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In the 1700's crimped or curled hair became a symbol of beauty. Their "coiffures" were often built over horsehair pads and wire cages in order for their hair to stand high. They were often decorated with feathers, jewels, and ribbons. Just like i the A Look at Beauty Ideals power point, which discussed that hats and elaborate hair were fixtures for women in the 18th century. Such as the image below of Marie Antoinette's coiffured hair.

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In the 1700's, the ideal woman was voluptuous more than any other time in history. During this time woman were to be curvy, full-figured and were often prized for their natural bodies. Such as this portrait of a women from the 1700's which shows a woman who is full-figured.

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In the beginning of the 1700's both women and men wore makeup. Makeup was worn by those trying to raise their social status and become fashionable. Both women and men preferred very white skin, and heavy makeup was considered more fashionable and respectable than natural looking makeup.

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In the 1700's women donned beauty marks with their heavy makeup in order to depict different meanings and make them more desirable. In the video below. Alicia Vintage displays the placement a 1700's woman may have put her beauty mark and the meaning behind them.

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In the 1700's a woman's dress would usually be hand sewn of wool or linens. Patterned silks, and linens were all the fashion. Corsets that accentuated and provided a stiff form, and a wide skirt were considered to be very fashionable. The video below depicts how a woman would have dressed in the 1700's

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Fashion standards have always been different for men and women, and even despite the huge gains in equality in the past decades, women still have an undue fashion burden placed upon them. But watching this video might put things into different perspective. Women in the eighteenth century had to wear the most absurdly complicated, and certainly uncomfortable, outfits that you have ever seen. Imagine going through this rigamarole every time you wanted to go out!

Full story at YouTube.

More education.

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How wealthy women dressed in the 1700s - Alltop Viral

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Fashion standards have always been different for men and women, and even despite the huge gains in equality in the past decades, women still have an undue fashion burden placed upon them. But watching this video might put things into different perspective.

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In the 1700's a society woman's hair was made to be tall, and decorated with ribbons, bows, garland, feathers and jewels. The higher and more decorated the hair, the more beautiful, and higher class a woman was considered to be. This video titled "Hair History: 18th Century" displays the hairstyle of the 1700's.

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In this web article, Alexandra Abrams describes the concept of achieved beauty in the 1700s. She states that this century became the era where looks and fashions became as important as birth.

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This article by Linda Baumgarten explains that in the 18th century even corsets were worn by young women even in girlhood. Without wearing a corset in a public setting a woman would have been seen as one who was not properly dressed and even further, a loose woman.  This was discussed in the discussion A Look at the Beauty Ideal powerpoint which pointed out that an hour-glass body was achieved by wearing the corset.

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by Linda Baumgarten

The clothing that people wore in the past has the ability to fascinate and involve us as few objects of their material culture do. Clothing is intimate. Viewing a garment in a museum collection elicits an almost instinctive urge to touch it and try it on ourselves (actions that are, of course, not recommended for reasons of conservation). For some, it is a wish to experience the beautiful fabrics, elaborate decoration, and tactile qualities ;experiences no longer found in most of our own clothing. For others, it is a desire to understand people from the past a little better; if we know such details as how they dressed themselves in the morning, what it felt like to be laced into stays, or what it was like to wear coarse linen and woolen while working in a Virginia tobacco field, we might better understand the routine, human aspects of their daily lives, which are so seldom revealed in the written records they left.

The clothing illustrated in this article was worn by living people who had much in common with us. Not only did people then respond to fashion, they also varied their garments based on the activity and the formality of the occasion. The eighteenth-century words "dress" and "undress" had meanings quite different from the way we use the words today, though the basic concepts are still viable. "Dress" clothing meant formal clothing with a different set of conventions and accessories from "undress," or informal clothing. In 1775, for example, a woman could still don a pair of exaggerated side hoops, or "panniers," to support her wide skirt for a dress occasion, while her undress clothing ;although it would appear quite formal to our eyes;had a more modest skirt size that may not have needed hoops at all. Similarly, the clothes in which a wealthy planter conducted his daily business differed significantly from what he wore to a ball at the Governor's Palace. The garments worn by a blacksmith or dairymaid for daily work were different from their best outfits, reserved for Sundays at church and infrequent special occasions.

