and Calvarium Funestus. The Mexican metal fanbase is credited with being amongst one of the most lively and intense, and favorites for European metal bands to perform for.

An eclectic range of influences is at the heart of Latin alternative, a music created by young players who have been raised not only on their parents' music but also on rock, hip-hop and electronica. It represents a sonic shift away from regionalism and points to a new global Latin identity.

The name "Latin alternative" was coined in the late 1990s by American record company executives as a way to sell music that was -literally-all over the map. It was marketed as an alternative to the slick, highly produced Latin pop that dominated commercial Spanish-language radio, such as Ricky Martin or Paulina Rubio.

Artists within the genre, such as Rodrigo y Gabriela, Carla Morrison, Café Tacuba, Hello Seahorse!, Porter, Juan Son, Austin TV Lila Downs, Paté de Fuá, Julieta Venegas and Jenny and the Mexicats have set out to defy traditional expectations of Latin music.

Ska entered Mexico in the 1960s, when both small bands like Los Matemáticos and big orchestras like Orquestra de Pablo Beltrán Ruíz recorded both original ska tunes and covers of Jaimacan hits. After early new wave bands of the early eighties like Ritmo Peligroso and Kenny y los Eléctricos incorporated ska into their post-punk sound, a more punk-influenced brand of Ska started being produced in Mexico City in the late eighties, and the genre enjoyed its highest popularity during the early 2000s, even though it is still very popular today. Mexican Ska groups include Panteón Rococó (Mexico City), Inspector (Nuevo Leon), Control Machete, La Maldita Vecindad (Mexico City), Mama Pulpa (Mexico City) and Tijuana No! (Tijuana, Baja California; originally named Radio Chantaje).

Some of the best Mexican composers for electronic and electroacoustic media are Javier Torres Maldonado, Murcof and Manuel Rocha Iturbide, the later conducting festivals and workshops of experimental music and art, in Mexico City and Paris. Some exponents are 3Ball MTY, Nortec Collective, Wakal, Kobol (band), Murcof, Hocico & Deorro and Mexican Institute of Sound.

Other popular forms of music found in various parts of Mexico - mostly with origins in other parts of the Caribbean and Latin America include rumba, mambo, Cha cha chá, Danzón, and bolero. Rumba came from the black Mexican slaves in Veracruz, Mexico City, and Yucatán. The style began in Cuba and later became famous in the black community of Mexico. From the beginning of the 20th century, bolero arrived to Yucatán, and Danzón to Veracruz. Both styles became very popular all over the country, and a Mexican style of both rhythms was developed.

In the 1940s, the Cubans Pérez Prado, Benny Moré emigrated to Mexico, they brought with them the mambo, which became extremely popular especially in Mexico City, later on mambo developed into Cha cha chá, which was also popular.

The Cuban bolero has traveled to Mexico and the rest of Latin America after its conception, where it became part of their repertoires. Some of the bolero's leading composers have come from nearby countries, most especially the prolific Puerto Rican composer Rafael Hernández; another example is Mexico's Agustín Lara. Some Cuban composers of the bolero are listed under Trova. Some successful Mexican bolero composers are María Grever, Gonzalo Curiel Barba, Gabriel Ruiz, and Consuelo Velázquez which song Verdad Amarga (Bitter Truth) was the most popular in Mexico in the year 1948.

Another composer Armando Manzanero widely considered the premier Mexican romantic composer of the postwar era and one of the most successful composers of Latin America has composed more than four hundred songs, fifty of which have given him international fame. His most famous songs include Voy a apagar la luz (I'm Going to Turn Off the Lights), Contigo Aprendí (With you I Learnt... ), Adoro (Adore), No sé tú (I don't know if you...), Por Debajo de la Mesa (Under the Table) Esta Tarde Vi Llover (English version "Yesterday I Heard the Rain"), Somos Novios (English version "It's Impossible"), Felicidad (Happiness) and Nada Personal (Nothing Personal).

Some renowned trios románticos were Trio Los Panchos, Los Tres Ases, Los Tres Diamantes and Los Dandys. Trio Bolero, a unique ensemble of two guitars and one cello. Other singers in singing boleros in Mexico are Óscar Chávez, José Ángel Espinoza and Álvaro Carrillo.

Included among the acclaimed interpreters of the bolero on the radio and the international concert stage were the Mexican tenors Juan Arvizu and Nestor Mesta Chayres. The brother of Aida Cuevas, "the Queen of the Ranchera," Carlos Cuevas has been equally successful as an interpreter of the bolero and Eugenia León in Mexico's contemporary music scene.

The Latin or romantic balled has its origin in the Latin American bolero in the 1950s (Lucho Kitten, Leo Marini), but also in the romantic song in Italian (Nicola Di Bari) and French (Charles Aznavour) in the 1960s and 1970s.

The ethnomusicologist Daniel Party defines the romantic ballad as "a love song of slow tempo, played by a solo singer accompanied by an orchestra usually".

The ballad and bolero are often confused and songs can fall in one or the other category without too much presicion. The distinction between them is referring primarily to a more sophisticated and more metaphorical language and subtle bolero, compared with a more direct expression of the ballad.

In Mexico, the first ballad that is registered as such is "Sonata de Amor" (Sonata of Love) of Mario Alvarez in 1961. In 1965, bolero singer-songwriter Armando Manzanero recorded his first ballad, "Pobres besos míos" (My Poor Kisses).

From the 1990s on, globalization and media internationalization contributed to the ballad's international spread and homogenization.

Sonora Santanera is an orchestra playing tropical music from Mexico with over 60 years of history.

The history of Cumbia in Mexico is almost as old as Cumbia in Colombia. In the 1940s Colombian singers emigrated to Mexico, where they worked with the Mexican orquestra director Rafael de Paz. In the 1950s they recorded what many people consider to be the first cumbia recorded outside of Colombia, La Cumbia Cienaguera. He recorded other hits like Mi gallo tuerto, Caprichito, and Nochebuena. This is when Cumbia began to become popular Mexico, with Tony Camargo as one of the first exponents of Mexican Cumbia. In Mexico D.F., most people who dance to it are called "Chilangos"-which means people born in the main district.

In the 1970s Aniceto Molina emigrated to Mexico, where he joined the group from Guerrero, La Luz Roja de San Marcos, and recorded many popular tropical cumbias like El Gallo Mojado, El Peluquero, and La Mariscada. Also in the 70s Rigo Tovar became very popular with his fusion of Cumbia with ballad and Rock.

Today Cumbia is played in many different ways, and has slight variations depending on the geographical area like Cumbia sonidera, Cumbia andina mexicana, Cumbia Norteña, Tecno-cumbia. Popular Mexican Cumbia composers and interpreters include Rigo Tovar y su Costa Azul, Celso Piña, Pilar Montenegro, Ninel Conde, Los Caminantes, and Selena.

Los Ángeles Azules play the cumbia sonidera genre, which is a cumbia subgenre using the accordion and synthesizers. This results in a fusion of the sounds of cumbia from the 1950-1970s with those of 1990s-style electronic music.

The first opera by a Mexican-born composer was Manuel de Zumaya's La Parténope, performed in 1711 before a private audience in the Viceroy's Palace in Mexico City. However, the first Mexican composer to have his operas publicly staged was Manuel Arenzana, the maestro de capilla at Puebla Cathedral from 1792 to 1821. He is known to have written at least two works performed during the 1805/1806 season at the Teatro Coliseo in Mexico City - El extrangero and Los dos ribales en amore. Both were short comic pieces. The first Mexican opera seria was Paniagua's Catalina de Guisa (composed in 1845 and premiered in 1859). With its story about the Huguenots in France and an Italian libretto by Felice Romani, contemporary critics noted that the only thing Mexican about it was the composer.

Although the traditions of European opera and especially Italian opera had initially dominated the Mexican music conservatory and strongly influenced native opera composers (in both style and subject matter), elements of Mexican nationalism had already appeared by the latter part of the 19th century with operas such as Aniceto Ortega del Villar's 1871 Guatimotzin, a romanticised account of the defense of Mexico by its last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtémoc. Later works such as Miguel Bernal Jiménez's 1941 (based on the life of Vasco de Quiroga, the first bishop of Michoacán) incorporated native melodies into the score. Ángela Peralta was an operatic soprano of international fame, known in Europe as "The Mexican Nightingale", who sang in the premieres of operas by Paniagua, Morales, and Ortega del Villar. Mexican tenors include Rolando Villazon, Ramón Vargas, Francisco Araiza, Arturo Chacón Cruz, Fernando de la Mora, Javier Camarena, José Mojica, José Sosa Esquivel, and Alfonso Ortiz Tirado. Mexican soprano include Marta Domingo, Maria Katzarava, Irma González, Olivia Gorra, Irasema Terrazas, and singer Susana Zabaleta.

Puebla was a significant center of music composition in the 17th century, as the city had considerable wealth and for a time was presided over by Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, who was an enthusiastic patron of music. Composers during this period included Bernardo de Peralta Escudero (mostly active around 1640), and also Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, who was the most famous composer of the 17th century in Mexico. The construction of the cathedral in Puebla made the composition and performance of polychoral music possible, especially compositions in the Venetian polychoral style. Late in the century, Miguel Matheo de Dallo y Lana set the verse of poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz.

