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Relations between participants influence a number of key pragmatic, and in turn, language choices in a text. [...] we are the resources of appraisal (Martin 2002, Hood 2004, 2010, Martin and White 2005, Martin and Rose 2007) to negotiate relationships, to tell people how we feel about things and how we feel about other people, that is, to tell people what our attitude is to people, their feelings and things. Attitude, as Droga and Humphrey (2002: 75) explain, 'refers to resources used to make either a positive or negative evaluation of phenomena', that is, the way in which writers and speakers evaluatively position themselves in relation to others, what they believe, how they feel, and what they know (Hood, 2004).
Appraisal theory divides Attitude into three main categories: affect, judgement, and appreciation (White, 1998). These categories are interconnected in that 'they are motivated at some level with affectual response' (White, 1996: 108). Affect, judgement and appreciation may be expressed wither explicitly thorugh the use of individual lexical items or implicitly through the process of implicature.
[...]
Attitude can also be graduated in terms of force. This can be done in two ways; meanings can be graded in terms of intensity, and they can be quantified.

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Theme is defined as ‘the element which serves as the point of departure of the message’ (Halliday 1985:38).
The rheme is what the clause has to say about the theme – what it has to say about genre.
Interpersonal theme refers to an item that comes before the rheme which indicates the relationship between participants in the text, or the position or point of view that is being taken in the clause. An interpersonal theme can express probability (e.g. perhaps), usuality (e.g. sometimes), etcetera.
When there is more than a single thematic element in the Theme component of the clause, we talk about multiple theme.
For example:
Because (textual theme), of course(interpersonal theme), the dating game (topical theme) is a clumsy dance of blunders and misunderstandings (rheme).

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Elements used to express engagement:
- Attribution: Referring to the words, views or thoughts of another person or source, in order to evaluate it as relevant.

- Modality: Used to express certainty, usuality or probability to convey their position on the attributed material (e.g. always, normally, possibly).

- Disclaimer: Reject the outside source of the material to replace it with something else.

- Proclaimer: Support the material and presentit in a way that it is difficult to be against it.

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Grammar from a discourse perspective - This and that

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Grammar from a discourse perspective - This and that

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A number of linguistic items such as it , this and that have been shown to have quite different patterns of use when looked at from a discourse, rather than a sentence perspective.

It often signals reference to a continuing or ongoing topic in a
text.
This often indicates the raising of a new topic or a new focus in the current topic.
That has a distancing or marginalizing function in a text.

In extended texts, this and that function in ways other than
just pointing to something.

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It refers to the ratio of content words (nouns, verbs) to grammatical words (prepositions, pronouns and articles) within a clause. Written discourse tends to be more lexically dense than spoken discourse.

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Differences between spoken and written discourse: a continuum

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Differences between spoken and written discourse: a continuum

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There is not a simple, clear-cut distinction between spoken and written discourse, its differences are rather seen as a continuum or a scale.

Examples:
-Interpersonal involvement: may range from casual conversations to written public notices.

-Implicitness and/or explicitness: spoken texts may be more implicit, leaving a lot unsaid, than written texts.

-Fragmentation: from casual conversations or online chat rooms to academic lectures.

There are no absolute differences between spoken and written language in terms of the predominance of certain characteristics. Spoken and written texts with similar communicative function may share linguistic features (e.g. forms that are typically associated with spoken language may also occur in written language, such as in informal emails or text messages).

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The way in which information flows in a text. The theme of a clause may pick up or repeat a meaning from a previous theme or rheme.

Thematic progression may be presented in different ways.

CONSTANT THEME

A theme is repeated in the begging of the next clause.

Theme 1 → Rheme 1

↓

Theme 1 → Rheme 2

LINEAR THEME

When the subject matter in the rheme of one clause is taken up in the theme of a following clause.

Theme 1  → Rheme 1

↙

Theme 2     Rheme 2

MULTIPLE THEME/SPLIT RHEME

When information in a rheme may be picked up as a theme in different themes and rhemes throughout the text.

Theme 1 → Rheme 1

↓

Theme 2 → Rheme 2

↙                   ↘

Theme 3 →Rheme 3   Theme4→                        ↙                Rheme 4

Theme 5 → Rheme 5

Theme 6 → Rheme 6

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Nominalization occurs when actions and events are presented as nouns rather than as verbs. This phenomenon is called grammatical metaphor, where a language item is transferred from a more expected grammatical class to another. As we know, a noun encodes things and a verb encodes happenings, but nouns can be extended to cover actions, events and states. The expression of meaning, in this way, is metaphorical in relation to a different way of expressing the same meaning which is more congruent.

Example:

Ilsa: Can I tell you a story, Rick?

Rick: Has it got a wow finish?

Ilsa: I don’t know the finish yet.

Rick: Well, go on, tell it. Maybe one will come to you as you go along.

In the above extract, finish is an example of grammatical metaphor. It is an event that would be normally expressed as a verb but, here, is expressed as a noun.

