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The wildfire in northern Evia near Limni Lake on July 2016
The fire has caused damage to the environment, farms as well as the tourism and economy of Evia.

The fire started near the village of Limni (lake) in the surrounding pine forests and burned through some 3,000 hectares on land for three days, while strong winds in the region made it difficult for the firefighting efforts, as over 140 firefighters, 58 vehicles, 74 land units, 30 soldiers, 27 water tanks and 7 bulldozers along with firefighting brigades from the whole region were needed to extinguish the blaze.

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I couldn't find such an image in jpeg version and uploaded a word document which includes 2 photos about road fragmentation

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Impacts of roads on ecological conditions

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Wildfires near the village of Kontodespoti on August 2018

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Signs of Degradation in Evia/Municipality of Messapia

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Signs of Degradation in Evia/Municipality of Messapia

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Bibliography

Convention on Biological Diversity,Greece. (n.d.). https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int.

Filotis Data Base for Greek Nature. (2018). https://filotis.itia.ntua.gr/biotopes/c/GR2420001/. Retrieved from https://filotis.itia.ntua.gr.

G i a n n a k o p o u l o , C., K o s t o p o u l o u , E., V a r o t s o s , K., & P l i t h a r a s , A. (2009, 09). Climate change impacts in Greece in the near future. Retrieved from www.wwf.com.

Kollarou, V., Lantitsou, K., Athanasopoulou, A., & Kollaros, G. (2013, June 24-28). Impact of roads on ecological conditions. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Environmental Management, Engineering, Planning and Economics (CEMEPE) and SECOTOX Conference. Mykonos island.

Valavanidis , A., & Vlachogianni , T. (2010). The Most Important and Urgent Environmental Problems in Greece in the Last Decade (2000-2010).

Economou, M., Megremi, I., Atsarou, C., Theodoratou , C., & Vasilatos , C. (2013 , March 20). Spatial Evolution of the Chromium Contamination in Soils from the Assopos to Thiva Basin and C. Evia (Greece) and Potential Source(s): Anthropogenic versus Natural Processes. Spatial Evolution of the Chromium Contamination in Soils from the Assopos to Thiva Basin and C. Evia (Greece) and Potential Source(s): Anthropogenic versus Natural Processes, pp. 140-158.

Economou-Eliopoulos, M., Frei, R., & Megremi, I. (2016). Potential leaching of Cr(VI) from Laterite mines and residues of metallurgical products (red mug and slag)An integrated approach. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 40-49.

European Commision. (2017). Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern. European Union.

Giannakopoulos, C., Kostopoulou , E., Varotsos , K. V., & Tziotziou , K. (2011, April). An integrated assessment of climate change impacts for Greece in the near future. Reg Environ Change.

Pafilis, P. (2010). A brief history of Greek herpetology. Bonn zoological Bulletin, pp. pp. 329–34.

Salvati, L., Ferrara, A., & Carlucci, M. (2014). Understanding the Spatial Distribution of Forest Fires in a Growing Urban Region: Socioeconomic Indicators Tell You More. http://www.scirp.org/journal/me, 211-218 .

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Beach where the Caretta caretta lays its eggs. There is a hotel and  lot of tourists!

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The site threatened by project for new mega-prison in Brussels.  Common Lizards are found here.

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Plateau de la Foresterie in Brussels, threatened by real estate development

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Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

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Lithobates catesbeianus, an invasive species in Crete

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Parnitha wildfire in 2007
Credits: neakriti news

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Protest against Pikrodafni stream obstruction
Credits: athina984 radio station

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Protest against beach sand mining at nesting place of Dermochelys coriacea, Braamspunt (Suriname)
Photo credits: GFC News

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Illegal gold mining activities at Brownsberg Nature Park (Suriname)
Photo credits: WWF

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An underpass for amphibians to avoid road kill (Italy)
Credits: LIFE-TIB project

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Bad social media posting and unjustified snake killing (Italy)

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Two individuals of Natrix natrix killed on a road during the mating season (Italy)
Photo credits: Leonardo Mantovani

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Anti-crossing barriers and underpass for amphibians on a road. These solution can avoid the deaths of herpetofauna crossing roads.
Photo credit: Carlo Scoccianti

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Pond slider - Trachemys scripta (4)

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The role of amphibian and reptile species is highly underestimated. Various studies have already proven their importance and key roles in ecosystems and in human health. However, all this seems to no avail, since nearly one-fifth of world's reptiles and one-third of the world's amphibians are facing the risk of extinction. The reasons behind this global decline are all related to human impact and anthropogenic stressors, which are dramatically changing the environment and threatening biodiversity. The report acknowledges major factors negatively affecting herpetofauna in five different countries, namely Greece, Italy, Croatia, Belgium, and Suriname. These countries have joined together to analyse and identify the different threats to their local herpetofauna. Although they differ in size, climate and species diversity, there are clearly abundant similarities among all five countries. By comparing the countries' herpetofaunas, their habitats and human influences, common threats to amphibian and reptile populations as a result of climate change, invasive species, illegal activities, public apathy, indifference or ignorance may be identified. One thing is certain, the biggest contributor to these threats is human activity.

A major concern lies in the indifference of governments, which prefer short term profits over long term conservation of herpetofauna. Differences can be found among countries: Suriname’s herpetofauna is mainly threatened by deforestation, gold mining and mercury pollution of water, Attica, Evia and Crete’s by urbanisation and tourism, Italy by habitat fragmentation and alteration, Belgium by the impact of real estate speculation in protected areas, Croatia by bad management and lack of awareness. One possible solution is greater citizen involvement, of potentially major importance in herpeto conservation. Therefore, it is fundamental to involve the public in citizen science and educational projects, to raise awareness on the importance of these animals and on threats menacing their survival, in order to motivate the public to demand green measures, proper policy and legislation from their governments and support and participation in conservation actions.

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[1] Rondinini, C., Battistoni, A., Peronace, V., & Teofili, C. (2013). Lista rossa IUCN dei vertebrati italiani. Comitato Italiano IUCN e Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, Roma, 56. Available at: https://www.nationalredlist.org/files/2014/09/2013-italian-vertebratesl.pdf

[2] Salvidio, S., Andreone, F., Angelini, J., Bassu, L., Bennati, R., Bernini, F., et al. (2011). Assessing the status of amphibian breeding sites in Italy: a national survey. Acta Herpetologica 6(1): 119-126.

[3] Genovesi, P., Angelini, P., Bianchi, E., Dupré, E., Ercole, S., Giacanelli, V et al. (2014). Specie e habitat di interesse comunitario in Italia: distribuzione, stato di conservazione e trend. ISPRA, Serie Rapporti, 194, 2014. Available at: https://www.minambiente.it/sites/default/files/archivio/allegati/rete_natura_2000/rapporto_194_2014.pdf

[4] AA.VV. (2015) LIFE TIB Un corridoio ecologico tra Pianura Padana e Alpi. Available at: http://www.lifetib.it/DOWNLOAD/Libro2/TIB_VOLUME.pdf

[5] Heatwole, H., & Wilkinson, J. W. (2015). Amphibian Biology, Volume 11, Part 4: Status of Conservation and Decline of Amphibians: Eastern Hemisphere: Southern Europe & Turkey (Vol. 11). Pelagic Publishing Ltd.

[6] Denoel, M., Dzukic, G., & Kalezic, M. L. (2005). Effects of widespread fish introductions on paedomorphic newts in Europe. Conservation Biology, 19(1), 162-170.

[7] D’Amen, M., & Bombi, P. (2009). Global warming and biodiversity: Evidence of climate-linked amphibian declines in Italy. Biological Conservation, 142(12), 3060-3067.

[8] Bogliani G. (2008). Habitat risicolo e fauna, pp. 236-253 In: Ferrero A. (ed.), Il riso. Bayer Crop Science, Bologna. Available at: https://www.colturaecultura.it/content/habitat-risicolo-e-fauna#

[9] Giuliano D., Rossi P., Luoni F., Celada C., Bogliani G. (2017). Biodiversity Action Plan per le aree risicole dell’Italia Nord-occidentale. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16342.55361. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323969032_Biodiversity_Action_Plan_per_le_aree_risicole_dell'Italia_Nord-occidentale

[10] http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-18-6247_en.htm

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Environmental, societal, industrial and other factors are threatening the herpetofauna of the world. These factors are taken into account by scientists to come up with solutions.