In the 18th century, Manuel de Sumaya, maestro de capilla at the cathedral in Mexico City, wrote many cantadas and villancicos, and he was the first Mexican to compose an opera, La Partenope (1711). After him, Ignacio Jerusalem, an Italian-born composer, brought some of the latest operatic styles as well as early classical () styles to Mexico. His best-known composition is probably the Matins for the Virgin of Guadalupe (1764). Jerusalem was maestro de capilla at the cathedral in Mexico City after Sumaya, from 1749 until his death in 1769.

In 1922, Julián Carrillo (violinist, composer, conductor, theoretician and inventor), created the first microtonal system in the history of classical music. During subsequent years, he also developed and constructed harps and pianos able to play music in fragments of tone, like fourths, sixths, eighths and sixteenths. His pianos are still manufactured in Germany and are used to play Carrillo's music, mainly in Europe and Mexico.

Another contemporary Mexican composer was Conlon Nancarrow (of American birth), who created a system to play pianola music, using and developing theories of politempo and polimetrics. Other noted contemporary composer include Benjamín Juárez Echenique and Eduardo Diazmuñoz.

Table (traditional music ensembles)

Bosquero Foster, Jerónimo, La canción popular de Yucatán, 1850-1950. Mexico City: Editorial Magisterio 1970.

Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis ISBN 1138053562

Garrido, Juan S. Historia de la música popular en México. Mexico City: Editorial Extemporámeps 1094.

Grandante, William. "Mexican Popular Music at Mid-century: The role of José Alfredo Jiménez and the Canción Ranchera," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 2(1983): 99-114.

Grial, Hugo de Geijertam. Popular Music in Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1976.

Moreno Rivas, Yolanda. Historia de la música popular mexicana. Mexico City: Alianza Editorial Mexicana, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1979.

Pedelty, Mark. "The Bolero: The Birth, Life, and Decline of Mexican Modernity," Latin American Music Review 20, no. 1 (1999), 31-43.

Thomson, Guy P.C. "The Ceremonial and Political Roles of Village Bands, 1846-1974" in Rituals of Rule, Rituals of Resistance, eds. William Beezley, Cheryl Martin, and William French. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources 1974.

Velázquez, Marco and Mary Kay Vaughan. "Mestizaje and Musical Nationalism in Mexico" in The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920-1940. Durham: Duke University Press 2006, pp. 95-118.

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The music of Mexico is very diverse and features a wide range of musical genres and performance styles. It has been influenced by a variety of cultures, most notably the culture of the indigenous people of Mexico and Europe. Music was an expression of Mexican nationalism, beginning in the nineteenth century.

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Mexico is home to some of the most diverse music in the world, celebrating the local culture throughout the country. Influenced by Mexico's peoples and their past, it celebrates life and love. It talks of history, legends, and overcoming oppression. Above all, it is a vibrant part of Mexican life.

Anyone interested in the Mexican culture must know about the most popular of its expressions: music. Through history, it has experienced a huge evolution, from the sound of the drums of a Mayan or Aztec ceremony to the modern expressions of Mexican rap.

© Ernest McGray, Jr. - Sculpture of Mexican Dancers

This evolution occurred in an additive, rather than destructive, manner. That means that, far from replacing one music style with another, Mexican music incorporates previous rhythms and sounds into new ones. Although recently almost every young Mexican music artist chooses modern musical styles as a way of expression, the most widely known "product" of the Mexican music history is The Mariachi.

Mariachi Music

Dressed in traditional silver studded 'charro' suits with a matching sombrero, the presence of Mariachis is almost a requirement on national celebrations or public parties and "fiestas", weddings and large family parties, which often feature two or three different bands that play different kinds of Mexican music.

© Loïc Cantillana Escobar - Traditional Mariachi Clothing (Jalisco, Mexico)

The term "Mariachi" comes from two of the many native languages of Mexico, the Nahuatl (used mostly by the ancient Aztecs), and the Coca (a language known to be used by many independent Mayan tribes). It was initially used to refer to a dance performed by a group of dancers on a wooden platform and it was an equivalent to the Spanish term "Fandango". Nowadays, however, Mariachi refers to a certain music style and the band playing this type of music.

© matt_bruensteiner - Mariachi Ensemble

The Mariachi originated in the region of Jalisco, more exactly in the city of Guadalajara. At first, the Mariachi ensembles traveled from town to town singing about very common subjects, mostly love. This led to their style spreading throughout all Mexico, and soon it was the highest representative of Mexican music.

A typical Mariachi ensemble was formed by four or five guitars, a "guitarrón" (a sort of a large bass guitar), violins, some "vihuelas" (a kind of guitar with a round back), and a harp with 28 to 40 strings. In some regions of Mexico a small snare drum was commonly included into the ensemble.

© squeakychu - Mariachi Band

Among the Mexican music played by Mariachis are famous tunes like "La Bamba", "Cielito Lindo", "La Cucaracha" and the extensively known Mexican hat dance.

Ranchera Music

Like the American country tunes, Ranchera music celebrates love, family life, and patriotic stories. This is music from Mexico's impressive rural country side and it uses a type of yell called "El Grito Mexicano" that sets it apart from other styles.

Early Ranchera music was rebellious. It grew out of dislike for the aristocratic music preferred by the old rulers of Mexico. After the revolution, Mexican music coming from the people became far more popular.

© erika frank - Ranchera Musicians

Norteno Music

Also called 'Grupero', Norteno music uses an accordion and a 'bajo sexto' or twelve string guitar along with other instruments. New migrants in Northern Mexico blended European waltzes and polka with Ranchero music back in the late 19th century. Today, this music has a fast polka-like beat and it is still popular in the Northern parts of the country.

© beavela - Norteno Musicians

Many Faces of Mexican Music

Mexico is a large country. Over the years, a number of regional flavors of Mexican music have developed.

Mexican Son music developed from early Spanish and native music traditions, varying from region to region.

Music from Jalisco, Michoacan, and Colima is known as Abjeno. It also uses many traditional elements mixed with European sounds and is played along pirekaus, or Native Mexican love songs.

Istmenos is from the Zapotecs in Oaxaca. This music celebrates love and is often sung in both the native language of Zapotec and Spanish. It is quite popular across Mexico.

Southern Mexican music includes Son calentano. It features complicated violin playing and pleasing rhythms.

Western Mexico has Sones de arpa grande. It is mainly harp music with violins and guitars.

The Huasteca territory is home to Son Huasteco. It is sung in falsetto by a pair of guitar players and a violinist. Many say it is similar to jazz, because much of it is improvised.

The Veracruz area has Son Jarocho. Here, the region's music is strongly influenced by early African immigrants. It lacks a harp and only uses guitars.

Caribbean and Latin American flavors of music such as mambo, rumba, bolera, and cumbia thrive, being popular all over the country. Latin American rhythms greatly influence Mexican music, having seeped into Mexico along with immigrants over the years.

© Drew Leavy - Mexican Ribbon Dancers

Mexican Pop Music

Mexico has many pop stars and plenty of its own pop music. The genre is dominated by teen pop bands and now-grown former teen pop stars. Unlike American pop, Mexican pop bands have both boys and girls as singers and musicians in the same bands. Today, many Mexican pop groups release songs both in Spanish and English.

© Jorge Mejía Peralta - Marco Antonio Solis, one of the most renowned Mexican pop artists

Classical and Art Music

Mexico has produced many great operas since La Partenope was first performed in 1711. Early opera was strongly influenced by European styles. By the 19th century, Mexican composers had found their own voices in operas such as Guatimotzin. It is about the last Aztec ruler defending against the Spanish. Another famous opera is Tata Vasco. It uses native melodies to tell the story of the first bishop of Michoacan.

Classical music in Mexico is considered one of the first contributors to the modern New World culture. For years Mexico produced some of the best musicians and compositions in this part of the world. Today's art music is dominated by avant-garde composers and jazz players such as Richard Lemus, Tino Contreras, Popo Sanchez and many more.

© Oscar Alcalá - Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico, where various Mexican operas held their premieres

First Class Performers

There are as many famous Mexican musicians as there are types of music.

Traditionally flavored Grupera music is dominated by groups such as Yonics, La Migra, Limite, Los Temerarios and Jenni Rivera.

The biggest Mexican pop stars include Thalia, Linda Thomas, Luis Miguel, Alejandro Fernandez, and Gloria Trevi. Rock fans should check out Mexican rockers Los Freddys, Los Babys, La Migra, and Los Muecas.

Modern Mexican alternative performers include Maldita Vecindad y los Hijos del Quinto Patio, Cafe Tacuba, and Nortec Collective. Fans of American alternative will find much to like.

Fans of bolero will like Rafael Hernandez and Agustin Lara.

Seek out Jose Jose, Camilo Sesto, Roberto Carlos, or Armando Manzanero for very skilfully sung Latin ballads.