Textiles and clothing--ephemeral objects that are subject to moth, mildew, and the wear and tear of laundry, restyling, and recycling into quilts or rags; are nevertheless able to help us understand a great deal about history. Consider the fact that a planter's daughter in tidewater Virginia in the 1770s could have worn at the same time a gown of silk from China, underclothing of linen from Holland, and footwear made in England – all shipped in a vast network of trade from their places of origin to a shop or warehouse in London, where they were selected by a merchant, packed for a lengthy voyage across the ocean in a ship propelled by wind, to arrive finally in Virginia. Or that a slave – whose very freedom was entangled in a network of trade and commerce – could be wearing clothing made from inexpensive textiles imported especially for his use – a shirt of linen woven in northern Europe, woolen hose from Scotland, or a knitted cap from Monmouth, England. Clothing and accessories worn in eighteenth-century America were selected from sources all over the world.

Some upper-class Virginia men ordered suits custom-made to their measurements in London. They specified expensive fabrics like superfine woolen broadcloth or silks. Their suits were sometimes embellished with imported buttons and other expensive trimmings. Women could also purchase many of their items of apparel, especially petticoats, laces, shoes, stockings, cloaks, aprons, and even stays, ready-made through the import trade. Their gowns were more often made by local seamstresses or mantua makers. Some women made their own clothing, especially work garments and shifts. Only in frontier areas was most clothing homespun and homemade – and even there, traders and storekeepers quickly penetrated the backcountry to make imported goods available.

The clothing worn by eighteenth-century Virginians was characterized by great diversity, as one would expect in a society ranging from royal governors and wealthy landowners to indentured servants and slaves. Upper-class Virginians kept abreast of the latest English fashions through imported garments, letters from England, news from travelers, and immigrating dressmakers or tailors. Surviving garments, portraits, and written records indicate that when affluent Virginians had occasion to dress up, they were very elegant indeed.

As early as 1724, Hugh Jones wrote in The Present State of Virginia that Williamsburg's leading families dressed like the gentry in London. Thirty-five years later, the reverend Jonathan Boucher described Virginians: "Solomon in all his Glory was not array'd like one of These. I assure you, Mrs. James, the common Planter's Daughters here go every Day in finer Cloaths than I have seen content you for a Summer's Sunday. You thought (homely Creatures as you are) my Sattin Wastecoat was a fine best, Lord help You, I'm noth'g amongst the Lace and Lac'd fellows that are here. Nay, so much does their Taste run after dress that they tell me I may see in Virginia more brilliant Assemblies than I ever c'd in the North of Engl'd, and except Royal Ones P'rhaps in any Part of it."

The concepts of comfort and modesty have always been relative and subject to the influence of fashion and the needs of the occasion. Like us, eighteenth-century people needed clothing for warmth and comfort, but they quickly abandoned those needs if fashion or the occasion dictated. During much of the eighteenth century, women's skirts were long and the sleeves covered the elbows; yet a woman would readily push up her sleeves and hike up her petticoats while doing laundry or working in the dairy, and, when fashion dictated it, women would shorten their skirts to the ankles, as many did in the 1780s.

When we look at ladies' corsets –"stays" –from the period, we cannot imagine how a woman could subject herself to such a garment. Yet the wearing of stays was as much linked to concepts of modesty and support as it was to figure shape; without her stays for most public occasions, a woman was considered not quite properly dressed at best and a "loose woman" at worst.

Someone who had worn stays from girlhood might scarcely have questioned their comfort or lack of it. (And who is to say that stays were any more uncomfortable than pointed-toe, high-heeled twentieth-century shoes?)

Climate also had a significant effect on clothing. In the sultry climate of Virginia many, even the upper classes, chose washable linen or cotton clothing for informal wear. A traveler in the early 1730s described the summer clothing of Virginians: "In Summertime even the gentry goe Many in White Holland [linen] Wast Coat and drawers and a thin Cap on their heads and Thread stockings [knitted linen]. The Ladyes Strait laced in thin Silk or Linnen. In Winter [they dress] mostly as in England and affect London Dress and wayes."