So, in this work, many factors are presented and analysed by comparing our HerpetoAreas.

Beginning with Suriname, governments are indifferent to herpetofauna species and their protection. Habitat destruction is on the rise caused by activities such as deforestation, gold mining and road construction. Water pollution (from mercury usage) is another problem, making it unsuitable for amphibians. Also, illegal hunting and fishing, sand extraction, excessive harvesting of species and eggs as well as invasive species conclude the main threats to Suriname.

Continuing with Attica and Crete (two prefectures of Greece), urbanisation (leading to elimination of natural areas) and littering appear as the main threats. Along with climate change, wildfires and illegal activities (poaching, arson) can be defined as the main problems, stemming from the indifference of the authorities in Attica. Cretan herpetofauna is also threatened from invasive species and overgrazing. Lastly, on the altar of tourism, sacrifices are made with easier access to vulnerable habitats or hotels disturbing C. caretta egg laying locations. These issues need to be dealt with if we wish the species in these prefectures to recover.
In Evia Island (located next to Attica) the dangers seem to be similar with the above mentioned
Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation especially due to agricultural intensification and urbanisation and human persecution are the main threats  to reptiles. As for Amphibians the main threat to this group is the loss and degradation of suitable breeding habitat mainly due to agricultural activities through excessive water withdrawal, water pollution by agrochemicals and mining.

In Italy, things are about the same. Habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss due to urbanisation and agriculture are considered the primary threats. Invasive species as vectors of pathogens can bring local populations into decline. Along with climate change, the pet trade, and public aversion towards snakes and reptiles complete the list of threats in Italy. Concerning Tuscany (a region in central Italy), habitat loss, alteration, fragmentation and degradation are probably the main threats to herpetofauna. As transformation, pollution, and alteration of watercourses threatens amphibian populations, urbanisation has completely destroyed some habitats. Invasive species are also a threat to native herpetofauna. Finally, climate change, particularly global warming, along with infectious diseases are causing major problems.

In Belgium, corruption and lobbying are threatening herpetofauna and wildlife in general. Real estate speculation is considered the number one threat and despite public opposition and scientific research proving the value of some areas in conserving biodiversity, not many things have changed.

As for Croatia, recent investigations showcase that bad management and lack of awareness (killing snakes on sight) are severely threatening herpetofauna. Illegal activities such as frog hunting for food are reducing their numbers. On the other hand, we have large scale threats. Urbanisation, intensive agriculture, roads and other significant changes in habitat structure all lead to loss and degradation of habitat quality. Reptiles and amphibians can't cope with these changes and most of them end up as roadkills. Water pollution and invasive species also threaten local species.

The similarities among the above HerpetoAreas are climate change (wildfires), invasive species, citizens’ apathy (indifference or ignorance), illegal activities (poaching, arson, hunting) and of course the main problem, the government’s apathy towards these problems (whether human-derived like urbanisation or natural events). Still, a few differences can be found, for example wildfires or the exotic pet trade are not considered serious threats to the herpetofauna in Belgium, while tourism is a problem mainly in Crete and wildfires are considered major threat in Evia.

To tackle the aforementioned issues, there are many options. Our vote is an important tool to bring about change in a political level because, as we see, governments have a crucial role in protecting the environment and its inhabitants. There is also a growing trend in the scientific community called “citizen science,” which attempts to educate citizens about various scientific concerns, such as conservation. Most citizens lack a scientific background and so believe they cannot contribute to dealing with these problems. Such programmes are essential as they encourage the public to be part of the change and do everything in their power to further knowledge through their own contributions. Lastly, the inclusion of environmental courses in school curricula with the aim of educating children and highlighting the significance of herpetofauna, will enable future generations to appreciate and protect these fascinating and enchanting, yet misunderstood, creatures.

Regarding the pictures and online media supporting our facts, we recommend to anyone interested to have a look at the References Column, where all links and sources are provided.

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What are the main aspects of your topic
(probably among your group’s HerpetoAreas)?

What are the current challenges concerning your topic (probably among your group’s HerpetoAreas)?

Which recommendations does your group provide?

What are your findings (probably among your group’s HerpetoAreas)? Are there similarities or differences among your HerpetoAreas?

Which pictures, figures or other online media improve your report?

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Parnitha Wildfire https://www.wwf.gr/news/1981-2007-2017-10

Mediterranean Ecosystems and Fire
Keeley, Jon & Bond, William & Bradstock, Ross & Pausas, J.G. & Rundel, Philip. (2011). Fire in Mediterranean Ecosystems; Ecology, Evolution and Management. Fire in Mediterranean Ecosystems: Ecology, Evolution and Management. 1-515. 10.1017/CBO9781139033091.

Protest to protect Attica streams http://www.ert.gr/eidiseis/evzoia/perivallon/sygkentrosi-politon-gia-tin-prostasia-ton-rematon-tis-attikis/

Poachers caught by the authorities https://www.newsbomb.gr/ellada/story/320954/mazi-me-ta-gaidoyrakia-meteferan-paranoma-kai-107-helones-pics

Sxinias wetland pollution https://www.tovima.gr/2018/09/21/society/maziki-thnisimotita-xelion-kai-allon-psarion-sto-ethniko-parko-sxinia-marathona/

Climate change in Greece https://www.bankofgreece.gr/BogDocumentEn/WWF_Climate_change_impacts_in_Greece_in_the_near_future.pdf

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The one undeniable common thread evident in all eight of our country reports is that human activities are entirely to blame for the downward spiral in herpetofauna populations. Manifested in different ways, whether through habitat loss from urbanisation or intensive agriculture, competition or disease from introduced exotic species, direct assaults such as hunting, wanton killing, or collection for the pet trade, habitat degradation from pollution and litter, fragmentation from road building, or of course climate change, one thing is blindingly clear - if we are to save our herpetofauna and other wildlife, we must radically and immediately change our way of doing things.
More than ever before we are daily made aware by the media of the multifarious threats to the Earth's biodiversity - few can honestly argue that they don't realise the urgency of the situation.  We are armed with countless studies and censuses giving evidence that should be fuelling public and private action. Millions of concerned citizens around the world demonstrate for the climate, sign petitions, or get involved in citizen science projects. People do care about nature. So, why aren't things getting better?
The answer seems to be a profound disconnect between informed public and scientific opinion and those in power responsible for public policy and legislation. The latter are motivated by short-term financial gain, winning votes and currying favour with powerful industrial and commercial lobbies.  In the end, no matter how much research we have or how much people care, things will only get worse unless we can curb these systemic problems at the public level. One interviewee summed it up pretty well - when asked, 'So, what can we do?', they replied, "VOTE DIFFERENTLY!" Vote for your local Green party, vote against the parties of the disastrous status quo. Show them that we insist on change, that we won't be duped any longer.
One example to show that political change can indeed be the driving force for environmental change, is a little story from Belgium. In October 2018 the national Green parties won landslide victories throughout the country, and mayors of many municipalities are now Green. The municipality of Ixelles in Brussels, which had so far been dominated by the traditional parties, now has a new Green mayor. Under the old parties there was a rash of catastrophic projects, destroying urban green spaces, cutting down trees, all for real estate and construction interests, and in blatant disregard of public opinion. The communal vegetable garden of Ernotte-Boondael was next on the chopping-block, due to be bulldozed and replaced by apartments. However, thanks to the new Green majority in Ixelles, this plan has been abandoned.
Another essential part of the formula for protecting herpetofauna is the continued development of citizen science projects and education in schools. Citizen science is an ever-growing trend at international, national and local level, where amateur naturalists and "ordinary people" contribute to nature conservation by submitting observations or helping in other ways, such as managing nature reserves, cleaning up litter, or leading nature walks.
The companion aspect of this should be greater education about nature and the environment in schools. More and more primary and secondary schools have dedicated classes about nature and biodiversity, or organise field trips. Obviously this should be encouraged and subsidised by national and local governments, since we have seen in many HerpetoAreas that ignorance and prejudice are root causes of herpetofauna decline.
Confronted with such overwhelming obstacles, it's easy to feel discouraged. But examples from around the world of local people working together to drive political and societal change in favor of nature protection give us reason to hope. Initiatives like this course, and the enthusiasm and knowlege shared by its students, should lead to concrete action to save herpetofauna and all our wildlife and wild places.