Modern Mexican jazz is best performed by musicians such as Antonio Sanchez, Luis Ocadiz, JJ Calatayud, Arturo Castro, Popo Sanchez. Richard Lemus, and Leo Acosta.

Quick Fun Facts About Mexican Music

Some famous Marachi tunes include "La Bamba", "La Cucaracha", "Cielito Lindo" and the famous Mexican Hat Dance.

Grupo Pesado is the most famous type of Norteno music today.

The Latin ballad or romantic ballad is one of the most popular type of love songs in Mexico. It has a slow and sweet tempo and full instrumentation behind a single singer.

Mexican Ska music is a huge following due in part to the popularity of Carlos Santana.

Classical music has been played in Mexico since at least the 16th century.

Luis Miguel is dubbed the "Latin Frank Sinatra" by the media.

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Mexico is home to some of the most diverse music in the world, celebrating the local culture throughout the country. Influenced by Mexico's peoples and their past, it celebrates life and love. It talks of history, legends, and overcoming oppression. Above all, it is a vibrant part of Mexican life.

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España tiene algo muy único que se puede incluso saborear en su cocina, famosa en todo el mundo por sus ingredientes tradicionales, frescos y sabrosos.

La comida española se caracteriza por su simplicidad. Al probar el jamón ibérico se da un cuenta por qué se le considera el mejor y más delicadamente curado jamón del mundo. No en vano está hecho del cerdo ibérico negro que se cría en viejos bosques de encinas y alcornoques, los mismos árboles que producen el corcho del que se extraeen los famosos tapones que cierran las botellas de los mejores vinos del mundo. Estos cerdos disfrutan de una rica dieta de bellotas y sus jamones, bajos en grasa, son pacientemente curados en viejas minas o cuevas durante dos anos. El gazpacho no es solamente una sopa fría, es delicado y refinado, espesado con pan del día anterior remojado, y emulsionado con tomates y hortaliza de temporada. Cada plato de comida española tiene un sabor perdurable, como bañado por el sol.

La dieta mediterránea, rica en sustancias nutritivas y muy baja en grasas, se considera una de las más sabrosas del mundo. Es poco conocido el hecho de que España es el segundo país del mundo, después de Japón, en consumo de pescado. El pez espada, la dorada, los mejillones, las almejas, las ostras, las gambas, los calamares, el atún y un sin fin de especies migratorias que pasan por el Estrecho de Gibraltar, son parte estelar de las paellas, las tapas más típicas y los sabrosos caldos.

La larga y compleja historia de España se refleja en su comidad. Los moros ocuparon gran parte del país durante mas de 700 años y las carabanas árabes importaban arroz, frutos secos e infinidad de especies aromáticas del Oriente y norte de África. Cuando los españoles descubrieron el Nuevo Mundo se encontraron con gran variedad de nuevos y desconocidos alimentos como la patata, el tomate, el maiz o el cacao.

El clima templado y soleado del sur de España ha sido otro factor que ha influenciado su comida. En primer lugar, permite cultivar más productos agrícolas durante más tiempo, en segundo lugar, es más propicio para la cría de cabra y oveja que de vaca, y en tercer lugar es le mayor productor de aceite de oliva del mundo. Así pues, no es de extrañar que sea el aceita de oliva, y no la mantequilla, el principal elemento de su cocina.

Rodeada por el Mediterráneo. La Bahía de Vizcaya y el Atlántico, (seguido de Portugal), España es el segundo país más montañoso de Europa, después de Suiza. Sus numerosas ciudades costeras y recónditos valles han preservado durante siglos diferentes variedades de ganado, caza, fruta y hortalizas. Ello permite gran diversidad de ingredientes donde elegir entre pescados, productos de la caza, jamones, carnes, aceites de oliva, productos de la huerta y especies aromáticas que son la base de esta especial cocina.

Debido a su peculiar orografía, las regiones españolas están separadas por cordilleras de difícil acceso y ello ha contribuido a lo largo de los siglos a que cada región haya desarrollado sus propias peculiaridades culinarias, como las muchas variedades de chorizos, quesos o vinos. Los platos típicos de algunas regiones son conocidos en todo el mundo, como la pella valenciana que se cocina en una sartén plana de poco fondo, con mariscos, pescado, carne de cerdo o pollo, chorizo o conejo, al gusto del consumidor, pero siempre con azafrán y arroz de grano corto. La tradicional "tortilla española" no tiene nada que ver con la tortilla de trigo mexicana. Está hecha con huevo, patatas y cebollas fritas a fuego lento, y es el primer plato que cualquier español echa de menos cuando viaja al extranjero.

Las regiones vinícolas más tradicionales y conocidas son Rioja, Rivera de Duero, Jerez, Rías Baixas y Penedés. Pero hay otras menos conocidas que también producen vinos de calidad como Navalcarnero, Somontano y Borja, en Aragón, o Jumilla, Yecla y Mullas en Murcia. Y no hay que olvidar las apreciadas bebidas populares como la afrutada Sangría o el llamado Tinto de Verano, una mezcla de vino tinto, limón y Casera.

En España es una antigua tradición comer pequeñas porciones a lo largo del día. Esta es una las razones por la que las tapas, platos pequeños con gran sabor, son tan populares. Comer más amenudo cantidades pequeñas, aumenta la variedad de los sabores más que comiendo cantidades mayores tres veces al día. Normalmente, la jornada empieza con una taza de café o de chocolate caliente con churros o galletas. A media mañana, un pequeño receso en el trabajo y el tradicional bocadillo de jamón, chorizo o tortilla española. La comida más fuerte del día es el almuerzo sobre las 2:00 de la tarde, cuando los negocios familiares suelen cerrar para comer y disfrutar de una pequna siesta. Alrededor de las 4 todo el mundo vuelve al trabajo hasta bien pasada la puesta del sol, cuando se escucha la conocida frase "vamos de tapeo".

Las tapas son relativamente poco conocidas en los Estados Unidos. Siempre se acompañan con vino tinto, vinos finos de Jerez o Montilla, y se comparten con familiares y amigos. Algunos ejemplos de la inmensa variedad de tapas son: aceitunas con queso manchego, pan tostado frotado con tomate y ajo y cubierto con un loncha de jamón serrano, pinchos morunos de cordero o pollo, o finas lonchas de jamón iberico de bellota.

En España una comida no es algo que se toma solamente para llenar el estómago. Es también un acto social, una forma estimulante, nutritiva y sabrosa de reunirse con familiares y amigos.

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la cocina de españa - El Mesón - Español

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España tiene algo muy único que se puede incluso saborear en su cocina, famosa en todo el mundo por sus ingredientes tradicionales, frescos y sabrosos. La comida española se caracteriza por su simplicidad. Al probar el jamón ibérico se da un cuenta por qué se le considera el mejor y más delicadamente curado jamón del [...]

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The URL of this site is:
http://www.lifeintheusa.com/food/mexican.htm

Mexican Food in the United States
When Americans speak about Mexican food, they are usually referring to Tex-Mex (or Cal-Mex) cooking, an extremely popular cuisine that spans the long border between the United States and Mexico. The food of the southwestern US state of New Mexico, and the dishes of many of the Native American peoples of the southwestern US, employ similar dish names to many Tex-Mex and some Mexican dishes, but use different flavorings and cooking techniques. An authentic Mexican restaurant, perhaps an expensive one in a major city, will usually go out of its way in its advertising to distance itself from Tex-Mex cuisine. A more informal restaurant may offer both types of food from the same menu.

Dishes like chili, fajitas, salsa, tortilla chips, corn chips, chimichangas, quesadillas, burritos, and nachos may be great food, but they are home grown American inventions. Even dishes that exist in Mexico like enchiladas, tacos, and tamales are cooked and served differently in the United States. True Mexican dishes are not cooked to be burning hot (with chiles) as are many of their relatives north of the border; chile sauce is a condiment in Mexico, to be added according to the taste of the diner.

American variants of Mexican cooking also add prodigious quantities of cheese, either shredded or melted, to nearly every dish, a practice rare in Mexico itself. The same heavy hand applies to the American use of sauces of all kinds. North of the border portions are larger, plates crammed with dishes that tend to run one into the other. In Mexico, the soft corn tortilla performs the function that bread on the table performs in the United States; it is a side starch. In the United States, tortillas, often fried up to a state of crispiness, become an ingredient in nearly every dish.

Of all dishes enjoyed on both sides of the border, guacamole may be the hardest to vary: a simple dip made from avocados, onions, chiles, spices and lime juice. Even here, Americans tend to mash the avocado into too mushy a paste, overdo the chiles, add too much cilantro or otherwise botch this Mexican classic. The Mexican chef will ideally prepare the guacamole using the traditional lava stone mortar and pestle called the molcajete, first grinding the chiles, onions and cilantro together with salt before gently folding innot mashingslices of the avocado, then adding lime juice or possibly a small dollop of diced tomato.

