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Themes of Romanticism | The Romantic Age (Part 2) | History of English Literature

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A basic description of the Romantic Period as a historical era and a list of key themes preoccupying its thinkers and artists

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Romanticism

Romanticism is a cultural movement which took place throughout Europe between 1770 and 1848. It started in Germany between 1770 and 1785 with the "Sturm und Drang" movement which criticized classicism and supported a modern, 'romantic' style. It revaluated the irrational and individual experience. From Germany the Romantic movement spread to Europe where it acquired national features.

The dates of English Romantic period of literature was not precise, but it can be dated from 1798 (publication of Lyrical Ballads) to 1832 when the government passed the First Reform Bill, a law which widened (=ampliò) the electorate to the upper middle class and redistributed parliamentary representation including the new industrial cities.
The Romantic Age was an age of rebels against current beliefs and customs.

The poets Wordsworth and Coleridge published in 1798 Lyrical Ballads that was a collection of poems that revolutionized the theory and practise of poetry. In the second edition (1800) there was a Preface written by Wordsworth that was the manifesto of romantics theory of poetry.
In Lyrical Ballads Wordsworth wrote about:
* Subject matter of poetry 'to describe incidents and situations from common life. [...] Humble and rustic life was generally chosen, because, in that condition, the essential passion of the heart find a better soil', great simplicity.
* Role of the poet he is an 'ordinary man endowed with a knowledge of human nature'
* Language of poetry a 'language really used by men', plain and emphatic.
Wordsworth believed that the common people and the ordinary events were serous subjects for poetry that was the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, sprang from sincerity. The primary role of poetry was to save human beings from a state of torpor. He changed the use of language in poetry that became comprehensible to everyone. Wordsworth was considered 'the father of modern poetry', he had an interest in childhood and in nature (he was a worshipper of nature) and he is a real Romantic poet, not ideal like Blake.
In fact, in Romanticism, there were two tendencies of poetry: the tendency toward the real which is typical of Wordsworth and Keats, and the tendency toward ideal, typical of Blake and Coleridge. The first one starts from a real experience and produces a semblance of novelty, the second one starts from and ideal experience and produces a semblance of truth.

Nature

Neoclassicism: a sort of machine engineered by God, so it has to follow some principles ( Newton principles), it is static, mechanical, perfect, unchangeable, created. The two most important philosophers of that period (18th century) were Locke and Hartley.
Romanticism was completely in opposition to Neoclassicism: universe and nature are dynamic, they always recreate, develop, move, evolve themselves.
This dynamic theory was supported by Rousseau who sustained the need of human to have a close relationship with nature, but also human perfect ability, the idea of natural man (a man not jet corrupted by civilization, like children) and democracy. Another important philosopher of that time, Kant, had an idealistic philosophy that sustained that "creation never ends" (nature is a living power) and that objected world always interests in subjected human lives, so nature is not a fix background but influences man life (individualism).
In the last years of the 18th century, two metaphors were used to express the idea of universe:
1) Plant: it is the dynamic, vitalistic, organic idea of universe: it ever changes (Neoclassicism)
2) Cclockwork: it is the static or mechanistic attitude of a created universe that follows specific principles.

Imagination

Imagination in Romantic term is considered as an individual, creative, original faculty, (a personal quality/ability). Through imagination a poet can go beyond the sensorial reality and can get in touch with the truth. ( Plato thought that the sensorial experience is not the reality, so you have to go beyond reality to find the truth). Imagination is related with God (for many Romantics) and with Nature (for poets like Wordsworth) which becomes a primary poetic subject and men's relationship with it.

In Neoclassicism the theory of poetry was based on a mimetic conception of imagination art, so poets, imitates nature faithfully (it is a model).
These precepts which the mind produces realty, was based on two associations of ideas: memory and fancy. Through memory the association of ideas has the same order of time and place, while through fancy the association of ideas has a new order of time and place.
The Romantics substituted the organic idea for the mechanistic idea: art doesn't imitate what realty offers, but it recreates reality according by a subjective sensibility/perception/vision.