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Man and herpetofauna of the meditteranean islands
Corti C., Masseti M., Delfino M. & Pérez-Mellado (1999)
http://lacertilia.de/AS/Bibliografie/BIB_1783.pdf

Local extinction of Bombina pachypus Bonaparte, 1838 in three stations: a 17 years survey in pSCI “Poggi di Prata” (Southern Tuscany, Italy).
Mori E. & Giovani A. (2012)
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Emiliano_Mori/publication/230852391_Local_extinction_of_Bombina_pachypus_Bonaparte_1838_in_three_stations_A_17_years_survey_in_pSCI_Poggi_di_Prata_Southern_Tuscany_Italy/links/09e415055845bef5c8000000.pdf

Updating the distribution of the American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus (Anura: Ranidae) in Tuscany (Central Italy), with a note on predatory interactions with red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Decapoda: Cambaridae)
Vannini A., Cantini M., Tricarico E. & Inghilesi A.F. (2015)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/11250003.2015.1020348

Effectiveness of artificial amphibian breeding sites against non-native species in a public protected area in Tuscany, Italy
Bruni G. Ricciardi G. & Vannini A. (2016)
https://www.conservationevidence.com/reference/download/5561

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Press articles (in French):
Planned mega-prison on the Keelbeek site "Too big, too far?":
https://www.rtbf.be/info/belgique/detail_trop-grande-trop-loin-la-prison-de-haren?id=10091236
"The Auditor's Office of the Council of State on the side of opponents to the Haren mega-prison":
https://www.rtbf.be/info/regions/bruxelles/detail_l-auditrice-du-conseil-d-etat-donne-raison-aux-opposants-a-la-prison-de-haren?id=10121302
Websites of VKGroup and Assar, architects & engineers masterminding the mega-prison - oh sorry, I meant "penal village"...:
https://www.vkgroup.be/fr/project/prison-de-haren/
http://www.assar.com/fr/projects/dbfm-prison-haren
"Non-profit association Plan-b calls for preservation of pollarded willows in Haren":
https://www.dhnet.be/regions/bruxelles/haren-l-asbl-plan-b-interpelle-bruxelles-ville-pour-preserver-les-arbres-tetards-5c8fdb1b9978e2710eea7848
"The Commune of Ixelles saves the Ernotte-Boondael vegetable gardens from real estate development":
https://www.rtbf.be/info/regions/bruxelles/detail_la-commune-d-ixelles-sauve-les-potagers-ernotte-boondael-d-un-projet-immobilier?id=10174956
"Belgium is twice as corrupt as the European average":
https://www.7sur7.be/7s7/fr/1502/Belgique/article/detail/3435197/2018/06/07/La-Belgique-deux-fois-plus-corrompue-que-la-moyenne-europeenne.dhtml

Rampant construction planned in the UK - 300,000 new homes every year!:
https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/mar/25/million-homes-could-be-built-on-english-brownfield-sites?utm_term=RWRpdG9yaWFsX0d1YXJkaWFuVG9kYXlVS19XZWVrZGF5cy0xOTAzMjU%3D&utm_source=esp&utm_medium=Email&utm_campaign=GuardianTodayUK&CMP=GTUK_email
Note: Definitions of brownfield, greenfield and greyfield sites -
Brownfield site:
Previously developed land not currently in use, whether contaminated or not;also used to describe land previously used for industrial or commercial purposes with known or suspected pollution including soil contamination from hazardous waste
Greenfield site:
Undeveloped land in a city or rural area either used for agriculture or landscape design, or left to evolve naturally
Greyfield site:
Economically obsolescent, outdated, failing, moribund or underused real estate assets or land

Other references:

https://urbanisme.irisnet.be/lesreglesdujeu/le-code-bruxellois-de-lamenagement-du-territoire-cobat

http://perspective.brussels/fr/plans-reglements-et-guides/plans-reglementaires-et-strategiques/plans-strategiques-et-reglementaires-plan-damenagement-directeur-pad

http://perspective.brussels/fr/plans-reglements-et-guides/plans-strategiques/plan-regional-de-developpement-prd/prdd

http://www.ieb.be/

http://www.bbrow.be/analyses/nombrelogementsvides.pdf

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References and complementary information for Suriname report

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References and complementary information for Suriname report

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Protected Areas of Suriname:

Stinasu: Foundation for Nature Conservation in Suriname 2019. Nature Conservation Legislation and Protected Areas

http://www.stinasu.sr/en/protected-areas

Biological Diversity of Suriname:
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment 2013. The Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity

http://www.gov.sr/media/784137/4th_national_report_cbd_suriname.pdf

Office of the President of the Republic Suriname 2015. Fifth National Report to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/sr/sr-nr-05-en.pdf

Sea turtle nesting and sand mining:
Monique S. Pool 2013. Braamspunt – Sea Turtle Nesting Site and Sand Mining Concession. Paper presented at the 11th Regional Symposium Marine Turtle Conservation in the Guianas 29-31 October 2013.

https://www.academia.edu/4927529/Braamspunt_-_Sea_Turtle_Nesting_and_Sand_Mining
Rachel Fritts 2017. Sand mining ban lifted on beach in Suriname, causing public backlash.

https://news.mongabay.com/2017/03/sand-mining-ban-lifted-on-beach-in-suriname-causing-public-backlash/
Green Heritage Fund Suriname 2017. Environmental Organizations oppose beach sand mining at Braamspunt

http://www.greenfundsuriname.org/en/environmental-organizations-oppose-beach-sand-mining-at-braamspunt/

Gold mining in Suriname:
Amazone Conservation Team 2015. Amazone Gold Rush: Gold Mining in Suriname

https://www.amazonteam.org/maps/suriname-gold/
Marieke Heemskerk, Celine Duijves 2015. Small-scale Gold Mining at Brownsberg national Park

http://social-solutions.net/data/images/reports/WWF-Brownsberg-gold-mining-final-report-091215.pdf
E.D. Legg, P.E. Ouboter, M.A.P. Wright 2015. Small-scale Gold Mining Related Mercury Contamination in the Guianas: A Review

http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/mercury_contamination_in_the_guianas__2015.pdf

Climate report for Suriname:
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment 2013. Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

http://www.gov.sr/media/1002492/suriname_snc-unfc_on_climate_change_february_2013_-_final_webpreview_v2.3.pdf

Forest area percentage ranking:
Index Mundi 2015. Forest area (% of land area) – Country Ranking

https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/AG.LND.FRST.ZS/rankings
FAO 1995. State of the World’s Forests

http://www.fao.org/3/X6953E/X6953E03.htm

Herpetofauna of Suriname:

Antoine Fouquet, Jean-Pierre Vacher, Vanessa Kadosoe, Rawien Jairam and Paul Ouboter 2015. Checklist of the Amphibians of the Sipaliwini area, Suriname. Herpetology Notes, volume 8: 63-68

https://biotaxa.org/hn/article/view/9473/12199
Paul Ouboter, Rawien Jairam, Cindyrella Kasanpawiro 2012. A Rapid Assessment of the Amphibians and Reptiles of the Kwamalasamutu Region, Suriname. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment

https://bioone.org/ebooks/RAP-Bulletin-of-Biological-Assessment/A-Rapid-Biological-Assessment-of-the-Kwamalasamutu-region-Southwestern-Suriname/A-Rapid-Assessment-of-the-Amphibians-and-Reptiles-of-the/A-Rapid-Assessment-of-the-Amphibians-and-Reptiles-of-the/10.1896/054.063.0112

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Suriname... one of the green treasures of the Amazon 

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Suriname... one of the green treasures of the Amazon 

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Author: Angelique Mackintosh

Suriname, a small country in northern South America once topped the list of countries with the highest percentage of forest cover, with approximately 94% of pristine tropical rainforest (Source: Fifth National Report to the UNCBD, https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/sr/sr-nr-05-en.pdf) and an abundance of wildlife and biodiversity, a true paradise for every adventure seeker, explorer, nature lover, eco-tourist and scientist. Being part of the Amazon Basin and Amazon rainforest makes Suriname a net sink of carbon dioxide.