Associated with the Mexican state of Puebla, mole poblano sauce (usually called just mole sauce in the US, although the word mole, pronounced with a stress on the first syllable, refers to all Mexican sauces) is a mainstay of genuine Mexican cuisine that has never caught on with the American public. The sauce is created by grinding dried chiles, nuts, and spices (anise, sesame, cloves, coriander) which are then mixed with Mexican chocolate (a very sweet variety usually mixed with cinnamon). Mole poblano de guajolote, a recipe dating back several hundreds years, is turkey cooked in mole sauce, called by many the National Dish of Mexico. Mole poblano also goes well with chicken. The stuffed corn tortillas called enchiladas are also accented with mole poblano on occasion. Making mole poblano is a multi-step, complicated affair; the sauce is hence associated with special occasions, holidays and fine restaurants.

Puebla (the state just south of the Mexican capital) affects American food and drink consumption trends in two unusual ways. Chefs from Puebla populate the kitchens of top quality American restaurants and have a reputation for reliability and skill with all types of cuisine. The minor Mexican celebration of Cinco de Mayo, which commemorates the Mexican defeat of invading French forces at Puebla in 1862, has of late been blown out of proportion in the United States, where it has become (for non-Mexicans) a festive occasion for the consumption of Mexican-American food, Mexican beers (Corona is the most popular), and the Tequila cocktail called the Margarita. Many Americans erroneously believe the fifth of May to be Mexicos Independence Day.

Puebla may be a rich culinary region, but Mexico is a large country with a number of distinct food traditions. The border states to the north of the country share a beef and ranching heritage with Texas. The Veracruz area along the Gulf of Mexico is famous for seafood, as is the Pacific coast. The Yucatn and areas of southeastern Mexico feature spicy (and often pepper hot) chicken and vegetable dishes, as well as specialties the likes of Iguana (a large indigenous lizard), and pork pibil cooked in banana leaves and achiote sauce (made from crushed annatto seeds, which imparts a deep reddish-yellow color to the dishes). The southern state of Oaxaca is known for a refined cuisine that features complex moles that may have each several dozen ingredients.

All regions of Mexico treasure Pre-Hispanic ingredients that were commonly used by the Aztec, Maya and other native peoples before the Spanish arrived: chocolate, chile peppers, black beans, tomatoes, squash, and especially corn (among Mexico's many gifts to world agriculture). Most spices, however, are of Spanish or Arabic origin; the Spanish also introduced cattle, pigs, and other livestock, making for a true multi-cultural mix. Rice and coffee, both extremely popular in Mexico, are of Old World origin as well.

The brief French tenure in Mexico in the 1860s brought French cooking techniques, especially in baking, while Germans and Austrians founded nearly every one of Mexico many breweries, most of which export beer to the United States. The one country that has affected Mexican eating on only a small scale has been the United States; the influence is more the other way around. As with all Americanized cuisinesItalian and Chinese come quickest to mindthe American food buff can find authentic Mexican restaurants or retail food products with a little careful digging.

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mexican food mole poblano guacamole enchiladas tacos tamales corn tortillas
puebla oaxaca veracruz yucatan aztec maya

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Mexican Food, America Eats, from Life in the USA: The Complete Guide for Immigrants and Americans

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The URL of this site is: http://www.lifeintheusa.com/food/mexican.htm Mexican Food in the United States When Americans speak about Mexican food, they are usually referring to Tex-Mex (or Cal-Mex) cooking, an extremely popular cuisine that spans the long border between the United States and Mexico.

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Emily - La Tecnologia de Entretenimiento en Espana (2)

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Emily - La Tecnologia de Entretenimiento en Espana (2)

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Is all our personal technology an addiction, or is this the next big step for mankind?
Well, perhaps it's both.

No matter what the consequence for humanity, we educators need to embrace it- our Spanish students, even our older students, love video games.

Many play them on a daily basis and probably even invest more time in these than doing homework!

We educators might see video games as just fun and games, but the reality is that they are not only fun, but can also be highly educational. In fact, games offer one of the best ways to learn a language.

In addition to non-immersive apps and old-school offline games, isn't it time we educators tapped into this love for immersive experiences and included Spanish video games as part of our language classes?

I think I heard a big "yes"!

Why Video Games Are the Perfect Multimedia Spanish Experience

Before describing some of the coolest immersive video games for learning Spanish out there, first I'd like to share some great reasons for playing them in the first place.

An obvious reason is that video games are extremely addictive.

Players become immersed in them because they provide challenging tasks that must be successfully completed in order to win the game. Players are motivated to find out what happens after they complete a certain level. Others may be interested in beating a friend's high score.

Some may want to take part in a virtual experience that represents something they couldn't take part in as part of their normal life: Flying an airplane, for example, driving a race car or planning and building an entire city!

Now, a lot of these features of video games come into play when it comes to teaching Spanish with them. They can actually help students to reinforce what they've been learning in the classroom in a very effective and engaging way.

When playing video games that take place in a Spanish-speaking environment, for example, students become immersed not only in the gameplay itself, but also the virtual world where they must use and understand Spanish in order to advance in the game.

Since video games are fun and offer challenging tasks, students are motivated to keep trying to advance in the game, by using Spanish, of course.

Plus, when they try over and over again to complete a task, they are forced to repeatedly use and listen to some of the same grammatical structures and vocabulary. Many video games in Spanish that are made specifically for learners of the language provide strong motivation to learn vocabulary and grammar, as this will be key to advancing.

They also provide a sense of discovery, adventure and accomplishment for students.

Most Spanish language learning video games are task-based, meaning students must do something with the language or complete a task such as buy a product at a store or make a telephone call. They allow students to use the language in context, something that the classroom can't always provide.

Best of all, video games in Spanish promote time on task like no other homework assignment can possibly do! So, what are you waiting for? Work video games into your lesson plans now, now, now!

How to Work Video Games into Your Spanish Curriculum

How can you work video games into your curriculum, you ask? It's easy!

One way is to provide students the opportunity to play the games as extra credit or as "low-stakes" assignments meaning that they are not worth many points or for points that students can earn simply for spending a certain amount of time on the video game or completing the game to a certain level.

You might tell students that for homework, they need to spend at least an hour on the game or get through level one. Most Spanish games that are meant for educational purposes allow teachers to log in and check the progress of each student.

You can also provide students with the opportunity to replace a quiz or a test with a video game assignment. Since students must master the vocabulary and grammar in order to advance in most of the games, it makes sense that once they have progressed to a certain level, they deserve to earn points for having mastered grammar or vocabulary associated with the previous level. How many students do you bet would take you up on this? All of them, of course!

Consider providing class time or for students to work with video games in Spanish. This could be especially useful for students who may not have access to a computer outside of class. If your school allows students to check out iPads, this could work as well since many games are compatible with iPad or iPhone only.

Since most students love competition, you could have them play the video games in teams of two or more against another team. The team that scored the highest could win a prize in addition to winning the competition.

Finally, a handful of games allow students to design their own games for others to play. This could also be a fun idea to try with more advanced Spanish classes.

Now, by now I bet you are wondering what exactly these games are all about and where you can find them. Right? Well, here you go!

Here are some of the coolest video games that every Spanish teacher should encourage students to play.

This game allows students to participate in a virtual study abroad in a fictitious (but realistic) Colombian city. Students play mini-games to practice grammar and vocabulary and then participate in the virtual immersion game where they must use Spanish to perform various tasks successfully. This game is good for beginning to intermediate Spanish students.

(Shh!!! Rumor has it that instructor access to Practice Spanish will soon include supplementary materials such as worksheets and conversation starters based on the game. Stay tuned!)

FluentU takes real-world videos-like music videos, cartoons, documentaries and more-and turns them into personalized language learning lessons for you and your students.

We've got a tremendous collection of authentic Spanish videos that people in the Spanish-speaking world actually watch on the regular. There are tons of great choices here when you're looking for material for in-class activities or homework. Plus, all the videos are sorted by skill level and are carefully annotated for students.

Each video has interactive subtitles. If a student comes across a word they're unfamiliar with, they can hover their cursor over the subtitled word. That word's definition, pronunciation and in-context usage examples will all pop up on-screen instantly. This is what your students will get after they click "watch" on a video. Clicking "learn" opens up a whole new learning experience for them.

In learn mode, all the vocabulary and grammar from the video is taught and reinforced through varied repetition (practicing the same concepts in different forms and contexts). They'll play with flashcards, games, word matches and exercises like "fill in the blank."

The best part is that FluentU keeps track of the vocabulary that they're learning, and it recommends examples and videos based on what they've already learned. Every student has a truly personalized experience, even if they're learning the same video.

You can get them started by signing yourself up for a FluentU Pro account (designed just for teachers!) and creating lesson plans with videos. Just take a look at this quick start guide!

Use FluentU on the website with your computer or tablet or, better yet, download the FluentU app from the iTunes store or Google Play store.

Designed by researchers at the University of New Mexico, "Mentira" is set in Albuquerque. In the game, players interact with other characters using Spanish. The goal is that players must prove themselves innocent of a murder that took place in the area.

This game is best for local New Mexico teachers who are able to take their students on a field trip to the local sites, but, of course teachers anywhere else can take great advantage of this resource.