During the hot summer months, men often wore unlined coats and thin waistcoats of cotton or linen fabrics. Advising his brother about what to wear when he attended the College of William and Mary, Stephen Hawtrey wrote, "Your Cloathing in summer must be as thin and light as possible for the heat is beyond your conception . . .your Cloth suit unlined may do for the Month of May, but after that time you must wear the thinnest Stuffs that can be made without lining[;] some people . . . wear brown holland [linen] Coats with lining –some Crape –You must carry with you a Stock of Linnen Waistcoats made very large and loose, that they may'nt stick to your hide when you perspire."

Many Virginia women favored gowns made of lustring, a crisp, light silk that was often ordered for wear during the summer months. When the hot weather became unbearable, some women went without their stays for informal occasions and at home, although formal occasions still required them. One Virginia woman related in her diary that she did not bother to get dressed immediately on a particularly "sulterry" day; she remained "up stairs in only shift and petticoat till after Tea."

Clothing that reaches a museum collection has been culled by time, by curatorial selectivity, and by a process we might call "the survival of the finest." Most collections contain garments that are of the elegant, dress type, simply because everyday clothing has not survived. No one thought to save the plain, worn garments of a lower-class man or woman – if there was anything left to save but rags.

To understand what most people wore in the past, museum collections need to be supplemented by carefully analyzed print sources and written records.

Some questions about people's appearance cannot be answered to our satisfaction, even after poring over all the surviving sources. We would very much like to know the size of the "average" person in the eighteenth century, but we can offer only partial answers. We do know that the unaltered bodices and stays in Williamsburg's collections have waistlines ranging from 21 1/2 inches to 34 inches, with an average of slightly over 25 inches. Two hundred and twenty-five men advertised as being runaways in the Virginia Gazette between the years 1750 to 1770 had an average height of 5 feet, 7 1/2 inches. Based on limited, non-scientific samples, these figures cannot be taken as averages for an entire period. Research continues in all aspects of appearance and clothing.
Article written by Linda Baumgarten, Curator of Textiles of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
The article is an excerpt from Eighteenth-Century Clothing at Williamsburg, available from our online catalog.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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by Linda Baumgarten The clothing that people wore in the past has the ability to fascinate and involve us as few objects of their material culture do. Clothing is intimate. Viewing a garment in a museum collection elicits an almost instinctive urge to touch it and try it on ourselves (actions that are, of course, not recommended for reasons of conservation).

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Hairstyles and Cosmetics of the 18th Century

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Hairstyles and Cosmetics of the 18th Century

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This article describes that hairstyles and cosmetics had an important function in the 18th Century. Such as the ideal woman would have had black, brown or blonde hair which was considered to be very fashionable.

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Just as fashions change, so too do styles in hairstyles and cosmetics. The second half of the 18th century is an era particularly identified with hair and makeup, as these became such potent symbols of aristocracy during the Enlightenment and French Revolution. France and (to a lesser degree) England were the fashion leaders of this era, and it is to these countries that this article looks to identify the changing trends in hair and makeup.

In addition to a review of secondary sources (published books and research articles) on the history of fashion in the 18th century, this article draws on paintings and fashion plates as primary sources to examine the fashionable look in beauty. While it is important to note that these sources probably idealized the subject, this is actually very useful for our purpose of determining the desired beauty ideal. When studying clothing, allowances must be made for the many paintings depicting women in "artistic" clothing (Orientalist or Classical drapery) in portraiture, as what is portrayed is often not what was actually worn outside of the studio. Luckily, this does not generally apply to hair and makeup in portraiture; women painted in exotic draperies generally still wore the hairstyles and cosmetics that were à la mode.

Hair styling and cosmetics application had a particularly important function in France. The toilette, or dressing, was a daily ceremony in which important persons were dressed (including hair styled and cosmetics applied) before a select audience; it was the feminine version of the lever. While the ritual was created by Louis XIV and is associated with royalty, aristocracy and even members of the bourgeois classes held their own morning dressing ceremonies before limited audiences.