Suriname has a great variety of typical rainforest plants and animals. According to the Fourth National Report to the UNCBD (Source: Fourth National Report to the UNCBD, http://www.gov.sr/media/784137/4th_national_report_cbd_suriname.pdf), the herpetofauna of Suriname is very rich, consisting of 102 amphibian and 175 reptile species, some of which are endemic to the Amazon tropical rainforest, comprising 2.4% of the world’s amphibian and 2.8% of the world’s reptile species.

Species new to science, endemic and unique flora and fauna have been discovered over the past decades and many more species are yet to be discovered. But with all the threats lurking in their environment…will they ever get a chance to become known to science and the world?

The country has a total of sixteen protected areas, covering an area of approximately 2,118,800 ha which is roughly 13% of the total land area, consisting of eleven nature reserves, four multiple use management areas and one nature park to protect and manage the biodiversity in these areas. (Source: http://www.stinasu.sr/en/protected-areas). A lot of issues, such as politics, a lack of penalties, and weak monitoring and enforcement, work against protection and conservation of biodiversity in these areas, which are frequently overlooked or undervalued compared to extractive natural resources present such as gold, timber and sand. Sadly, due to these activities the percentage of rainforest cover has decreased to below 90% and is still declining.

Recently, threats to biodiversity, especially herpetofauna have drastically increased. The main threats are:

-          Habitat destruction due to logging, gold mining and road construction for timber transport, and urban settlements for timber companies and gold miners

-          Mercury pollution of water and soil and increased turbidity of water resources from unregulated/ illegal gold mining

-          Illegal hunting and fisheries, which destabilise the food chain

-          Sand mining at sand beaches along the coastline, such as Braamspunt which is a very popular nesting site for sea turtles

-          Over-harvesting of iguana and caiman species and poaching of sea turtles’ eggs. Iguana and caiman, respectively named tree chicken and water chicken by the local people, are very popular as food, especially iguana eggs, which results in a decline of offspring and further decline in the number of iguana individuals.

-          Ignorance and misunderstanding of snakes, with nearly every snake encounter ending with the snake being killed (both non venomous and venomous species)

-          Introduction of invasive alien species, such as Hemidactylus mabouia (common gecko) Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233708142_Introduced_Species_of_Reptiles_in_Surinam_Notes_on_the_herpetofauna_of_Surinam_VIII

-          Illegal trade in exotic species, such as various snakes, including the emerald tree boa, tortoises and poison arrow frogs

-          Climate change, manifesting in extreme events such as flooding, prolonged drought and longer/shorter rainy/dry seasons)

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Small Indian mongoose - Herpestes auropunctatus (1)

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Author: Giannis Annousis
Affiliation: Zoological Museum (Department of Biology, University of Athens), Nature (International journal of science), Natural History Museum of Crete

Author: Antonis Antοnopoulos
Affiliation: Department of Zoology - Marine Biology (University of Athens)

Author: Fabio Cianferoni
Affiliation: Natural History Museum of the University of Florence (Italy) / CNR-IRET National Research Council of  Italy - Research Institute on Terrestrial Ecosystems (Rome, Italy)

Author: Laura Garzoli
Affiliations: CNR-Water Research Institute (IRSA) of Verbania, INVASIVESNET (International Association for Open Access and Open Knowledge on Invasive Alien Species), STeP Stazione Teriologica Piemontese (Association for mammal conservation)

Author: Angelique Mackintosh
Affiliation: Environmental Freelance Consultant

Author: Alicia Mottur
Affiliation: Atelier Suriz

Author: Bruno Schmidt
Affiliation: Association Hyla (Zagreb, Croatia)

Author: Evangelia Tzaneti
Affiliation: Environmentalist working at the Local Action Group,Attica Islands Network managing the European Program for Local Development CLLD/LEADER 2014-2020

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Look for environmental, societal, industrial or other factors that might be threatening the herpetofauna of your HerpetoArea. Provide an analysis of said factors.

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Paper published by the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) in conjunction with experts from the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC). 2013. Almost one in five reptiles struggling to survive.

https://www.iucn.org/content/almost-one-five-reptiles-struggling-survive

2nd HERPETOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM in Goulandris Museum of Natural History
https://www.gnhm.gr/event/2%CE%BF-%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C-%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF-%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9-%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7-%CE%B6%CF%89/

Chloe Adamopoulou and Anastasios Legakis. 2016. Journal compilation © 2016 REABIC. Zoological Museum, Department of Biology, University of Athens, Panepistimioupolis. First account on the occurrence of selected invasive alien vertebrates in Greece.
https://elnais.hcmr.gr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/BIR_2016_Adamopoulou_Legakis_correctedproof-1.pdf

J. Alan Pounds, Martı´n R. Bustamante, Luis A. Coloma, Jamie A. Consuegra, Michael P. L. Fogden, Pru N. Foster, Enrique La Marca, Karen L. Masters, Andre´s Merino-Viteri, Robert Puschendorf, Santiago R. Ron, G. Arturo Sanchez-Azofeifa, Christopher J. Still & Bruce E. Young. 2006. Nature.  Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming.
http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/bia-bec/099915/2008/9.Pounds%20et%20al%202006%20Nature.pdf

Michalis Probonas et. all.. 2015. N.H.M.C. Region of Crete. Natura 2000. Nature sclupted by time.
https://natura2000.crete.gov.gr/fileadmin/printmaterial/pdf_Gia%20PEriferia_Fotogr.%20Album/ALBUM%20FOTOGRAFIKO%2064sel_telik%CE%BF_Small_WEB.pdf

Sakellari Maria. 2015. Conservation, management and development of NATURA 2000 sites in Crete (Technical guide). Region of Crete. Heraklion.
https://natura2000.crete.gov.gr/fileadmin/printmaterial/pdf_Gia%20Periferia_Diatirisi/01_ODIGOS%20GR%20A5_Diatirisis_Tehnikos%2096sel_Small_WEB.pdf

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The first reptiles and amphibians, according to scientists, walked the Earth about 300 million years ago. Since then, they have played a critical role in the global ecosystem, both as predators and prey. However, today the world's species of reptiles and amphibians are facing threats on many levels. According to a study by experts from the IUCN and ZSL in 2013, about one-fifth of the world's reptiles are threatened with extinction.
The purpose of this report is to identify the environmental, societal, industrial or other factors that
might be threatening the herpetofauna of the following five countries: Greece, Italy, Croatia,
Belgium and Suriname.
The report will provide an analysis of the factors contributing to the threats and also some
suggestions for addressing these threats.
The degree of risk faced by the different species varies according to different factors, such as habitat preference or food requirements. For example, amphibians and freshwater turtles face a very high threat, reflecting the pressures on the planet's freshwater ecosystems.
Among the major threats to herpetofauna are the degradation and destruction of habitat, as well as climate change (global warming) bringing increasing periods of drought and rising temperatures. Another problem is the introduction of alien species which can prove fatal for endemic populations.
Finally, anthropogenic activities such as overflowing of aquifers, tourism infrastructure, overgrazing, destruction of aquatic ecosystems, conversion to cultivated land, pollution, the illegal exotic pet trade, and desertification due to residential action pose serious threats to herpetofauna.

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Herpetofauna in Tuscany. Warning! Too many threats and still few actions!

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Herpetofauna in Tuscany. Warning! Too many threats and still few actions!

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Author: Fabio Cianferoni

Tuscany is a region in central Italy. In its 23,000 km² it ranges from the sea (including several islands belonging to the Tuscan Archipelago), to the hills (representing the majority of the territory: 66.5%) and the mountains (mainly consisting of the Apennine ridge).

The human population (3.8 million inhabitants) is not uniformly spread and there are many areas with low density especially in the south. Even industrialisation follows a similar pattern.

The herpetofauna of Tuscany includes 44 species: 20 amphibians and  24 reptiles, of which three are introduced.

Among the main threats for the herpetofauna of this region are:

Habitat loss, alteration, fragmentation and degradation. These are probably the main threats for the herpetofauna in the area, as well as for all biodiversity.