The website also helps local teachers with ideas for implementing this game into their Spanish classes.

This site allows players to interact with other characters in the game in order to "win" over people who know less Spanish. It takes place in the fictional Spanish city of Cuatro Caminos and is task based.

For instance, in the first level, the player is lost in the city, can't find his hotel and has no money to spend on food. He must use Spanish to find an ATM, get something to eat and find his way to his hotel. That probably sounds familiar to anyone who has traveled and hit a bump in the road with their travel plans.

A good idea is to assign this as extra credit or as a low-stakes practice assignment for students of elementary Spanish.

This site, once known as "Learn Immersive," is awesome in that it allows teachers to make their own immersive experiences for their students which can be done in a matter of minutes and with no technical knowledge. However, for now the site is simply taking memberships for the Beta mode of the game.

Soon the program will be polished and completely available for educators and students. Be on the lookout! It seems to be a great game educators can use in order to make "real-life" tasks for their students to perform.

In one of the demo screenshots, for instance, one of the characters reveals that he's sleepy and asks the player to please help him find a bed to lie on. In this case, students would need to understand the verb form used as well as vocabulary ("bed") in order to complete the task.

Give the Beta version a try and see what happens!

The popular "Second Life" game now contains a virtual language school and even virtual versions of Spanish-speaking cities students can visit such as Barcelona and Mexico City. Best of all, the Spanish speakers they'll connect with are players who really speak Spanish! For a digital world, that's a pretty authentic learning experience.

Here are some great ideas on integrating "Second Life" into the foreign language classroom.

Virtual reality.

It's the stuff of the future.

It might also be the stuff of the future of language learning.

Get a head start and bring it to your classroom today!

If you liked this post, something tells me that you'll love FluentU, the best way to teach Spanish with real-world videos.
Bring Spanish immersion to your classroom!

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Teaching Spanish Through Immersive Multimedia: The Power of Video Games

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Is all our personal technology an addiction, or is this the next big step for mankind? Well, perhaps it's both. No matter what the consequence for humanity, we educators need to embrace it-our Spanish students, even our older students, love video games.

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Emily - La Tecnologia de Entretenimiento en Espana (1)

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Emily - La Tecnologia de Entretenimiento en Espana (1)

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The video game industry in Spain is experiencing one of its best moments in terms of turnover and employment, and this year the industry generated more than 8,700 jobs.

Additionally, the Spanish Video Game Association (AEVI) highlighted that in 2017 more than 1,359 million euros were generated, which was 17% more than in previous years, and it is expected that for 2018 these numbers will only increase.

The increase in turnover compared to previous years means that Spain has positioned itself as the ninth country with the highest consumption of video games in the world, behind major powers such as China, the United States, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, Korea, France and Canada, according to NewZoo, a portal specialized in digital entertainment.

On the other hand, at the level of employment, 63% of video game companies in Spain say they have problems finding qualified staff, according to the White Paper on the Spanish Development of Video Games prepared by DEV.

According to the White Paper, "The key to the success of this industry lies in its ability to evolve constantly and quickly, and to adapt to the tastes of consumers, creating and leading new trends."

This is evidenced by the emergence of companies that are able to learn from gamers and adapt to their needs, as is the case with Sizzle out of California, which leverages AI to automatically detect the action highlights and most important moments in a game that is streamed, so fans can watch a full 20 minute Fortnite game in just 5 minutes that concentrates on just the action.

"There are millions of fans that want something shorter than an 8 hour livestream, but more in-depth than a 3 minute highlight reel. Our beta testers have been very excited by our 5 minute condensed game format, since they can now watch a full 6 hour stream of 10 games played within 50 minutes," said Murali Raju, Co-Founder and CEO of Sizzle, via The Sociable.

In the field of video games, the profiles of work in Spain are very varied, but according to data by Deusto Formación the profile that dominates is "Design and Development" with more than 180 students enrolled in the course 2017-2018.

More than 58,000 students have already studied with Deusto Formación, based on continuous quality training, which is fundamentally practical. The areas that make up its courses focus on the development of competencies, knowledge and skills of greater relevance in the business and ICT field.

Barcelona Blooming

Barcelona has been positioned in recent years, both nationally and internationally, as an attractive place for the video game sector, both for its geographical location and for having successfully developed an ecosystem that has fueled the industry and generated cases of important successes, according to DEV.

In this sense, it is worth mentioning Social Point, a Catalan startup that has recently been acquired by the US company Take-Two Interactive for 276 million dollars.

In addition, Barcelona has been chosen by large companies and international development studios, which have established their headquarters in the city, including Ubisoft, Gameloft, King, Zeptolab and, recently, Scopely and Riot Games. The growth experienced by these large companies contributes significantly to the weight of Catalunya in the national turnover.

On the other hand, the evolution of the distribution of employment reveals that it is concentrating more and more in the Communities of Madrid and Catalunya.
Disclosure: This article includes a client of an Espacio portfolio company

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Spain's Video Game Industry is Experiencing a Boom in Jobs, Turnover - Novobrief

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The video game industry in Spain is experiencing one of its best moments in terms of turnover and employment, and this year the industry generated more than 8,700 jobs. Additionally, the Spanish Video Game Association (AEVI) highlighted that in 2017 more than 1,359 million euros were generated, which was 17% more than in previous years, and it is expected that for 2018 these numbers will only increase.

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Bethany - Las políticas en Argentina (2)

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Bethany - Las políticas en Argentina (2)

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Voters in Argentina are going to the polls to elect a new president amid a deep economic crisis that has left a third of the population in poverty.

President Mauricio Macri came to power four years ago with market-friendly promises to restore growth.

Many say things are worse now than when the conservative took the reins of power from the controversial government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.

He is running for re-election, but few believe he has any chances of winning.

Mr Macri was trounced in primary elections in August by Alberto Fernández, whose running mate is Ms Fernández de Kirchner (no relation).

The vote that could change Argentina's direction

Voters dream of breaking cycle of crisis

Argentina in profile

Mr Fernández, who belongs to the populist Peronist movement, has promised to reverse Mr Macri's liberal measures. But many fear that if he wins power, Argentina could return to the populist policies that helped push the country to its current state.

The economy will be uppermost in voters' minds as they cast their ballots.

Who is in the running?

Six candidates are fighting for the presidency but the attention has centred on two men.
Mauricio Macri, right-wing businessman
President Macri defied expectations by winning the 2015 presidential election run-off, becoming the country's first unambiguously conservative president to win a free and fair election since 1916.

Born into a wealthy business family, Mr Macri worked in banking before going into politics - a step he partly attributes to his experience being kidnapped and held ransom by rogue police officers in 1991.

He entered Buenos Aires city politics in 2003, where his profile was helped by his presidency of Boca Juniors, one of Argentina's most successful football clubs. He was elected mayor four years later and emerged as leader of the opposition to centre-left presidents Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.

As president, he promised to end corruption, lift the capital controls of his predecessor and begin major infrastructure projects. But his impressive victory in mid-term elections in 2017 came on the back of a borrowing spree.

He attempted to push through economic reforms as debts mounted. Now the crisis has wiped out much of his support.
Alberto Fernández, centre-left ex-campaign strategist
For a career politician with little charisma, Mr Fernández has caused quite a stir since he first appeared in the limelight of Argentine politics some six months ago.

The former campaign strategist began his bid for the presidency in May - something of a surprise as ex-president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner had been widely tipped to be the centre-left opposition coalition's candidate for the top office.

But Mr Fernández really came into his own in August when he defeated Mr Macri by nearly 15 percentage points in primary elections, a compulsory vote for all electors which is seen is a dry-run for the presidency. This victory, defying all predictions, sets him up as clear favourite.

Read more: Argentina's strategist turned candidate

How does the election work?

Voting is compulsory for those aged between 18 and 70. There are some 33.8 million eligible voters, who will also elect 130 members of the Chamber of Deputies and 24 of the Senate as well as some governors and the mayor of Buenos Aires.

A presidential candidate needs at least 45% of the vote or 40% and a 10-point lead over the second-place contestant to win in the first round.

If no-one achieves that, a run-off election will be held on 24 November between the first and second placed candidates.

What are the main issues?

The economy will be the main - if not the only - issue for many in a country that has suffered from years of crises in recent decades.

Mr Macri promised to achieve "zero poverty", but things have actually worsened. Four years after he came to power, some 35% of the population - more than 15 million people - lives in poverty.

Persistently high inflation has squeezed working and middle-class families and many struggle to pay utility bills.

Unemployment is currently above 10%, and a growing number of Argentines have been forced to live on the streets.

Things worsened last year when the Argentine peso tumbled following a run on the currency.

After the primaries in August, the peso plunged deeper, and Mr Macri was forced to re-impose the foreign currency controls he had scrapped at the start of his presidency.

Meanwhile, the central bank sharply increased interest rates to 60% in an effort to stabilise the peso and curb inflation. This has been extremely painful for consumers and businesses that want or need to borrow.

The Macri government also turned to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help, asking for a record $55bn (£43bn) loan which has added to the external debt the country is unable to pay.