The ideal woman of the 18th century had hair that was black, brown, or blond (particularly fashionable during Marie-Antoinette's reign); strong red hair was unfashionable and generally would be dyed a different color, although chestnut and strawberry blond were popular. Her hair was of wavy or curly texture. Her forehead was high, her cheeks plump and rosy, and her skin was white. Fashionable eye colors included black, chestnut, or blue; eyebrows were divided (ie no monobrows), slightly full, semicircular, and tapered at the ends in a half moon shape. Her lips were small, with a slightly larger bottom lip creating a rosebud effect, soft, and red. The paintings of François Boucher are particularly useful as a visual reference for this look.

Hairstyles

The 18th century is particularly associated with wigs, but these were primarily worn by men in the period. Wigs were introduced in the 17th century, when King Louis XIII of France (1610-43), who had let his own hair grow long, began to bald prematurely at the age of 23. Courtiers were quick to emulate the fashion, which spread to England during the period of the Restoration of Charles II (1660s-80s). Over time, specific wig styles began to be associated with various professions, and thus considered de rigeur for men of the middling and upper classes. In 1673, an independent wigmakers' guild was created in France; by the late 18th century, the number of French master wigmakers had more than quadrupled.

However, women rarely wore whole wigs. Instead, they increasingly hired professional hairdressers ( coiffeurs) who added false hair to their natural hair. While they were expected to augment their own hair with false hair, padding, powder, and ornaments, women's hair was supposed to remain "natural" by avoiding the wholesale artifice of men's wigs.

Both men and women powdered their hair or wig throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Powdering was introduced when King Henry IV of France (1589-1610) used dark powder on his greying hair. Hair powder was originally used mostly as a degreaser. White haired wigs were popular because they were expensive and rare, and so men and women began (in the early 18th century) to use white powder to color their wigs and hair, as it was less destructive than dye.

Hair powder was made from a variety of materials, from the poorest quality in corn and wheat flour, to the best quality in finely milled and sieved starch. It was usually white, but it could also be brown, grey, orange, pink, red, blue, or violet. It is important to note that the application of white powder over dark hair produces shades of light to dark grey, not the paper white seen in films and costume wigs. White powder applied over very light hair produces a heightened blond effect. Powder was applied with a bellows (the powderee being covered with a cone-shape face mask and fabric smock), with a puff for touchups and a knife for removal.

Hair was nearly always curled, waved, or frizzed before styling, in order to create texture. Styling was accomplished with combs and curling irons, held with pins, and dressed with pomade. When height was desired, it was raised over pads made of wool, tow, hemp, cut hair, or wire.

Looking at the period 1750-90 overall, women's hairstyles in France and England are relatively similar. In the 1750s, English women tended to wear plainer styles than Frenchwomen, but by the 1770s both nationalities are remarkably similar. The major contrast seen in portraiture is the near ubiquitous use of white powder by Frenchwomen throughout the era, while Englishwomen are rarely depicted wearing powder until the 1770s.

Hairstyles of the 1750s were generally small and close to the head. Hair was worn in soft curls or waves, with little to no height. Most Frenchwomen powdered their hair with white powder; Englishwomen generally left their hair unpowdered. In back, the hair was generally arranged in small curls, a twist or braid (worn pinned to the head, not hanging down), or pulled up smoothly.

The tête de mouton (or "sheep's head") style was particularly popular in France in the 1750s and early 1760s. It featured defined twists of curls that were arranged in rows across the front and top of the head, and generally was powdered.

Ornaments included a few small ribbons, pearls, jewels, flowers, or decorative pins styled together and called a pompom (so called after Mme de Pompadour, the famous mistress of Louis XV).

It is in the 1760s that hairstyles featuring height began to appear. This height was generally equal to about 1/4 to 1/2 the length of the face, and is usually styled in an egg shape. Again, Frenchwomen tended to powder their hair; Englishwomen appear to have left the hair unpowdered.