The great drainage works projects have profoundly changed the last wetlands and have especially damaged amphibian populations.

Also the transformation, pollution, and alteration of watercourses (with some turned into canals) seriously threatens amphibians.

Agriculture causes the disappearance and degradation of habitats. Water catchment especially threatens populations in delicate habitats, like inland waters on islands.

The cutting of woodland strongly threatens herpetofauna, completely modifying the environment.

Urbanisation has completely destroyed some habitats and associated amphibian populations (e.g. Hyla intermedia, Bufotes balearicus, Pelophylax kl. esculentus).

Mining has also caused pollution of groundwater (a menace for Speleomantes spp.).

Roads and especially highways represent the main causes of habitat fragmentation. Underpasses designed for amphibians could mitigate this problem.

Finally, tanks, manholes, road shafts, etc. amount to pitfall traps for many species.

Invasive species are also a threat for native species. Well known are the cases of competition between the alien Lithobates catesbeianus and native Phelophylax kl. esculentus and between the alien Trachemys scripta and the native Emys orbicularis.

Infectious diseases, i.e. those caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, are a threat especially for some amphibians (e.g. Bombina pachypus) and often they are transmitted by alien species (e.g. Lithobates catesbeianus).

Climate change and in particular global warming is one of the most probable causes of some documented declines of amphibian populations.

Direct persecution due to ignorance or superstition fortunately is declining, but it is still relevant especially towards harmless snakes mistaken for the only venomous Tuscan snake: Vipera aspis.

Collection of specimens in nature is a minor threat especially for breeding and terrariums or for species trading (but this is less frequent than with tropical herpetofauna), and for food purposes (e.g. Pelophylax spp.) cooked during traditional festivals.

Ultimately, most herpetofauna populations of Tuscany are still quite intact (with the exception of those in urbanised areas), although the threats are numerous and no (or insufficient) action is taken. Amphibians are certainly more at risk, compared to reptiles.

Sources:

Personal observations, data collecting, scientific articles, interview (herpetologist).

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 Evia: The second Largest Greek Island with many Herpetothreats!

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 Evia: The second Largest Greek Island with many Herpetothreats!

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Author: Tzaneti Evangelia

Greek herpetofauna is of utmost importance for conservation of biodiversity throughout Greece. This stems from the fact that about 15% of Greek herpetofauna is comprised of endemic species while 16% represent the only European populations in their range. Reptile species in Greece represent 38% of all the reptiles in Europe. Thirteen percent of the reptile species that occur in Greece are considered threatened at the European level. This group shows the greatest species richness in the Balkan Peninsula, being Greece the country with the second highest number of species in Europe.  It is also interesting to note that at least 40% of the reptile species in Greece may be threatened by human persecution and control, especially snakes and vipers.
( Convention on Biological Diversity,Greece)
Some of Valuable Amphibians-Reptiles in Evia are the following:

bufo bufo
Chalcides ocellatus ocellatus
Elaphe quatuorlineata quatuorlineata
Emys orbicularis
Hyla arborea arborea
Malpolon monspessulanus insignitus
Mauremys caspica rivulata
Ophisaurus apodus thracius
Podarcis erhardii amorgensis
Testudo hermanni hermanni
Vipera ammodytes meridionalis

Bombina variegata,
Testudo marginata
(Filotis Data Base for Greek Nature, 2018)

Hundreds of endemic species are found on both the mainland and in the islands, highlighting the region as a hot spot of endemism. On the other hand, development of the tourist industry, a vital economic sector in Greece and especially in Greek Islands, with a dominant position in the Greek economy, has many negative consequences for wildlife (over-pumping of water, wetland
drainage, habitat degradation). In addition to this are over-grazing and intensive agriculture, which have largely altered the landscape, threatening reptiles and especially amphibians.(Pafilis, 2010)
Pollution emissions from transport and electric power stations, over-exploitation of water resources, water pollution, degradation of
coastal zones, and increasing municipal and industrial waste are also omnipresent threats to herpetofauna.( Valavanidis & Vlachogianni , 2010)

The threats affecting the island include human,natural,and ecological pressures.

1) Human pressures
a) Mining
Evia Mines in the site Kotroni of Messapia in the municipality of Messapia are considered to be of world-class significance. Nickel deposits occur Larco Euboea Mines. Nickel is present there at a grade sufficient to have a strong impact on the profitability of an excavation project.

Mining has a serious impact on the environment; as a result, herpetofauna habitat is degraded or destroyed. It causes contamination of soil, plants and groundwater, and an increasing amount of chromium, iron, nickel, manganese and cobalt in the soil from the Assopos to Thiva basin, followed by C. Evia and Ni-laterite deposits. (Economou, Megremi, Atsarou, Theodoratou, & Vasilatos, 2013),(Economou-Eliopoulos, Frei, & Megremi, 2016)
b) Construction of roads
and road appurtenances - the case of Agdines-Papades road in Northern Evia
Ecological conditions are not only affected by construction of roads
and road appurtenances but also by traffic and the increase in road density. Roads, road establishment, road maintenance, and road travel
have a broad variety of effects. Every aspect of roads has some interaction with the surrounding
environment, including road construction, operation, and maintenance. Many ecological effects of roads have
been identified, such as loss and fragmentation of habitat, pollution of air, water, and soil, mortality
of animals hit by passing vehicles, and acoustic interference caused by traffic noise. Increasing public demand for mitigation
and prevention of environmental impacts strongly requires development of evaluation tools for
civil engineers and ecologists to apply in the planning and construction of transport infrastructure.(Kollarou, Lantitsou, Athanasopoulou, & Kollaros, 2013)

2) Natural pressures as a result of human activity
a) Climate change impacts can alter normal weather conditions for each season. Climate change is
related to changes in the frequency
and intensity of extreme climate events, which may adversely affect vital economic sectors, such as agriculture and tourism, and have
substantial impacts on local communities. As a result, in the period from 2021 to 2050, it is predicted that there will be an additional twenty days of drought in Evia and other sub-regions in the northern part of the
country (Giannakopoulos, Kostopoulou, Varotsos, & Tziotziou, 2011). As a consequence, it
is estimated that the number of days with extreme fire risk
will increase by 10 to 15 days per year. (Giannakopoulo, Kostopoulou, Varotsos, & Plitharas, 2009), (Salvati, Ferrara, & Carlucci, 2014)  A recent example of the dangers posed by wildfires is from mid-August 2018 near the village of Kontodespoti, in which fire encircled the village and caused the evacuation of the 250 inhabitants. Also projected for Evia is an increase in autumn precipitation of 20%.(Giannakopoulo, Kostopoulou, Varotsos, & Plitharas, 2009), (Salvati, Ferrara, & Carlucci, 2014)
b) Invasive Alien species

Lithobates catesbeianus

The American bullfrog, originally    introduced into Europe for consumption and as a pet, has escaped into the wild, colonising a wide range of habitats, including ponds, swamps, reservoirs, marshes and irrigation channels

Domestic animals, such as cats, especially threaten reptiles (European Commission, 2017)

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(1) Barun, A., Simberloff, D., Budinski, I., 2010. Impact of the small Indian mongoose on native amphibians and reptiles of the Adriatic islands, Croatia: Mongoose impacts on herpetofauna of the Adriatic. Animal Conservation 13, 549–555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2010.00374.x

(2) Jelić, Dušan & Kuljerić, Marija & Koren, Toni & Treer, Dag & Šalamon, Dragica & Lončar, Mila & Podnar, Martina & Janev Hutinec, Biljana & Bogdanović, Tomislav & Mekinić, Stjepan. Katja Jelić (2012). Red book of Amphibians and Reptiles of Croatia.

(3)Jovanović Glavaš, Olga & Jelić, Dušan. (2015). Conservation and Declines of Amphibians in Croatia

(4) Koren, T., Štih, A., Burić, I., Koller, K., Lauš, B., Zadravec, M., 2018. The current distribution of pond slider Trachemys scripta (Reptilia: Emydidae) in Croatia. Natura Sloveniae 20, 33–44.