Going to the IMF was a highly unpopular move in Argentina, where many blame the fund for the policies that led to a severe economic crisis in 2001.

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For Argentine voters, only one thing matters

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Voters in Argentina are going to the polls to elect a new president amid a deep economic crisis that has left a third of the population in poverty. President Mauricio Macri came to power four years ago with market-friendly promises to restore growth.

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Spain's centre-left Socialist Worker's Party (PSOE) has won 123 seats in Spain's general election.

The results offer Pedro Sanchez, its leader, a chance to form a government with left-wing Unidas Podemos (UP) and regional nationalist parties.

Since becoming prime minister in 2018, Sanchez, 47, has taken PSOE from near-irrelevance back to its position as the most popular party in Spain.

He became the country's prime minister after a no-confidence vote against Mariano Rajoy, from the centre-right People's Party (PP), who ruled since 2011.

Sanchez was widely considered the winner of televised debates leading up to the elections, which appears to have won over undecided voters.

Who is Sanchez?

Sanchez, who hails from Madrid, is a lawyer who has worked with the centre-left party since 1993.

He has served as PSOE's general secretary since 2014, when the party was in the midst of a downward slope after five years of PP victories.

Sanchez was little known when he became the socialist leader. He left his post in 2016 to resume it in 2017.

When Sanchez became prime minister, PSOE held 84 seats and had a tense coalition with UP and other regional parties.

Sanchez relied on support from Catalan nationalist parties, who rejected his party's budget proposal in February, leading to early elections being called.

Where does he stand on the issues?

Sanchez is centre-left in many of his positions, including international issues like immigration and refugees, the European Union and the economy.

PSOE backed a move to exhume Francisco Franco in 2018, though it faced opposition from his family and Vox, which views Franco's rule favourably.

The remains of Spain's fascist dictator, who ruled from 1939 until 1975, lie at the Valley of the Fallen, a monumental compound which includes a large basilica, constructed in part by his political enemies.

Sanchez is also socially liberal and supports LGBT rights and women's right to abortion.

Sanchez and Podemos leader Pablo Iglesias agreed to the biggest wage hike in 40 years in 2018 as part of a series of agreements on the 2019 budget, raising the minimum wage by 22 percent.

That budget did not pass.

Regarding Catalonia's independence, Sanchez has said he would reinitiate dialogue with Catalan leaders, whose independence drive in 2017 shook Spain and the EU.

This came in contrast to the right-wing bloc, headed by PP, which supported stripping Catalonia of its regional autonomy and placing it under the direct rule of the national government.

However, Sanchez has explicitly stated there would be no independence, or even a state-recognised referendum on secession.

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Who is Pedro Sanchez, leader of Spain's Socialist Workers' Party?

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Spain's centre-left Socialist Worker's Party (PSOE) has won 123 seats in Spain's general election. The results offer Pedro Sanchez, its leader, a chance to form a government with left-wing Unidas Podemos (UP) and regional nationalist parties. Since becoming prime minister in 2018, Sanchez, 47, has taken PSOE from near-irrelevance back to its position as the most popular party in Spain.

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Penelope - Avances tecnológicos en México (2)

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Penelope - Avances tecnológicos en México (2)

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Descender en parapente, ser el portero de un club mexicano de futbol y viajar a la velocidad de la luz, todo esto es posible gracias a la realidad virtual, el videomapping, la iluminación robótica y la tecnología láser que agrupa Inspark, el primer parque dedicado a la realidad virtual en México.

Inspark es fruto de la colaboración entre Nicolás Vale, fundador de Vale Network, y Javier Ahedo, ex director de Operaciones en Sky México y de acuerdo con sus creadores, se trata del primer parque de entretenimiento digital en México.

En los 1,100 metros cuadrados que ocupa, alberga 30 atracciones divididas en juegos de realidad virtual, actividades inmersivas y juegos de luz y sombras. Se encuentra ubicado en el interior de Plaza Carso, en el poniente de la ciudad y entre sus patrocinadores cuenta a marcas como Telmex, Caliente, Samsung y Aeroméxico.

En el VR Samsung Experience, uno puede convertirse en una tortuga que desciende a las profundidades el mar, en un experto piloto de aeroplano o en el pasajero de una loca montaña rusa sin salir de una misma habitación. Lo mismo sucede en Ala Delta, que ofrece la oportunidad de puede experimentar la emoción de una caída libre o en el VR Soccer Room, en donde uno puede ser el portero de equipos como los Xolos de Tijuana o el América.

El Cuarto Infinito (Infinity Room) brinda la sensación de estar viajando a la velocidad de la luz dentro de un cable de fibra óptica, lo que ofrece la posibilidad de experimentar una situación que difícilmente alguien podría vivir en el mundo físico.

Para concluir el recorrido -que dura entre una y media y dos horas- además de jugar en una de las siete cabinas de realidad virtual con juegos como Fruit Ninja, se puede presenciar el espectáculo de luz y color, un show inmersivo que hace evidente la relación entre las ondas del sonido y las de la luz gracias a tecnologías como el motion capture, la identificación por radiofrecuencia y la iluminación robótica.

Inspark cuenta con 109 luces robóticas y ocho pantallas de proyección inmersiva. Ofrece funciones con horarios fijos de 249 pesos de martes a jueves y 299, de viernes a domingo. Los horarios de las funciones son los siguientes: martes y jueves 4:30 y 6:45 pm / Viernes 3:15, 5:00 y 6:45 pm / Sábados 1:45, 3:30, 5:15 y 7:00 pm y Domingos 1:15, 3:00, 4:45 y 6:30 pm.

El potencial de las realidades inmersivas

Inspark ofrece varias pistas de la posibilidades que tienen las técnicas de realidad inmersiva: la capacidad de transportar la percepción humana a situaciones poco comunes y, en muchos casos, imposibles.

Bucear, planear o jugar futbol son actividades que si bien no son habituales para el común de la gente, fueron realizadas originalmente en el mundo físico y luego se transportaron al mundo de lo virtual. Esto las diferencia de experiencias como viajar a la velocidad de la luz o ver la relación que existe entre el color y la música, que son justamente las que proveen el Infinity Room y el show de color y música dentro de Inspark.

Baltazar Rodríguez, evangelista tecnológico de IBM, sugirió hace unas semanas, en una conversación con El Economista sobre la supercomputadora Summit que los desarrolladores de las computadoras con mayor capacidad procesamiento en el mundo están volteando a ver a la realidad virtual como una posibilidad de interactuar con estas enormes máquinas, más allá de lenguajes de programación poco amistosos con el usuario.

"Algo que me ha tocado ver en algunos equipos de supercómputo es la posibilidad de interactuar con la computadora usando mecanismos más inmersivos. En lugar de que estés interactuando con la simulación del desdoblamiento de una proteína a través de una pantalla, con números y código, es posible usar tecnologías de realidad virtual para interactuar con estos modelos, algo que también puede hacerse en el caso de algoritmos de inteligencia artificial", dijo Baltazar Rodríguez en aquella entrevista.

Estar dentro del Infinity Room de Inspark hace que uno sienta el vértigo al imaginarse a sí mismo como una diminuta partícula de luz viajando a más de 300,000 kilómetros por segundo en el centro de un cable de fibra óptica y no muchos pueden decir que han vivido esta experiencia.

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La realidad virtual ya tiene un parque de diversiones en México y se llama Inspark

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Descender en parapente, ser el portero de un club mexicano de futbol y viajar a la velocidad de la luz, todo esto es posible gracias a la realidad virtual, el videomapping, la iluminación robótica y la tecnología láser que agrupa Inspark, el primer parque dedicado a la realidad virtual en México.

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EL Cine y Programas de Tele en México (2)

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EL Cine y Programas de Tele en México (2)

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"The Untamed" ("La Región Salvaje"), a Mexican thriller about sex, lies and a mysterious monster, won the Silver Lion directing award for filmmaker Amat Escalante when it premiered at the 2016 Venice International Film Festival. Three years earlier, Escalante won the director prize at the Cannes Film Festival for his graphic drug trafficking drama "Heli."

It's no wonder "The Untamed" was quickly picked up for distribution in the U.S. and across Europe. Everywhere but Mexico.

Mexico's film scene is booming, with a record 175 films made here last year. And in Hollywood, Mexican directors seem to be a key to success at the Oscars. Guillermo del Toro's "The Shape of Water" is the odds-on favorite to win the Academy Award for directing on Sunday, and three of the last four directing Oscars went to Mexican filmmakers - Alfonso Cuarón in 2014 ("Gravity") and Alejandro Iñárritu in 2015 ("Birdman") and again in 2016 ("The Revenant").

But despite an increase in state funding that has nurtured a new golden age of Mexican cinema, with Mexican films winning more than 100 international awards in 2017, domestic distribution and exhibition has not kept pace with production. Which means that films made in Mexico often aren't seen in Mexican movie theaters.

Filmmakers and government officials say the country's two major theater chains are reluctant to give space to new Mexican films when Hollywood movies account for the vast majority of ticket sales. Last year, the 20 top-grossing movies in Mexico were American-made.