In the mid- to late- 1770s, huge hair became all the rage. The height of these styles was generally about 1 to 1 1/2 times the length of the face, and was styled in what was considered a pyramid shape (it also looks very much like a hot air balloon).

This high hairstyle was created using toques (or "cushions") which were made of fabric or cork and shaped like a heart or spear. It was attached to the top of the head, and then natural and false hair was curled, waved, or frizzed and piled over and around the cushion. Such elaborate hairstyles could be worn for days or weeks at a time. Mary Frampton later recalled,

"At that time [1780] everybody wore powder and pomatum; a large triangular thing called a cushion, to which the hair was frizzed up with three or four enormous curls on each side; the higher the pyramid of hair, gauze, feathers, and other ornaments was carried the more fashionable it was thought, and such was the labour employed to rear the fabric that night-caps were made in proportion to it and covered over the hair, immensely long black pins, double and single, powder, pomatum and all ready for the next day. I think I remember hearing that twenty-four large pins were by no means an unusual number to go to bed with on your head" (1780).

The high hairstyle was often styled into allegories of current events, such as à l'inoculation (vaccine), ballon (Montgolfier balloon experiments); or concepts, such as à la Zodiaque, à la frivolité, des migraines, etc. Ornaments included lots of ribbons, pearls, jewels, flowers, feathers, as well as ships, birdcages, and other items that evoked the theme. In 1774, the Duchess of Devonshire created a sensation when she introduced ostrich feathers into her hair.

Side curls angled up towards the top back of the hair. The back hair was generally styled in a looped-up ponytail or braid. Long curls were often left hanging at the nape of the neck. French styles often had an extra "bump" in the front of the hair, right above the forehead. In this period, both French and Englishwomen usually powdered their hair.

In 1775, Queen Maria Theresa of Austria-Hungary wrote to her daughter Marie-Antoinette,
"Likewise I cannot help but touch upon a point that many of the papers repeat to me too often: it is the hairstyle that you wear. They say that from the roots it measures 36 pouces high and with all the feathers and ribbons that hold all of that up! You know that I have always been of the opinion that one should follow fashion moderately, but never carry it to excess. A pretty young queen full of charms has no need of all these follies. Quite the contrary. A simple hairstyle suits her better and is more appropriate for a queen. She must set the tone, and everyone will hurry to follow even your smallest errors..."
Marie-Antoinette responded,

"It is true that I am a bit occupied by my hairstyle, and as for the feathers, everyone wears them, and it would look extraordinarily out of place not to" (quoted in Hosford).

During 1779-81, the shape of the hair started to become rounder and height began to diminish. This lower form of the pouf tended to be worn with fatter side curls than previously.

In 1781, Marie-Antoinette lost much of her hair after the birth of the dauphin. Famous coiffeur Léonard Autie later claimed that he created for her the coiffure à l'enfant, which she wore, along with her chemise à la reine, in the famously reviled painting by Louise Elisabeth Vigée-Le Brun. However, the hairstyle can be seen about a year or two earlier. Growing interest in what were considered "natural" fashion, brought about by the Enlightenment, created what was considered to be a more "natural" style in the 1780s. The hair was cut shorter to form a large curly or frizzy halo around the head, which was wider than tall. A small hank of much longer hair, either left straight, in ringlets, or braided, hung down the back or was worn looped up. These styles could still be very large, and false hair continued to be used to fill out a woman's natural hair.

In keeping with this more "natural" look, powdering began to fall out of favor, although it still appears frequently in paintings and fashion plates. Powder fell definitively out of fashion in France with the Revolution of 1789; in England, it remained popular enough that it was taxed in 1795 to raise money for the war against the French (although this tax was the final death blow). In keeping with the mood of the period, ornamentation became more restrained, generally a ribbon, or a few feathers, flowers, or jewels.