The Romantic Age was a period of great landscape painting. Until the 18th century, landscape painting was seen as a minor form of art: it was painted as a background, a visual record of place. Romanticism changed this view by focusing attention on the correspondence between the moods of nature and man. The style of landscape painting was set by the French Poussin and Lorrain in 17th century, and it was followed by Turner and Constable in 19th century.
[Turner contributed the new appreciation of landscape painting with his depiction of atmospheric conditions and his tragic vision of the vanity of human effort in the face of the frightening power of nature. His style in painting anticipate late 19th century French Impressionism. Constable was the greatest painter of skies, his innovative technique was not very popular with contemporary critics. Later French Impressionism were much influenced by his idea about observing the effects of nature.]

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Romanticism is a cultural movement which took place throughout Europe between 1770 and 1848. It started in Germany between 1770 and 1785 with the "Sturm und Drang" movement which criticized classicism and supported a modern, 'romantic' style. It revaluated the irrational and individual experience.

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Romanticism (or the Romantic era/ Period) was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1840. Partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography,education and the natural sciences. Its effect on politics was considerable, and complex; while for much of the peak Romantic period it was associated with liberalism and radicalism, in the long term its effect on the growth of nationalism was probably more significant.

The movement validated strong emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe-especially that which is experienced in confronting the sublimity of untamed nature and its picturesque qualities, both new aesthetic categories. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, made spontaneity a desirable characteristic (as in the musical impromptu), and argued for a "natural" epistemology of human activities as conditioned by nature in the form of language and customary usage. Romanticism reached beyond the rational and Classicist ideal models to elevate a revived medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl, and industrialism, and it also attempted to embrace the exotic, unfamiliar, and distant in modes more authentic than Rococo chinoiserie, harnessing the power of the imagination to envision and to escape.

Although the movement was rooted in the German Sturm und Drang movement, which prized intuition and emotion over Enlightenment rationalism, the ideologies and events of the French Revolution laid the background from which both Romanticism and the Counter-Enlightenment emerged. The confines of the Industrial Revolution also had their influence on Romanticism, which was in part an escape from modern realities; indeed, in the second half of the 19th century, "Realism" was offered as a polarized opposite to Romanticism.Romanticism elevated the achievements of what it perceived as heroic individualists and artists, whose pioneering examples would elevate society. It also legitimized the individual imagination as a critical authority, which permitted freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas.

Washington Irving was an American author who composed a collection of stories that became The Sketch Book (1819), which included "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." After serving as a US ambassador, he turned out a succession of historical and biographical works. Irving advocated for writing as a legitimate career, and argued for laws to protect writers from copyright infringement.

Perhaps best known for his short stories "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle," Washington Irving was born on April 3, 1783 in New York City, New York, USA. He was one of eleven children born to Scottish-English immigrant parents, William Irving, Sr. and Sarah. He was named Washington after the hero of the American revolution (which had just ended),George Washington, and attended the first presidential inauguration of his namesake in 1789.

Washington Irving was educated privately, studied law, and began to write essays for periodicals. He travelled in France and Italy (1804-6), wrote whimsical journals and letters, then returned to New York City to practice law -- though by his own admission, he was not a good student, and in 1806, he barely passed the bar. He and his brother William Irving and James Kirke Paulding wrote the Salamagundi papers (1807-8), a collection of humorous essays. He first became more widely known for his comic work, A History of New York (1809), written under the name of "Diedrich Knickerbocker."

In 1815 Irving went to England to work for his brothers' business, and when that failed he composed a collection of stories and essays that became The Sketch Book, published under the name "Geoffrey Crayon" (1819-20), which included 'Rip Van Winkle' and 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow'. In 1822 he went to the Continent, living in Germany and France for several years, and was then in Spain (1826) and became attache at the US embassy in Madrid. While in Spain he researched for his biography of Christopher Columbus(1828) and his works on Granada (1829) and the Alhambra (1832).

He was secretary of the US legation in London (1829-32), and later returned to Spain as the US ambassador (1842-6), but he spent most of the rest of his life at his estate, 'Sunnyside', near Tarrytown, NY, turning out a succession of mainly historical and biographical works, including a five-volume life of George Washington. Although he became a best-selling author, he never really fully developed as a literary talent, he has retained his reputation as the first American man of letters. Irving also advocated for writing as a legitimate career, and argued for stronger laws to protect writers from copyright infringement.