Only after public pressure, including a chiding on Twitter by Del Toro and Cuarón, did "The Untamed" finally open in Mexican theaters last month - nearly two years after its world premiere. The film's run didn't last long, in part, Escalante thinks, because Mexicans had already been able to watch it for months on iTunes and Amazon.

Escalante says he and other prominent filmmakers have met with top government officials in recent months to see what can be done to speed up the release of Mexican movies inside the country.

"We feel the Mexican audience shouldn't have to wait a year and a half to see a Mexican film," Escalante says.

"It's an enormous contradiction," says documentary filmmaker Tatiana Huezo, whose films "Tempestad" and "The Tiniest Place" won prizes at festivals around the world and screened in Mexico.

"We're making a huge number of films, but so few are shown here," she says. "We can't see our own stories."

(Wally Skalij / Los Angeles Times )

It's an enormous contradiction. We're making a huge number of films, but so few are shown here we can't see our own stories.

Today's burst of moviemaking calls to mind Mexico's first golden age of cinema, in the 1930s and 1940s, when stars such as Cantinflas, María Félix and Pedro Infante put Mexico on the map as one of the world's top producers of film.

The industry began to fade in the 1950s, overtaken by Hollywood imports and the government's clumsy efforts to intervene in the film business, which included imposing ticket price controls and buying up major studios and movie theaters. By the mid-1990s, fewer than 10 films were being made each year, in large part because there was little access to private financing.

The climate was so inhospitable that budding filmmakers such as Del Toro, Iñárritu and Cuarón had little choice but to cross the border to chase their dreams.

Life for filmmakers in Mexico began to improve about 15 years ago, when the government upped its support. The Mexican Institute for Cinematography, known as IMCINE, now gives away around $44 million a year for film productions - more than 10 times what it was handing out in the 1990s. Well over half the films produced in Mexico last year were financed or co-financed by the government.
ALSO: Beyond Mexico's Oscar darlings, here are three Mexican filmmakers you need to know
Government assistance allows for more risk-taking, says director Alonso Ruizpalacios, whose new heist film, "Museum," starring Gael García Bernal, was partially funded by the government and won the screenplay prize last week at the Berlin Film Festival.

"The director almost always has the final cut in Mexico," says Ruizpalacios, who co-wrote "Museum." "The filmmakers I know in Hollywood really envy that."

In recent years, Ruizpalacios has dabbled in Hollywood. He directed the first episode of the upcoming Starz show "Vida" and is preparing to direct two episodes for the fourth season of the hit Netflix show "Narcos."

"It pays the rent," he says of the Hollywood gigs. "But I have to come back here to do my own projects to have real control."

(Hayoung Jeon / REX / Shutterstock )

Another upshot for directors working outside of Hollywood is freedom from "political correctness," says Escalante, whose "The Untamed" features explicit sex scenes involving an octopus-like alien monster and whose 2013 "Heli," about an autoworker whose life is upended by organized crime, featured graphic scenes of torture.

"There's this carefulness and fear of offending in Hollywood," he says. "I wouldn't be able to make these movies in the U.S."

Filmmakers say they are also able to portray Mexico with more complexity than they would in Hollywood, which tends to tell two kinds of Mexico stories: immigration dramas or bloody drug war thrillers.

Take the powerful but subdued documentary "Devil's Freedom" by Everardo González, which features painful testimonies by both victims and perpetrators of Mexico's violence. The twist is that all of those interviewed are wearing masks, giving an eerie sense that anyone in the country might be capable of being victimized or victimizing. Huezo's 2016 film "Tempestad" employs a similar technique. While it's focused on two women's encounters with human trafficking, the camera lingers on scenes of the Mexican countryside and close-ups of random Mexican faces instead of showing actual violence.

At a time when Mexico is recording more homicides than at any point in that last two decades, that brutal honesty may be hard for some Mexican moviegoers to watch.

"Sometimes Mexican audiences don't want to go to the cinema to see a mirror of what they see in the streets," says producer Nicolás Celis, who has helped make several of the country's recent award-winning films, including "The Untamed." Celis complains that movie theaters don't expect audiences to go see Mexican films, so they are frequently short-changed, often scheduling screenings in the middle of the day, if at all.

"I'm not used to presenting our films in a healthy market," he says. "I'm used to having a film in just a few theaters, and then they suddenly change the release date."

Filmmakers can apply for public subsidies for publicity and other support once their films are finished. But competition is fierce.

Many of the films being made in Mexico also struggle to find an audience internationally. In the U.S. there's a scarcity of distribution companies focused on bringing Spanish-language films to U.S. audiences.

Even "Selena" producer Moctesuma Esparza, whose growing California theater chain Maya Cinemas programs the occasional Mexican film among first-run blockbusters, says he rarely sees modern Mexican movies. While two of his Central Valley locations are currently showing Marco Polo Constandse's "La Boda de Valentina," he'd like to screen more Mexican films. But few, he says, are being distributed.

"I'm not that familiar with Mexican cinema anymore," says Esparza, who grew up watching Mexican films from the first golden age. "If I don't go to the film festivals, then I don't get to see them."

(Myung J. Chun / Los Angeles Times )

Although it's still hard to make a profit on a film in Mexico, there are signs that things are improving. Last year, four Mexican films grossed more than $5 million domestically each, according to IMCINE.

But there need to be better avenues for films to reach audiences, Mexican officials say, including more support for independent theaters and public screenings.

"It's crazy that a movie can win in Venice but not be screened here," says Consuelo Sáizar, who served as president of Mexico's National Council for Culture and the Arts from 2009 to 2012.

For now, many moviegoers resort to other methods to see current Mexican films.

Ana Cristina Chavez, 27, a teacher who was waiting in line to buy tickets at a theater on the south side of Mexico City on a recent weekend, said she would like to watch more films made by her compatriots, but they just aren't available in many theaters.

"It's frustrating," she said. "I end up watching a lot online."
ALSO Guillermo del Toro's highly personal monster film 'The Shape of Water' speaks to 'what I feel as an immigrant' Review: Amat Escalante's remarkable erotic horror of Mexico's 'The Untamed' is unnerving Guillermo del Toro's 'The Shape of Water' is the true wonder of awards season kate.linthicum@latimes.com Twitter: @katelinthicum

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Not screening in Mexico: Its own new golden age of film

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Mexican directors aren't just finding success at the Oscars. Last year, Mexico made a record 175 films, with more than 100 of them earning international acclaim. But distribution and exhibition hurdles mean Mexican audiences are missing out on the new Golden Age of cinema.

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Penelope - Avances tecnológicos en México (1)

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Penelope - Avances tecnológicos en México (1)

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ELIMPARCIAL.COM | Noticias de Sonora, México

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CIUDAD DE MÉXICO.-En las últimas décadas vivimos una auténtica revolución en el mundo de la tecnología, lo que implica profundos cambios en todos los ámbitos. Además, a este fenómeno debemos de sumarle una etapa de incertidumbre económica, ya que los sectores que han predominado de forma tradicional son desplazados por otras industrias.

El auge de las nuevas tecnologías obliga a las empresas a transformarse para sobrevivir en un mercado dominado por lo virtual, tratándose un proceso que afecta por igual a todos los países del planeta. Por lo tanto, surgen nuevos mercados que atraen una gran cantidad de inversiones, mientras que otros negocios menos dinámicos quedan obsoletos a una velocidad de vértigo y tenderán a desaparecer en los próximos años.

De hecho, la industria del ocio es una de las que más se ha visto afectada por este cambio de época, ya que nuestra manera de relacionarnos hoy en día es totalmente distinta. Un gran ejemplo de todo ello se puede observar en el sector de los videojuegos, que se ha convertido en uno de los motores económicos a nivel mundial debido al crecimiento vertiginoso que está experimentando.

Así, los datos respaldan todo este planteamiento, ya que se espera que esta industria genere en total 150 mil millones de dólares en 2019 tanto en dispositivos móviles como en consolas y ordenadores, todo ello según cifras que aporta Newzoo (compañía especializada en analizar el mercado de los deportes electrónicos). Asimismo, solo en América Latina las ventas del sector crecieron un 13,5% con respecto a 2017, mientras que México se sitúa como el duodécimo país del mundo que más consume este tipo de ocio y el primero de todo Latinoamérica.
La seguridad, un aspecto no menos importante que la diversión
Por otro lado, debemos destacar que este proceso no se limita tan solo a los videojuegos, sino que se expande a todo el sector que engloba el ocio a través de internet. De hecho, el juego online también se ha asentado como uno de los pilares fundamentales del entretenimiento en todos los países, ya que comparte muchas de las fortalezas con la industria de los videojuegos.

Así, aunque la búsqueda de diversión es el principal aliciente por parte de los usuarios, todos ellos coinciden en buscar plataformas seguras (especialmente si existe la posibilidad de realizar transacciones económicas). De esta manera, grandes compañías como PlayStation o Xbox han desarrollado enormemente su ciberseguridad como única medida para garantizarse el crecimiento económico.