Cosmetics

Beginning in the 17 th century and continuing throughout the 18th century, both men and women in England and France wore obvious cosmetics. Gender differences were less important than class differences - cosmetics marked one as aristocratic and à la mode, and were adopted as well by those who were trying to rise in social status or become fashionable. Makeup was not intended to look natural - in fact, it was called "paint" - but instead, "...to represent one's aristocratic identity as declaratively as possible through cosmetic artifice" ( Hyde). Women and men showed their respectability and class through white skin, and heavy makeup was considered more respectable than naturally light skin.

Cosmetics also had practical aims - their use created what was considered an attractive face, and they could hide the effects of age, blemishes, disease, or sun.

In France, nearly all aristocratic women wore cosmetics (Louis XV's dowdy queen Marie Leszcynska was one of the few who did not). In fact, the painting of the face was a key part of the public toilette, the informal ceremony where an aristocratic woman dressed her face and hair before an elect audience. French aristocratic women wore thick layers of white paint, large streaks of rouge, and beauty patches ( mouches).

However, cosmetics were not limited to the upper echelons. Any bourgeois with aims of being à la mode would also have worn cosmetics (although perhaps not as heavily). Cosmetics declined in price and rose in availability over the century, and were even more frequently made at home by the less well to do. The middle classes tended to prefer tones of pink instead of red, and applied rouge in circular patterns rather than streaks.

In the 1760s, cosmetics were growing in such popularity that coiffeuses (vanity table sets) began to be heavily advertised, and dressing rooms were built facing north for the best light. By 1781, Frenchwomen used about two million pots of rouge a year.

A review of portraiture shows that Englishwomen were less likely to wear obvious cosmetics than Frenchwomen in the 1750s-60s (in other words, they were wearing cosmetics but with a more natural look) - but by the 1770s-80s, Englishwomen and Frenchwomen wore nearly identical amounts of cosmetics. In the 1780s, heavy use of cosmetics declined with the growing trend of a more "natural" look.

The key aspects of the 18th century cosmetic look were a complexion somewhere between white and pale, red cheeks in a large circular shape (particularly for French court wear) or upside down triangle, and red lips. There were two main cosmetics worn by most women and men: blanc and rouge.

Shiny white face paint was applied across the entire face and shoulders. The most popular white makeups used on the face were made of lead, which was popular for its opacity despite knowledge of lead poisoning. Kitty Fisher, a famous English beauty, died at age 23 (in 1767) from lead poisoning. Blanc could also be made from bismuth or vinegar. Veins could be traced with blue pencil to highlight the whiteness of the skin.

Red makeups were made of vermilion (ground from cinnabar and including mercury) or creuse (made by exposing lead plates to the vapor of vinegar); both are toxic. Vegetable sources for rouge included safflower, wood resin, sandalwood, and brazilwood. These would be mixed with greases, creams, or vinegars to create a paste. Court ladies wore rouge on the cheeks in wide swaths from the corner of the eye to the corner of the lips. Bourgeois and provincial nobility wore neater, circular dabs at the center of the cheek to highlight the eyes and whiteness of the skin.

Lips could be reddened with distilled alcohol or vinegar. By mid-century, red pomades (some in stick forms) for lips were being sold. The shades of red seen on lips varied between pink and coral, occasionally veering into burgundy.

Eyes sometimes had a bit of reddish color around them, probably caused by contrast with the white makeup or a reaction to the lead in blanc, but were otherwise left bare. Eyebrows were half moon shaped with tapered ends, and could be darkened with kohl, elderberries, burnt cork, or lampblack (soot from oil lamps). Court men and women sometimes plucked and painted their eyebrows, or occasionally wore false eyebrows made of mouse fur.

Beauty patches ("mouches") (made of silk velvet, satin, or taffeta and attached with glue) were part of a formal and/or aristocratic look. Their height of popularity was in the 17th century, but they still continued to be worn in the 18th century. They were meant to heighten the contrast with white skin. There were numerous sizes and shapes, worn in various positions with supposed meanings. In England, they took on a political meaning, with supporters of Whigs and Tories wearing patches on opposite sides of the face. Occasionally, patches could be worn together in designs, like trees or birds on the cheek of forehead.