Bryant was born on November 3, 1794, in a log cabin near Cummington, Massachusetts; the home of his birth is today marked with a plaque. He was the second son of Peter Bryant, a doctor and later a state legislator, and Sarah Snell. His maternal ancestry traces back to passengers on the Mayflower; his father's, to colonists who arrived about a dozen years later.

Bryant and his family moved to a new home when he was two years old. The William Cullen Bryant Homestead, his boyhood home, is now a museum. After just two years at Williams College, he studied law in Worthington and Bridgewater in Massachusetts, and he was admitted to the bar in 1815. He then began practicing law in nearby Plainfield, walking the seven miles from Cummington every day. On one of these walks, in December 1815, he noticed a single bird flying on the horizon; the sight moved him enough to write "To a Waterfowl".

Bryant developed an interest in poetry early in life. Under his father's tutelage, he emulated Alexander Pope and other Neo-Classic British poets. The Embargo, a savage attack on President Thomas Jefferson published in 1808, reflected Dr. Bryant's Federalist political views. The first edition quickly sold out-partly because of the publicity earned by the poet's young age-and a second, expanded edition, which included Bryant's translation of Classical verse, was printed. The youth wrote little poetry while preparing to enter Williams College as a sophomore, but upon leaving Williams after a single year and then beginning to read law, he regenerated his passion for poetry through encounter with the English pre-Romantics and, particularly, William Wordsworth.

The Fireside poets (also called the "schoolroom" or "household" poets) were the first group of American poets to rival British poets in popularity in either country. Today their verse may seem more Victorian in sensibility than romantic, perhaps overly sentimental or moralizing in tone, but as a group they are notable for their scholarship, political sensibilities, and the resilience of their lines and themes. (Most schoolchildren can recite a line or two from "Paul Revere's Ride" or The Song of Hiawatha.)

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes, James Russell Lowell, and William Cullen Bryant are the poets most commonly grouped together under this heading. In general, these poets preferred conventional forms over experimentation, and this attention to rhyme and strict metrical cadences made their work popular for memorization and recitation in classrooms and homes. They are most remembered for their longer narrative poems (Longfellow's Evangeline and Hiawatha, Whittier's Snow-bound) that frequently used American legends and scenes of American home life and contemporary politics (as in Holmes's "Old Ironsides" and Lowell's anti-slavery poems) as their subject matter.

At the peak of his career, Longfellow's popularity rivaled Tennyson's in England as well as in America, and he was a noted translator and scholar in several languages--in fact, he was the first American poet to be honored with a bust in Westminster Abbey's Poet's Corner. Hiawatha itself draws not only on Native American languages for its rhythmic underpinning, but also echoes the Kalevala, a Finnish epic. Lowell and Whittier, both outspoken liberals and abolitionists, were known for their journalism and work with the fledgling Atlantic Monthly. They did not hesitate to address issues that were divisive and highly charged in their day, and in fact used the sentimental tone in their poems to encourage their audience to consider these issues in less abstract and more personal terms.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (February 27, 1807 - March 24, 1882) was an American poet and educator whose works include "Paul Revere's Ride", The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy and was one of the five Fireside Poets.

Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, then part of Massachusetts, and studied at Bowdoin College. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later, at Harvard College. His first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night (1839) and Ballads and Other Poems(1841). Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854 to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in a former headquarters of George Washington. His first wife, Mary Potter, died in 1835 after a miscarriage. His second wife, Frances Appleton, died in 1861 after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire. After her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on his translation. He died in 1882.

Longfellow wrote predominantly lyric poems, known for their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology and legend. He became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas. He has been criticized, however, for imitating European styles and writing specifically for the masses.

Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the 1830s and 1840s in the New England region of the United States as a protest to the general state of culture and society, and in particular, the state of intellectualism at Harvard University and the doctrine of the Unitarian church taught at Harvard Divinity School. Among the transcendentalists' core beliefs was the inherent goodness of both man and nature. Transcendentalists believed that society and its institutions - particularly organized religion and political parties - ultimately corrupted the purity of the individual. They had faith that man is at his best when truly "self-reliant" and independent. It is only from such real individuals that true community could be formed.

Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803 - April 27, 1882) American essayist, philosopher and poet who influenced the likes of Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson. Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr proclaimed Emerson's first major work, Nature, as America's "Intellectual Declaration of Independence" and it is very true that the uniqueness and vitality of Emerson's thought motivated much of the development of American intellectual life which places emphasis on optimism and individuality. Emerson had no designs to be a philosopher but through his works he drew together Eastern thought championing unity and the divine nature of the spiritual inner self with the continental metaphysics of material existence including Hegel, Saint Augustine, Sir Francis Bacon and Coleridge among others. He felt that there was a presence of dialectic in the world between good and evil and that it is each person's individual goal to break free from this to heighten their inner self. This view of Emerson's was the budding of the American Transcendentalist movement.

Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1803. His father was a Unitarian minister who died when young Emerson was only eight. Emerson began keeping journals at a young age, these journals would in turn provide him with a wealth of material for his later works. He entered Harvard College after studying classics at Boston Latin School, and graduated in 1821 continuing to the Divinity School there in 1825. At the time, American academics were undergoing controversy as translations of Hindu and Buddhist poetry were making the rounds as well as works from German critics. This controversy can be seen to be of much influence on Emerson as his thought developed through his later works. In 1829 he married Ellen Louisa Tucker and was ordained minister in the Second Church in Boston. Emerson continued to question Christian faith and in 1832 he resigned his post. The death of Ellen Louisa a few years after their marriage also influenced his religious beliefs and most likely influenced this decision as well. He moved to Concord, Massachusetts and spent years travelling and studying. It was in Paris at a botanical exhibition that Emerson found a calling as a naturalist and when he returned to the United States he took part in lecturing as a part of the lyceum movement. He also married his second wife, Lydia Jackson in 1835 with whom he would have four children.

The following year Emerson published Nature (1836) which speaks of nature as inspiration and source of humanity's fulfillment. He writes in the introduction:
Undoubtedly we have no questions to ask which are unanswerable. We must trust the perfection of the creation so far, as to believe that whatever curiosity the order of things has awakened in our minds, the order of things can satisfy. Every man's condition is a solution in hieroglyphic to those inquiries he would put. He acts it as life, before he apprehends it as truth. In like manner, nature is already, in its forms and tendencies, describing its own design. Let us interrogate the great apparition, that shines so peacefully around us. Let us inquire, to what end is nature?

All science has one aim, namely, to find a theory of nature. We have theories of races and of functions, but scarcely yet a remote approach to an idea of creation. We are now so far from the road to truth, that religious teachers dispute and hate each other, and speculative men are esteemed unsound and frivolous. But to a sound judgment, the most abstract truth is the most practical. Whenever a true theory appears, it will be its own evidence. Its test is, that it will explain all phenomena. Now many are thought not only unexplained but inexplicable; as language, sleep, madness, dreams, beasts, sex.
Emerson continued to give speeches along with beginning to gain notoriety as an essayist. A couple notable ones in the period of the late 1830s and into the 40s attacked dependence on continental thought, "The American Scholar" and he created even more controversy with his "Divinity School Address." In this address given in 1838 he renounces traditional Christianity with rhetorical blows like, "Historical Christianity has fallen into the error that corrupts all attempts to communicate religion. As it appears to us, and as it has appeared for ages, it is not the doctrine of the soul, but an exaggeration of the personal, the positive, the ritual. It has dwelt, it dwells, with noxious exaggeration about the person of Jesus. The soul knows no persons. It invites every man to expand to the full circle of the universe, and will have no preferences but those of spontaneous love." It can easily be seen how terribly controversial this could be taken at a divinity school, and it very much was. But this address also laid out Emerson's developing Transcendentalist philosophy, "That is always best which gives me to myself. The sublime is excited in me by the great stoical doctrine, Obey thyself. That which shows God in me, fortifies me."