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Engagement is the way in which people intertexually position what they say. Meanings, thus, may be expressed as
contentious or problematic, unproblematic and taken for granted, or somewhere in between (White 1998 ).
The main ways in which engagement is expressed is through attribution ,
modality and disclaimers and proclaimers. Attribution is where someone refers to the words, views or thoughts of another source or person. By doing this they are evaluating (although not necessarily endorsing) the mate-
rial as being relevant.
The following example from the review of He’s Just Not That into You contains an exam-
ple of non-endorsement (‘pointed out’) and endorsement (‘agree’). ‘Old-fashioned’ is an
example of dis-endorsement where the writer evaluates the source material and separates
herself from its view. The source material here is textually integrated, that is, assimilated ,
rather than directly quoted, or inserted into the text. The source material is identified, sin-
gular and specific , rather than unidentified , generalized or plural (see White 2005 for fur-
ther discussion of source types).

Some critics have pointed out that He’s Just Not That into You’s advice to women to let men do all the running is similar to The Rules, which infuriated women with its old-fashioned insistence on passive, compliant, female behaviour. Jen Abydeera agrees. ‘It takes your power away and puts it all on the men’s’ side. And it reinforces old gender stereotypes. It’s OK for women to be proactive now, and I think that not only do men like it – they expect it.’ (Cooper 2005 : S38)

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Two elements that contribute to the texture of a text, to the focus and the flow of information: theme and rheme.
Theme is the starting point of a clause (what the clause is about). The theme introduces ‘information prominence’ into the clause.

Rheme is "remainder" of the clause (what the sentence has to say about the theme).

There is also other kinds of theme:
●The textual theme: Conjunctions such as and or but when they occur at the beginning of a clause are an example of it.
●Interpersonal theme: Refers to an item that comes before the rheme which indicates the relationship between participants in the text, or the position/point of view that is being taken in the clause. It can express probability, usuality, typicality,  obviousness, opinion, admission, persuasion, entreaty, presumption, desirability or prediction.
●Multiple theme: It occurs when there is more than a single thematic element in the Theme component of the clause.

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Attitude and Grammar (Appraisal theory-Attitude: affect, judgment and appreciation)

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Attitude and Grammar (Appraisal theory-Attitude: affect, judgment and appreciation)

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When interacting, people are constantly using the resources of appraisal, that is, their attitude (positive or negative) towards others, their feelings and things; though it may not always be clear. Attitude is divided by the appraisal theory into three main categories that are interconnected: affect, judgment and appreciation. These may be expressed explicitly through the use of individual lexical items. For example:
“… Amazon forest-eater and Covid-denier Jair Bolsonaro…”;

Or may be implied through the process of implicature [“The interference a hearer makes about a speaker’s intended meaning that arises from their use of literal meaning of what the speaker said, the conversational principle and its maxims” (Paltridge 2012: 50-51). “It is generated by the speaker and may (or may not) be understood by the hearer”. (Paltridge 2012: 51)].

For example:
“But there was too much to do in February for the virus to be accommodated in the ruling party’s timetable.”

As already mentioned, the attitude may not be that clear. Hence, it may happen that within the three main categories that builds the attitude up, one of these might stand out in a text than another and be characteristic of a particular genre.

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Hasan (1989b) introduces the concept of unity of texture as a crucial attribute of a text to delve into its analysis. It refers to the way in which patterns of cohesion create both cohesive and coherent texts. Thus, texture comes from language items whose meanings are tied in a semantic relationship to each other.

Therefore, the basis for cohesion and texture is semantic. It is both explicit and implicit.

For instance:
A reader can use his/her knowledge of the text and identify that the personal pronoun 'it' in the following example refers to 'gravy'.

Waiter: Where would you like it, sir?
Customer: Just a little on the meat, thanks.

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With this process, an essential element is omitted from the text and can be recovered by referencing to a preceding element in the text.
The omitted element can be a noun, a noun group, a verb, a verbal group or a clause.

Example:
Announcer: They usually are silly, aren’t they?
Caller: Yeah [they usually are silly] and [I want to say] that I love her very much and [I want to say that] we’ll have to stick it through, you know?

In this example, the omitted elements are not necessary for understanding the caller and also, it would be unnatural to include them.

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Conjunction refers to words, such as ‘and’, ‘however’, ‘finally’ and ‘in conclusion’ that join phrases, clauses or sections of a text in such a way that they express the ‘logical- semantic’ relationship between them. They are a further important part of discourse knowledge that both speakers and writers, and readers and listeners, draw on as they both produce and interpret spoken and written discourse.
Additive conjunctions include ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘moreover’, ‘in addition’ and ‘alternatively’. That is, they draw on the notion of ‘addition’ in both a positive and a contrastive sense.
Comparative conjunctions include ‘whereas’, ‘but’, ‘on the other hand’, ‘likewise’ and
‘equally’, drawing on the notion of comparison in both a positive and negative sense.
Temporal conjunctions include items such as ‘while’, ‘when’, ‘after’, ‘meanwhile’, then’,
‘finally’ and ‘at the same time’. Consequential conjunctions include items such as ‘so that’,
‘because’, ‘since’, ‘thus’, ‘if’, ‘therefore’, ‘in conclusion’ and ‘in this way'

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Collocation describes associations between vocabulary items which have a tendency to co-occur such as combinations of adjectives and nouns. Collocation is not something that is restricted to a single text but is part of textual knowledge in general.
Examples: we can say ‘real-estate agent’ but not ‘real-estate
fruit and vegetables’.
We can say ‘fresh fruit and vegetables’ but not (with the same meaning) ‘fresh real-estate agents’.