In the 1750s-60s, Frenchwomen generally wore an extremely artificial look, with cosmetics used heavily and obviously. The face was extremely pale, with rouge applied in large, round circles on the cheeks. The eyes were left bare, sometimes with darkened brows, and lips were reddish. In contrast, Englishwomen usually appeared somewhat naturalistic, with cosmetics used sparingly and discreetly. The face was pale but not extreme, with the option of rouge applied in an upside down triangular shape, from the cheekbones almost to the jawline (similarly to how naturally pale women flush). Eyes were bare, and lips were reddish.

In the 1770s-80s, Frenchwomen and Englishwomen followed the same look: somewhat artificial, with cosmetics worn heavily and obviously, but not as extreme as in France in the mid-century. The face was pale but less extremely white, with rouge applied in the upside down triangular shape. Eyes were bare, sometimes with eyebrows darkened, and lips were reddish.

Bibliography

Bender, A. "Assistants of Beauty: Cosmetics in the Rococo and Empire Eras." La Couturiere Parisienne: http://marquise.de/en/1700/kosmetik.shtml

Corson, Richard. Fashions in Hair, the First Five Thousand Years. Chester Springs, PA: Dufour Editions, 2001.

Corson, Richard. Fashions in Makeup, from Ancient to Modern Times. Chester Springs, PA: Dufour Editions, 2003.

DeGalan, Aimée Marcereau. "Lead White or Dead White? Dangerous Beauty Practices of Eighteenth-Century England." Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts 76(1/2) 2002: 38-49.

Festa, Lynn. "Cosmetic Differences: The Changing Faces of England and France." Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 34 2005: 25-54.

Festa, Lynn. "Personal Effects: Wigs and Possessive Individualism in the Long Eighteenth Century." Eighteenth-Century Life 29(2) 2005: 47-90.

Frampton, Mary. The Journal of Mary Frampton: From the Year 1779, Until the Year 1846. S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1885.

Gayne, Mary K. "Illicit Wigmaking in Eighteenth-Century Paris." Eighteenth-Century Studies 38(1) 2004: 119-137.

Haulman, Kate. "A Short History of the High Roll." Common-Place 2(1) Oct. 2001: http://www.common-place.org/vol-02/no-01/lessons/

Hosford, Desmond. "The Queen's Hair: Marie-Antoinette, Politics, and DNA." Eighteenth-Century Studies 38(1) 2004: 183-200.

Hyde, Melissa. "The 'Makeup' of the Marquise: Boucher's Portrait of Pompadour at Her Toilette." The Art Bulletin 82(3) 2000: 453-475.

Kwas, Michael. "Big Hair: A History of Consumption in Eighteenth-Century France." American Historical Review 111(3) 2006: 630-659.

Martin, Morag. "Doctoring Beauty: The Medical Control of Women's Toilettes in France, 1750-1820." Medical History 49 2005: 351-368.

Martin, Morag. Selling Beauty: Cosmetics, Commerce, and French Society, 1750-1830. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.

Palmer, Caroline. "Brazen Cheek: Face-Painters in Late Eighteenth-Century England." Oxford Art Journal 31(2) 2008: 195-213.

Powell, Margaret K. "Big Hair." Eighteenth-Century Studies 31(1) 2004: 79-99.

Rauser, Amelia. "Hair, Authenticity, and the Self-Made Macaroni." Eighteenth-Century Studies 38(1) 2004: 101-117.

Ribeiro, Aileen. The Female Face in the Tate's British Collection, 1569-1876. London: The [Tate] Gallery, 1987.

Weber, Caroline. Queen of Fashion: What Marie Antoinette Wore to the Revolution. New York: H. Holt, 2006.

Williams, Neville. Powder and Paint: A History of the Englishwoman's Toilet, Elizabeth I - Elizabeth II. London, New York: Longmans, Green, 1957.

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Women's Hairstyles & Cosmetics of the 18th Century: France & England, 1750-1790

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Just as fashions change, so too do styles in hairstyles and cosmetics. The second half of the 18th century is an era particularly identified with hair and makeup, as these became such potent symbols of aristocracy during the Enlightenment and French Revolution.

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Reflection. Amy Rodrigues