(5) Pezdirc, M., Heath, E., Bizjak Mali, L., Bulog, B., 2011. PCB accumulation and tissue distribution in cave salamander (Proteus anguinus anguinus, Amphibia, Urodela) in the polluted karstic hinterland of the Krupa River, Slovenia. Chemosphere 84, 987–993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.05.026

(6) Tóth, T., Boksai, D., Géczy, C., Mihály, Á., Takács, R., Sušić, G., Vinczek, J., Gál, J., Márosan, M., Farkas, B., Bokis, A., Heltai, M., 2017. Road-killed snakes on the island of Cres (Croatia). Biharean Biologist 11, 88–93.

(7)http://cistopodzemlje.info/hr/novosti/covjecja-ribica-pliva-u-otpadu/

(8)https://www.index.hr/magazin/clanak/zena-na-biokovu-pokusala-pomaziti-poskoka-pa-joj-hitno-morali-spasavati-zivot/2034576.aspx
(Croatian press article; translation: The woman tried to pet a Horned Viper on Biokovo and needed urgent medical assistance afterwards)

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Crete. An island in Greece, with endemic species threatened by human activities and climate change

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Crete. An island in Greece, with endemic species threatened by human activities and climate change

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Author: Giannis Annousis

On account of its geographical position, topography, relative ecological isolation, large expanses of undisturbed natural environment and variety of prevailing climatic conditions, Crete has a mosaic of landscapes, and high percentages of endemism among its plant and animal species (https://natura2000.crete.gov.gr/fileadmin/printmaterial/pdf_Gia%20PEriferia_Fotogr.%20Album/ALBUM%20FOTOGRAFIKO%2064sel_telik%CE%BF_Small_WEB.pdf). In particular, there are three endemic species of Crete among the  island's herpetofauna. These are Pelophylax cretensis, Podarcis cretensis and Mediodactylus bartoni.

But there are several threats that the herpetofauna on this Mediterranean island are facing. Human activities are intense on the island, resulting in a marked ecological footprint. Reptiles and amphibians are vulnerable organisms, so they are first struck by the change of an ecosystem.
A major problem is also climate change that most affects herpetofauna.
Some examples of threats are shown below.
The greatest threats to ecosystems
of mountain areas (which comprise a large part of the herpetofauna in Crete) are fires, overgrazing and road construction facilitating access to hunters and tourists and, consequently, increasing pressure on habitats and organisms.
Also, tourism development has already seriously affected the beaches where the sea turtle (Caretta caretta) lays its eggs. The construction of new hotel units, entertainment centres and other human activities on the beach should be be controlled.
Overgrazing, which in some cases is accompanied by fire, can be a cause of erosion, degradation of maquis vegetation and habitats in general (https://natura2000.crete.gov.gr/fileadmin/printmaterial/pdf_Gia%20Periferia_Diatirisi/01_ODIGOS%20GR%20A5_Diatirisis_Tehnikos%2096sel_Small_WEB.pdf).
Lithobates catesbeianus (American bullfrog), is a species native to North America and it was introduced as tadpoles in May 1994, about three kilometres east of Agia lake, in Crete.
2000 was the year with the first recorded co-habitation of bullfrogs in Agia lake together with the endemic Cretan water frog (Pelophylax cretensis).
L. catesbeianus has a negative impact on native amphibians (Kraus 2009) and can host the pathogenic fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) that has been implicated in global amphibian decline (https://elnais.hcmr.gr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/BIR_2016_Adamopoulou_Legakis_correctedproof-1.pdf). Climate change further promotes infectious disease and erodes biodiversity.
An example showing the spread of these diseases is the growth of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. This fungus is common in the American bullfrog and is responsible for the reduction of amphibian populations around the world.
As a result, with the rise in temperature, the endemic frog of Crete is threatened with both competition from the American bullfrog and the fungus that it brought (http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/bia-bec/099915/2008/9.Pounds%20et%20al%202006%20Nature.pdf).
According to the above, it seems that the herpetofauna of Crete needs immediate assistance and surveillance of its populations.
All the above cases indicate that it is necessary to immediately address the state and local community in general to stop the above threats.

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Attica, where democracy was born, injustice prevails between humans and nature

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Attica, where democracy was born, injustice prevails between humans and nature

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Author: Antonis Antonopoulos

Attica is a peninsula encompassing the city of Athens and projecting into the Aegean Sea. As expected, current threats to herpetofauna are directly associated with urbanisation, with habitat degradation, fragmentation or even loss being the after-effects of this phenomenon. While the main cause is undeniable, we need to consider and analyse the many different factors that have led us there. First, administrative bodies should be held responsible. Nowadays there are plans being carried out to block many streams crossing the city, essentially imprisoning their inhabitants. If these havens for amphibians manage to evade the eye of some vote-hungry mayor, they're up against another challenge: pollution. By taking a stroll along Filothei stream, amidst the croaking of cheerful toads, one can see piles of trash accumulating on the stream banks. Should we only blame the authorities for not taking precautionary measures to prevent this? Of course not; citizens also have their fair share of blame. Littering is inexcusable and that's often the primary cause for such conditions. Is it a lack of environmental education or just plain indifference?
Leaving behind the strictly urban environment, we move on to some renowned wetlands, such as Sxinias or Vravrona. These sites offer a temporary shelter to migratory birds, allowing them to rest and rejuvenate after a long flight. Besides the blissful bird chirps, frog calls can also be heard behind the high vegetation. A closer look at the water surface will reveal the amphibian residents of these lands (Bufo and Pelophylax genera mainly). On rare occurrences even snakes can be spotted swimming amongst them (Natrix natrix). Such places attract many tourists during mid-spring and early autumn and are regarded as "heaven" for birdwatchers. Along with humans comes litter and that's a problem most of the wetlands have to face. Another threat becoming relevant in the last couple of years is climate change. The rise of the planet's average temperature can result in more frequent drought periods and a lower water level. Lastly, apathy showed by the officials refusing to properly protect such areas spells an ominous future, if action is not taken.
Moving on to higher altitude, Mount Parnitha is located north of Athens. Densely forested with a variety of habitats, it hosts different species of reptiles. Wildfires are common in Mediterranean ecosystems and most organisms have co-evolved to endure them. However, in 2007 a devastating wildfire destroyed a large part of Parnitha (mainly the Greek fir forests) resulting in habitat degradation. Today, those areas have managed to recover for the most part and lizards (P.erhardii and L. trilineata mainly) can be seen running around from shrub to shrub. Wildfires are expected to become more frequent in the coming years due to climate change and this is worrisome.
Lastly, we have to mention illegal activities. Despite the ecosystems being resilient to periodic wildfires, they become vulnerable if these fires recur in a short time span. Unfortunately, in Greece arson is common as a means to create new land plots for exploitation. Even though the damage is most times limited, in unexpected weather conditions such fires can become uncontrollable and spread rapidly. Another concern to the authorities is illegal poaching. Reptiles (usually tortoises) are snatched from their habitats, stuffed in trucks and transferred abroad to be sold as pets. In Attica this is not a serious problem as there are not many species considered fancy, but nonetheless there still have been some incidents.

Sources:  Personal observations, articles in Greek (from newspapers or NGOs)

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Big Bad Belgium - if only herpetofauna could vote...

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Big Bad Belgium - if only herpetofauna could vote...

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Author: Alicia Mottur

Ask anyone in Belgium what are the biggest threats to wildlife in general, or herpetofauna in particular, and I'll bet they mention habitat loss, pollution, or climate change, but above and behind these factors is a threat that science and research are hard pressed to fight, Belgium's dirty little secret - namely, lobbying and corruption.

I combined field research with interviews concerning two sites in the Brussels Region known for harbouring herpetofauna - namely, the Plateau de la Foresterie in Watermael-Boitsfort (Common Lizard and Slow Worm) and the site known as Keelbeek in Haren (also Common Lizard).  Both these sites are under immediate threat from real estate speculation, despite overwhelming public opposition, and abundant scientific data from area naturalists and nature protection associations showing the value of these sites for conserving biodiversity in the Brussels Region.
In order to preserve their confidentiality, I chose not to name my interview sources.