The Gothic begins with later-eighteenth-century writers' turn to the past; in the context of the Romantic period, the Gothic is, then, a type of imitation medievalism. When it was launched in the later eighteenth century, The Gothic featured accounts of terrifying experiences in ancient castles - experiences connected with subterranean dungeons, secret passageways, flickering lamps, screams, moans, bloody hands, ghosts, graveyards, and the rest. By extension, it came to designate the macabre, mysterious, fantastic, supernatural, and, again, the terrifying, especially the pleasurably terrifying, in literature more generally. Closer to the present, one sees the Gothic pervading Victorian literature (for example, in the novels of Dickens and the Brontës), American fiction (from Poe and Hawthorne through Faulkner), and of course the films, television, and videos of our own (in this respect, not-so-modern) culture.

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849), American poet, critic, short story writer, and author of such macabre works as "The Fall of the House of Usher" (1840).

Poe's psychologically thrilling tales examining the depths of the human psyche earned him much fame during his lifetime and after his death. His own life was marred by tragedy at an early age (his parents died before he was three years old) and in his oft-quoted works we can see his darkly passionate sensibilities-a tormented and sometimes neurotic obsession with death and violence and overall appreciation for the beautiful yet tragic mysteries of life. They who dream by day are cognizant of many things which escape those who dream only by night.-"Elonora". Poe's literary criticisms of poetry and the art of short story writing include "The Poetic Principal" and "The Philosophy of Composition". There have been numerous collections of his works published and many of them have been inspiration for popular television and film adaptations including "The Tell-Tale Heart", "The Black Cat", and "The Raven". He has been the subject of numerous biographers and has significantly influenced many other authors even into the 21st Century.

Edgar Poe was born on 19 January 1809 in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of actors Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins (1787-1811) and David Poe (1784-1810). He had a brother named William Henry (1807-1831) and sister Rosalie (1811-1874). After the death of his parents Edgar was taken in by Frances (d.1829) and John Allan (d.1834), a wealthy merchant in Richmond, Virginia.

Young Edgar traveled with the Allans to England in 1815 and attended school in Chelsea. In 1820 he was back in Richmond where he attended the University of Virginia and studied Latin and poetry and also loved to swim and act. While in school he became estranged from his foster father after accumulating gambling debts. Unable to pay them or support himself, Poe left school and enlisted in the United States Army where he served for two years. He had been writing poetry for some time and in 1827 "Dreams"- Oh! that my young life were a lasting dream! first appeared in the Baltimore North American, the same year his first book Tamerlane and Other Poems was published, at his own expense.

Now living in their last place of residence, a cottage in the Fordham section of the Bronx in New York City, Virginia died in 1847. Poe turned to alcohol more frequently and was purportedly displaying increasingly erratic behavior. A year later he became engaged to his teenage sweetheart from Richmond, Elmira Royster. In 1849 he embarked on a tour of poetry readings and lecturing, hoping to raise funds so he could start his magazine The Stylus.After Virginia and Edgar married in Richmond in 1836 they moved to New York City. Poe's only completed novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym was published in 1838. The story starts as an adventure for a young Nantucket stowaway on a whaling ship but soon turns into a chilling tale of mutiny, murder, and cannibalism.

There are conflicting accounts surrounding the last days of Edgar Allan Poe and the cause of his death. Some say he died from alcoholism, some claim he was murdered, and various diseases have also been attributed. Most say he was found unconscious in the street and admitted to the Washington College Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. He died soon after, on 7 October 1849, and was buried unceremoniously in an unmarked grave in the Old Westminster Burying Ground of Baltimore. On this original site now stands a stone with a carving of a raven and the inscription;

In a dedication ceremony in 1875, Poe's remains were reinterred with his aunt Maria Clemm's in the Poe Memorial Grave which stands in the cemetery's corner at Fayette and Greene Streets. A bas-relief bust of Poe adorns the marble and granite monument which is simply inscribed with the birth and death dates of Poe (although his birth date is wrong), Maria, and Virginia who, in 1885, was reinterred with her husband and mother. Letters from Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Lord Alfred Tennyson were read, and Walt Whitman attended. The mysterious Poe Toaster visits Poe's grave on his birthdays and leaves a partially filled bottle of cognac and three roses.

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The Romantic Period (1800-1840) - American Literature: The Dream

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Even in the earliest stages of colonization, the Pilgrims, who colonized Jamestown,depicted a desire to live in a sovreign, yet modest society where success was based upon how hard one worked. These fundamental ideals are still evident today as America launches into the 21st century.

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