A further kind of relationship, related to collocation, is expectancy relations. This occurs where there is a predictable relationship between a verb and either the subject or the object of the verb. Expectancy can also refer to the relationship between individual lexical items and the composite nominal group that they form.
Examples: love/book, waste/time, ask/guy, dating/sites, art/classes, online/dating.

Finally, lexical bundles are defined as three or more words that occur in
fixed or semi-fixed combinations that are repeated without change for a set number of
times in a particular corpus. They occur in genres such as university textbooks, academic essays, theses and dissertations, research articles and spoken genres such as academic lectures and conversation. They need to occur widely in the texts that make up the corpus, rather than just be characteristic of a particular speaker or writer.
They can serve a multitude of functions in a discourse:

-Express certainty, possibility and probability: I don’t
know if / I don’t think so.

-Express speaker attitude towards actions: I want
you to / I’m not going to.

-Express desire:  I don’t want to.

-Express obligation: you have to
do.

-Express intention: what we’re going to.

-To organize the discourse: What I want to do / If we look at.

-To single out something important: something like that / as shown in 4.4.

-To introduce a topic: take
a look at.

-To reference a time or place: the beginning of the / at the end of.

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Grammatical intricacy and lexical density

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Grammatical intricacy and lexical density

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Grammatical intricacy: relationship between clauses in spoken discourse that can be much more spread out and with more complex relations between them.

Lexical density: ratio of content words to grammatical words (prepositions, pronouns, articles).

In spoken discourse content words tend to be be spread out over a number of clauses.
In written discourse content words tend to be more tightly packed into individual clauses

Content words in italics:
Written discourse: If Casablanca defined true love for a generation of incurable romantics, it also defined the aesthetic possibilities of cinema for a generation of film lovers.

Spoken discourse: Who do you think you are, pushing me around? What a fool I was to fall for a man like you.

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A substitute form is used for another language item, phrase or group.

-The substitution can be representing a noun:
"I like black shoes. Brown ones are really nice too."

-The substitution can be representing a verb:
“I know that walking is good for my health. So that’s what I do every morning.”

-The substitution can also be representing a clause:
A: “I really love those chocolates you brought from Bariloche.”
B: “You can have some!”

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Lexical cohesion refers to relationships in meaning between lexical items in a text and content words and the relationship between them. The main kinds are:

Repetition: refers to words that are repeated in a text. Ex: Matthew and Sarah are both leaving tomorrow but Matt is leaving earlier.
Synonym: refers to words which are similar in meaning. Ex: Can you check on the kids, please?
The children are okay.
Antonymy: describes opposite or contrastive meanings. Ex: Anna loves reading while Tom hates books.
Hyponymy: refers to classes of lexical items where the relationship between them is one of "general-specific". Ex: Of all mammals, horses are my favourite.
Meronomy: lexical items are in a "whole to part" relationship with each other. Ex: Brie and Cambembert are my favourite types of cheese.

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Exophoric: It refers to an item outside the text, to the situation in which the text occurs. The item(s) can be identified by the speakers that are involved in the conversation because they share some knowledge about it. Ex: A: They’re late, again. B: They’d better get here soon, or it’ll get cold. (“They” can be a friend they are expecting, “it” can be the dinner they are going to eat together.)

Homophoric: It refers to a reference from outside the text. The item can be identified by cultural knowledge rather than the specific context of the text. Ex: Did you see the eclipse of the moon last night? (there is only one moon that would make sense to the listener: the Earth’s moon.)

Comparative and bridging reference:

Comparative: the item does not have an anaphoric or a cataphoric reference. The item with which it is being compared has already been mentioned. Ex: When it was published late last year, Oprah sang its praises, tearful women called it ‘the Bible’, and others declared it had changed their lives forever.

Bridging: the reference of the item is something derived from the text or situation. “[It is] something that has to be presumed indirectly” (Paltridge 2012: 117). Ex: Stuart agrees. ‘I was hopeless’, he says with a laugh. ‘I’m just not one of those blokes that finds approaching women easy.’ (Cooper 2005 : S38)

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Agustina Alessandrello

Reference refers to where the identity of an item can be retrieved from either within or outside the text.  They can be anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric and homophoric references.

Anaphoric reference: It is when a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase used earlier in the text. Ex: All my friends have read He’s Just That Not Into You. I must read it.

Cataphoric reference: It describes an item which refers forward to another word or phrase which is used later in the text. Ex: It seems that everyone has read that self-help book: He’s Just That Not Into You.