The trials and tribulations of these two sites are case studies of what often goes on throughout Belgium each time a green space attracts the eye of a developer, hungry to cash in on the facile arguments of overcrowding and a population influx in the near future.  Build, build, build - while in Brussels alone there is estimated to be at least 1 million sq. m of unused office space, which could be converted to apartments or social housing. A 2005 report from the non-profit association Rassemblement Bruxellois pour le Droit à l’Habitat, with figures dating from 1998, estimated the number of completely empty buildings in Brussels to be 5,393. Furthermore, as each house contains at least several potential apartments, one can multiply this figure by three to gain an idea of how much housing could be available. Added to these figures are the empty apartments above shops, which brings the number of potential apartments to between 15,000 and 20,000 at the very least in Brussels alone.
All this is just to demonstrate that the legitimate issue of available housing is being hijacked by developers to justify their grandiose, unnecessary, and undemocratic projects.  Habitat for newts and lizards, bats and birds counts for nothing in their schemes.
Quite to the contrary, the firms masterminding these projects are expert in using environmental protection laws to their advantage.  Their legal counsel are thoroughly familiar with the ins and outs of the applicable rules on mitigating negative impacts on wildlife and the environment - promise to put up a few solar panels or bat houses and you've got your permit!
Citizens' groups and nature protection associations can appeal building permits issued in natural areas to the Environmental Council, but here again behind-the scenes lobbying and secret dealing holds sway. The Environmental Council can confirm, refuse, or say nothing about the validity of the permit.  In the first case, building goes ahead (even in Natura 2000 sites), and in the second scenario, the piece of land in question remains untouched. Where skullduggery occurs is in the third option - if the Council makes no ruling on the permit after 60 days, the permit is automatically cleared!  So, often the Council chooses thus to sit on the decision till the 60 days are up.

In addition to the two sites mentioned above, there are multiple pressures threatening the future of most edge habitats of the Forêt de Soignes.  Such forest edge areas are much richer in plant and animal life than associated forest habitat within the Forest itself.  At the edges there is more light, thus a greater variety of plants of differing heights, providing an abundance of food and shelter for wildlife.  The former 2004 version of the Brussels Code for Urban Development, known as the CoBAT (Code Bruxellois de l'Aménagement du Territoire) provided for a buffer zone of 60 metres between the forest and those areas where new building was allowed, specifically to protect this vital forest edge habitat.  Developers complained this was too complicated, and too much of a constraint, as many building permits were refused for not respecting the buffer zone. Intensive lobbying from the real estate sector led to the amended CoBAT of 2017 reducing this buffer zone to 30 metres, as well as simplifying requirements to obtain building permits.  The implications for wildlife in the Brussels area are obvious.  Portions of the new CoBAT entered into force in April 2018, while the remainder will enter into force on April 20, 2019.
In a similar fashion, lobbying from developers watered down the rules of the Plan d'Aménagement Directeur (PAD), another key feature of Brussels' legal framework for urban planning.  In future, no public enquiry will be required for new projects, but merely a public information session, treating residents and concerned citizens to a vision of the future of their environment concluded behind closed doors.
One last example of the undemocratic trend of urban planning policy in Brussels is the new Regional Plan for Sustainable Development (Plan Régional de Développement Durable, or PRDD).  Sustainable in name only, as the amended framework is paving the way to destroy a multitude of surviving green spaces in Brussels, such as the locally renowned Friche Josaphat, used as a stopover for migrating songbirds each spring and fall.  Now in theory it will be permitted to build on most such green spaces, if the necessity can be proven, and if "mitigating measures" such as the aforementioned bat houses are taken. Furthermore, the public is deceived into thinking its opinion matters by holding so-called "Participation meetings" (Réunions de participation) prior to the project.  In reality, all details of these lucrative projects will have been decided well in advance, and any modifications will at best be merely cosmetic.
Sources:
personal observations, press articles, and interviews

Below you can see an opponent of the mega-prison being "escorted" off the site:

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Croatia - Land like dragon! (with serious problems)

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Croatia - Land like dragon! (with serious problems)

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Author: Bruno Schmidt

Croatia is situated on the Balkan peninsula, and ranges from the Adriatic coast to the Danube river in the Pannonian basin (which resembles a dragon on the map). In a relatively small geographical range it has rather diverse habitats, from the coastal region with a Mediterranean climate, Dinaric mountain parts, and lowlands of the Pannonian basin. Although small, Croatia has a rich and diverse flora and fauna, and a rich herpetofauna with 20 amphibian and 39 reptile species (2). Herpetofauna, and other flora and fauna, are in danger in Croatia for the same reason as in the rest of the world, severe anthropogenic pressure, or in other words: humans.

Bad management, interference and planning by humans all play a role in the endangerment of reptiles and amphibians. One fundamental problem is the bad opinion and lack of knowledge towards reptiles and amphibians. People still think of them as disgusting evil creatures with no use and purpose and don't understand that they are a vital part of the environment. News articles appear every year about the "surprising“ revelation that snake populations live close to human settlements (?!) (numerous Croatian news articles every year). The oldest residents in rural parts of Croatia still think of reptiles as literally the devil (pers. Obs), and kill them on sight. Even worse, they can't distinguish basic reptile (or animal!) species and think of all snake species as the venomous Vipera ammodytes, which lives in Croatia, and kill them regardless of the species (pers. Obs). On the other hand, they don't recognise venomous species and then get bitten when they disturb the snake (8). On certain social media sites there were also some recipes for herpetofauna dishes found (with pictures!) (pers. Obs.), but these posts are quickly removed by the authorities. Amphibians such as frogs are still being caught illegally for food to this day, thus reducing their populations (3).

In contrast to the above are the large scale threats. These (more direct) threats include urbanisation, intensive agriculture, roads and other significant changes in habitats which all lead to the disappearance and degradation of habitat quality (2). Roads are being built and renewed which fragments the habitat more and more each day. Animals can't cope with these changes and then end up as road kills. More and more tourism each year increases the commuting pressure on coastal Croatia, as well as inland and on islands (6). Intensive agriculture and industry has such a broad scale effect that it influences cave dwelling animals, such as the endemic amphibians Proteus anguinus (Olm). Large amounts of PCB chemicals have been found in the Slovenian population of P. anguinus (5), which are situated upstream from Croatia's rivers. Human waste can often be found in some cave habitats where the Olm lives (7), and other freshwater habitats. These habitats are one the most threatened habitats worldwide as well as in Croatia. Traditional water management, still practised today, includes embankment, cutting of meanders, and floodplain improvements, thus making habitats less and less usable for amphibians, especially endangered species like Bombina bombina, Triturus dobrigicus or Pelobates fuscus (3). Croatia is also no exception to the problem of invasive species. Herpestes auropunctatus or the small Indian mongoose (a type of carnivore related to civets and weasels) is an invasive mammal species in South Croatia (on Island Mljet for example). The mongoose was introduced to the island for it preys on venomous snakes like the nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes (Linnaeus, 1758)). Eradicating the venomous snake population, the mongoose has become a predator for local reptiles, amphibians and poultry making it a threat to the local fauna (1). Being a problem on Mljet, and some other island, the mongoose has arrived in inland Croatia, slowly spreading northwards. Invasive herpetofauna is also a problem in Croatia. The red eyed slider (Trachemys scripta) is more aggressive than local species. It chooses better habitats, basking spots and resources, thus making it a better competitor than the other turtle species. Significant drops in local fauna have been noted in places where the red eyes slider is found (4). One of the main reasons for their distribution is human activities. The slider is well known as a  pet species and is bought all over the world. However, people often abandon them in the local habitat when they no longer want them, making the slider a threat to local fauna.

The result of all these threats is that about one third of amphibian and reptile species in Croatia are threatened or near threatened with risk of extinction (2).

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Author: Laura Garzoli
Affiliation: CNR-IRSA

The herpetofauna of Italy is the richest in Europe, encompassing 46 amphibian and 53 reptile species. According to the IUCN Red List of Italian Vertebrates, 36% of amphibians and 19% of reptiles are menaced or threatened with the risk of extinction [1].