Eso sí, este proceso es algo más complicado en el ámbito del juego online y cuando hablamos de ordenadores o dispositivos móviles, ya que se requiere un mayor cuidado por parte del consumidor a la hora de elegir una aplicación o plataforma concreta. Por lo tanto, no es de extrañar que existan guías para conocer los mejores casinos online, algo que aporta una enorme seguridad a los usuarios y lucha contra prácticas abusivas e incluso ilegales en el sector.

Una industria que ya ha superado al cine

Por último, debemos mencionar que la venta de videojuegos ya supera en beneficios a las taquillas de cine en México, un dato muy importante que ejemplifica a la perfección este cambio en las tendencias de consumo que hemos mencionado. Así, todo apunta a que este fenómeno se irá agrandando en los próximos años, llegando a un punto en el que los eSports lleguen a sobrepasar a los deportes hegemónicos como el fútbol o el baloncesto.

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CIUDAD DE MÉXICO.-En las últimas décadas vivimos una auténtica revolución en el mundo de la tecnología, lo que implica profundos cambios en todos los ámbitos. Además, a este fenómeno debemos de sumarle una etapa de incertidumbre económica, ya que los sectores que han predominado de forma tradicional son desplazados por otras industrias.

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El Cine y Programas de Tele en México (1) 

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El Cine y Programas de Tele en México (1) 

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GUADALAJARA, Mexico - The Mexican Film Institute unveiled at least two, if not three, all-time historical records this week at Mexico's Guadalajara Festival as it unveiled its2016 Statistical Year Book of Mexican Cinema.

Figures confirmed one of the best years in modern times for Mexican movie-making. But a shadow lent a pall to proceedings: U.S. president Donald Trump's announcement of his intention to at least renegotiate, if not scrap, the 23-year-old North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA.

Presenting last year's industry statistics, Jorge Sanchez, director of the IMCINE Film Institute, made an effective call to arms, urging Mexico's "film community and institutions to launch initiatives creating a shield for the Mexican film industry."

Also present on the panel presenting last year's results, actress Dolores Heredia, seen in Mel Gibson's "Get the Gringo" and also president of the Mexican Academy of the Arts and Cinematographic Sciences, effectively picked up that gauntlet, saying its members would meet to discuss a roadmap going forward, seeking consultancy with "the most brilliant" experts on where a re-cast NAFTA could leave Mexico's film industry.

The uncertainty created by possible new NAFTA rules took the edge of some best-ever results chalked up in 2016. It also forced panelists to think of a bigger picture of what the Mexican film industry has achieved of late in a market which is one of the world's best for Hollywood's major studios. Here are 10 stats and analysis items, from micro to macro POVs. Many are relatable to a greater or lesser extent with other countries in Latin America, and beyond:

1.PRODUCTION SURGES TO AN ALL-TIME RECOR D

Mexico produced 162 features in 2016, up 16% on 2015's 140, near 12 times 2002's production level of just 14 films, and an all-time record, beating the Golden Age highpoint in 1958. It also marks the seventh year of consecutive growth in production volumes, observed political scientist José Woldenberg, another panelist.
2.BOX OFFICE GROSSES FOR MEXICAN MOVIES HAS NEVER BEEN HIGHER, DITTO, MOST PROBABLY ADMISSIONS
Mexican movies grossed Pesos 1.3 billion ($67 million), another all time best. They also sold 30.5 million cinema tickets, up on 2013's 30.1 million, when "Instruction Not Included" and "We Are the Nobles" set records at the Mexican box office. Admission are a modern, and maybe historical record.
3.PRIVATE -SECTOR INVESTOR CONFIDENCE GROWS
Movies backed by state incentives remained stable at 94 produced last year, the same figure as in 2015. That seems only natural given that total public-sector financing also plateau-ed at Pesos 800 million ($41 million). But movies receiving no state coin rocketed up 48% last year from 46 to 68. Two explanations: 66 documentaries, which are often self-financed, were made last year, the highest number on record, and double 2013. Also, "we're beginning to see a certain confidence on the part of the Mexican public towards Mexican movies. The diversity of movies also allows for different ways of distributing Mexican films," said Juan Carlos Dominguez, research co-ordinator on the 2016 Statistical Year Book of Mexican Cinema. Private funds - VCS Capital, which talked on a panel Tuesday at Guadalajara - and private investors, such as Adrian Bazan, at Cinema 226, are also now seeing Mexican cinema as a sector to bet on.
4.MOVIES OUTPACE THE ECONOMY AT LARGE
Over 2008-2014, Mexican film industry GDP grew an average 6.5% year-on-year, nearly three times that of Mexico's economy overall, which expanded at a 2.0% rate.
5.BUT MEXICO INDUSTRY SHOULD GROW FAR MORE
That's some of the good news. But Mexico's modern movie surge must still be placed in perspective. Its films' 9% market share of box office gross, according to IMCINE estimates, is way down on that of Europe's major industries, said another panelist, academic Ana Rosas Mantecón, citing figures of 35% for France, 27% for Germany and 18% for Spain. In general, Hollywood's studios have it better in Latin America, where their market share reaches 85%, than any other part of the world. Big festival prizes and production volume still has to translate into substantial audiences for Mexican films, she argued. That is indeed arguable. An average annual 11.3 million over 2000-12, admissions for Mexican movies has skyrocketed to an average 25.5 million over 2013-16, one year after production volumes took a huge hike from 73 films in 2012 to 112 in 2013 after confidence in there use of Efecine production tax breaks grew.

But Mexico most certainly is still way off any kind of market share which would put it on a par with Europe's major industries.
6.BLIM - THE BIG NEW KID IN THE TV BLOCK
Rather surprisingly, the total number of TV series (as opposed to telenovelas) produced in Mexico last year, at least according to IMCINE statistics, just edged up, up to 19, from 18 in 2015. Most analysts would have expected a far sharper increase. What the stats do show, however, is how Blim, Televisa's new SVOD platform launched in February 2016, is already impacting on TV production, accounting for eight series in 2016, according to the Year Book. Netflix produced one ("Club de Cuervos"), America Movil's ClaroVideo another ("La Hermandad"). All told, Mexico's SVOD platforms represented over half the country's series production, a mark of their already game-changing impact on shorter format TV drama creation in one of Latin America's most major markets.
7.ONE WOMAN WHO MAKES MAJOR BOX OFFICE HITS.
The highest-grossing Mexican movie last year and the third-biggest local movie hit ever in Mexico, was "Don't Blame the Kid," one of whose producers is Monica Lozano, also producer of "Instructions Not Included," the No. 1 all-time champ. Women directed five movies in 2008, 37 last year, while producing 49. Rather like Mexican movie box office in general, things could be much better, but they have improved.
8.INTERNATIONAL CO-PRODUCTIONS, ANOTHER RECORD
The U.S. remains Mexico's favorite film partner, responsible for 11 of its 45 international co-productions over 2016. Only Spain, involved in nine, came close. Multiple factors suggest U.S.-Mexican co-productions could increase still further:

the U.S. co-base of many top Mexican companies, young Mexicans' attendance at U.S. film schools, the figures punched by very select Mexican movies in the U.S. and Hollywood studios' interest in co-producing Mexican movies -
10.FIGHTING TALK
No Mexican movie made last year's Top 10 at the box office. Faced by what she called the "screen saturation of U.S. movies," Mantecon floated the idea of various ripostes: Sanctioning studios' monopolistic practices; limiting releases' screen counts; guaranteeing minimAL theatrical runs for Mexican movies. This is fighting talk. Before the devaluation of the peso, Mexico represented Hollywood's No. 1 market in Latin America. It is still one of the two most important, alongside Brazil. One initial impression left by IMCINE's 2016 results is that not only Mexico but Hollywood has a lot to lose by any NAFTA negotiation which alters the rules of engagement regarding market access for the two countries.
MEXICAN MOVIES PRODUCED, 2000-16
2000: 28; 2001: 21; 2002: 14; 2003: 29; 2004: 36: 2005: 53; 2006: 64; 2007: 70: 2008: 70; 2009: 66; 2010: 69; 2011: 73; 2012: 112; 2013: 126; 2014: 130; 2015: 140; 2016: 162.
ADMISSIONS TO MEXICAN FILMS, 2000-16
(In millions)

2000: 11.1; 2001: 11.9; 2002: 14.7; 2003: 7.5; 2004: 9; 2005: 7.1; 2006: 11; 2007: 13.4; 2008: 13.2; 2009: 12.4; 2010: 11.5; 2012: 10.9; 2013: 30.1; 2014: 24; 2015: 17.5; 2016: 30.5.

Source: 2016 Statistical Yearbook of Mexican Cinema

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Guadalajara: Mexico's Film Industry Analyzes 2016 Records, Big Picture Challenges

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GUADALAJARA, Mexico - The Mexican Film Institute unveiled at least two, if not three, all-time historical records this week at Mexico's Guadalajara Festival as it unveiled its2016 Statistical Year Book of Mexican Cinema. Figures confirmed one of the best years in modern times for Mexican movie-making.