MAIN ASPECTS

1) ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS

1A) Habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation. Almost 11% of reproductive sites for amphibians have disappeared in Italy since 1979 [2]. As for reptiles, data are scarce and mainly expert based, but it is known that 26% of species suffer from habitat degradation (in particular linked to the conversion of traditional agricultural open and ecotonal landscapes into intensive agricultural deserts, as for Lacerta viridis, Podarcis melisellensis, Testudo hermanni). Negative effects are also related to genetic isolation due to habitat fragmentation (e.g. Podarcis raffonae, Eolie Islands) [3]. Urbanisation and agriculture intensification are also important threats for Italian herpetofauna. This is particularly evident in the Po Plain (northern Italy) where huge urban settlements are present. Road mortality (especially during mating season, ) is one of the main concerns, linked to direct mortality and habitat fragmentation [4].

1B) Invasive species. This is both an environmental and a societal factor (i.e. the introduction and subsequent release of exotic and invasive pets and game animals). For Italy, this is the case of the American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus, which is among the world's top 100 worst invasive species. The species was imported for culinary purposes and spread throughout Italy. Being highly aggressive, since its introduction it has seriously threatened amphibian communities, also being a vector of Batrachochytridium dendobatis, a fungus which causes a deadly disease that is devastating amphibian populations all over the world. There are also exotic fishes that have threatened and even destroyed indigenous amphibian communities. This is also the cause of the disappearance of the alpine populations of Rana temporaria, a consequence of the introduction of salmonoid fish for sport fishing [5], while small and ornamental fishes and invasive crayfishes have decimated paedomorphic newts [6].

1C) Climate change. The decrease in coverage and duration of fresh water habitats, and increase in temperature are having severe impacts on amphibian populations in Italy. Here is a comprehensive study on past and future scenarios [7]

2) SOCIETAL THREATS

2A) Species trading and collecting. Here is an example from Italy https://www.reptiliaexpo.it/.

2B) Direct persecution. Except in a few cases (i.e. turtles), amphibians and reptiles are generally not loved by people (in Italy we say “non pucciosi” meaning "not cute"). This is especially the case with snakes. It is known that, besides vipers which have been persecuted for decades, every snake is considered to be a poisonous viper by the general public. I personally know old people who swear they have seen vipers drinking milk from a cow.  But in my opinion, this factor has been boosted by the advent of SOCIAL MEDIA. Pictures of harmless snakes (usually with their head smashed) are posted on Facebook, and sometimes the news is retweeted on local newspapers (Fig.2). Despite many species being protected under international, national and regional law, people are still happy to see them killed. Misidentified snakes are called dangerous, and people of the neighbourhood get together to kill the snake that unfortunately has been photographed with a mobile phone.

3) INDUSTRIAL THREATS

3A) Agriculture. An increasing percentage of forests are being destroyed to gain land to be intensively cultivated by farmers. Not only does agriculture devour soil available for forest and woodlands, but the conversion from traditional to intensive agricultural practices poisons the water supply. There is also the complete disappearance of trees and residual ecological corridors, and intensive agriculture transforms cultivated landscapes into ecological deserts. The impact of chemicals, including pesticides and fertilizers, is huge.  The food industry is one of the main societal challenges for the conservation of biodiversity and of amphibians. Not only do pesticides have a direct toxic effect on herpetofauna (especially on amphibian communities living next to arable land where surface runoff increases the rate of pollutants dissolved in water), but they also have several side effects, as endocrine disruptors, and as the cause of disappearance of many insects which are the major food source for amphibians and reptiles.  Rice fields, a characteristic crop of northern Italy (Italy is the largest European producer of rice) are iconic examples. For years these environments have been considered as vital habitats for wetland species. But the advent of mechanization, monoculture and dry management (i.e. the fields are submerged only for the first emergence of rice plants, after which they are drained) led to dramatic changes in the structure and composition of native flora and fauna, including several species of amphibians and reptiles [8,9].

CHALLENGES

The conservation of herpetofauna is a huge challenge. It is a global challenge. We need to rethink (at a global scale) our idea of development, and shift towards sustainable development. In 2015 The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, was adopted by all United Nations member states. Among these goals are “sustainable cities and communities”, “climate action”, “protection of life on land” and “below water”. So, every member state needs immediate action to foster these goals. It is therefore an urgent and effective solution to harmonize human development and nature conservation, but the challenge is also to find a good way to involve people in the conservation of amphibians and reptiles, and raise citizen awareness on their importance for ecosystems.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Numerous projects are trying to address the issue. The main strategies to address environmental issues are: i) to census and monitor amphibian and reptile populations, to assess top priorities and emerging conservation issues at national level; ii) to increase protection and restoration of wetlands; iii) increase habitat connectivity, in particular by restoring buffer zones, refuges, ecological corridors with hedgerows and trees connecting Natura 2000 sites (which should also be increased) and creating “blue corridors” of water or “islands of biodiversity” to connect protected areas and to ensure reproductive sites for amphibians and genetic flow among populations; iv) to mitigate the effect of roads, in particular by creating underpasses (Fig 3 available from LIFE TIB project); v) #stoptreekilling (this could be a good name for a social media campaign) as trees are a refuge from predators for amphibians and reptiles, as well as a good source of insect prey, and are essential in water purification and as carbon sinks ; vi) involve citizens in demanding strict application of the Berne Convention, the 92/43/EEC Habitat Directive, the European nitrate directive 91/676/EEC (the European Commission opened an infringement procedure against Italy, which has failed to designate Nitrate Vulnerable Zones, monitor its waters and take additional measures in a number of regions concerned by nitrate pollution [10]), the EU Water Framework Directive, the Washington Convention, and regional legislation; vii) increase the adoption of Integrated Pest Management strategies for agriculture, especially in light of 2009/128/EC on the sustainable use of pesticides (although I do not think that any pesticide uses could ever be considered sustainable); viii) to increase public awareness through citizen science initiatives and  social media campaigns, to convey positive messages about herpetofauna (for fun see this example, http://www.amphibians.org/news/hug-harder-and-smile-bigger/) and also to let people know of other important messages related to their conservation (e.g. don’t release exotic pets in the wild!).

References

[1] Rondinini, C., Battistoni, A., Peronace, V., & Teofili, C. (2013). Lista rossa IUCN dei vertebrati italiani. Comitato Italiano IUCN e Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, Roma, 56. Available at: https://www.nationalredlist.org/files/2014/09/2013-italian-vertebratesl.pdf

[2] Salvidio, S., Andreone, F., Angelini, J., Bassu, L., Bennati, R., Bernini, F., et al. (2011). Assessing the status of amphibian breeding sites in Italy: a national survey. Acta Herpetologica 6(1): 119-126.

[3] Genovesi, P., Angelini, P., Bianchi, E., Dupré, E., Ercole, S., Giacanelli, V et al. (2014). Specie e habitat di interesse comunitario in Italia: distribuzione, stato di conservazione e trend. ISPRA, Serie Rapporti, 194, 2014. Available at: https://www.minambiente.it/sites/default/files/archivio/allegati/rete_natura_2000/rapporto_194_2014.pdf

[4] AA.VV. (2015) LIFE TIB Un corridoio ecologico tra Pianura Padana e Alpi. Available at: http://www.lifetib.it/DOWNLOAD/Libro2/TIB_VOLUME.pdf

[5] Heatwole, H., & Wilkinson, J. W. (2015). Amphibian Biology, Volume 11, Part 4: Status of Conservation and Decline of Amphibians: Eastern Hemisphere: Southern Europe & Turkey (Vol. 11). Pelagic Publishing Ltd.

[6] Denoel, M., Dzukic, G., & Kalezic, M. L. (2005). Effects of widespread fish introductions on paedomorphic newts in Europe. Conservation Biology, 19(1), 162-170.

[7] D’Amen, M., & Bombi, P. (2009). Global warming and biodiversity: Evidence of climate-linked amphibian declines in Italy. Biological Conservation, 142(12), 3060-3067.

[8] Bogliani G. (2008). Habitat risicolo e fauna, pp. 236-253 In: Ferrero A. (ed.), Il riso. Bayer Crop Science, Bologna. Available at: https://www.colturaecultura.it/content/habitat-risicolo-e-fauna#

[9] Giuliano D., Rossi P., Luoni F., Celada C., Bogliani G. (2017). Biodiversity Action Plan per le aree risicole dell’Italia Nord-occidentale. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16342.55361. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323969032_Biodiversity_Action_Plan_per_le_aree_risicole_dell'Italia_Nord-occidentale

[10] http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-18-6247_en.htm