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I decided to work on the biodiversity of this Westafrican country I visited several times.
It is located in the Gulf of Guinea.
The main climate of Ghana is "tropical", but has a rich diversity of ecosystems. Indeed, it's divided into 6 main ecological zones (see map below). These zones differ significantly in their annual rainfall amounts; the Sudan Savannah zone gets the fewest rainfall with 500-700mm a year whereas the High Rainfall zone in the western part of the country gets 2000mm a year (Issaka et al., 2014). These differences imply a variation in the vegetation (going from forest to Shrubland) and therefore in the flora and fauna. There are two main seasons: wet and dry (www.britannica.com).

References:
- www.britannica.com
- Indigenous Fertilizing Materials to
Enhance Soil Productivity in Ghana.
Roland Nuhu Issaka1, Moro Mohammed Buri1,
Satoshi Tobita, Satoshi Nakamura and Eric Owusu-Adjei1. Soil Fertility Improvement and Integrated Nutrient Management – A Global Perspective. Researchgate, 2015.

Map: Issaka et al., 2014

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The malaria parasite is part of the group of vector-transmitted parasites; this parasite belonging to the Plasmodium group depends on Anopheles mosquitoes to be transmitted.
Malaria is one of the major causes of death in Ghana; 2012 over 17,000 died because of this parasite (borgenproject.org).

References:
- borgenproject.org/
common-diseases-in-ghana/

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A study of 2012 sampled fecal samples of 55 baboons (Papio anubis) in a residential area near Mole National Park. They found that 93% of the samples were infected with:
- Strongyles
- Strongyloides spp.
- Abbreviata caucasica
- Balantidium coli
- others

Since baboons often visit the human areas, there could be problems with transmissions. Further studies should be done to find out if this is actually the case (Ryan et al., 2012).

Reference:
- A Survey of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) in Human
Settlement Areas of Mole National Park, Ghana. 2012.
Sadie J. Ryan, Justin S. Brashares, Chesley Walsh, Katherine Milbers, Cailean Kilroy, and Colin A. Chapman. Journal of Parasitology.

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Alcephalus buselaphus
(www.iucnredlist.org)

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As said before, the main climate of Ghana is tropical and the diversity of species is high, as it is generally the case in tropical regions (Huston, 1979). There is no certainty about the reason of high diversity in tropical regions; just several hypotheses (www.earth.com). The mentioned reference sees temperature as being the main factor for a high diversity.

More than 20 years ago, the Upper Guinean Forest

was identified as a big diversity hotspot because of its exceptional concentration of endemic species and its particular loss of habitats.

(eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/node/16)

References
- www.earth.com
- Michael Huston, 1979. The American Naturalist.
A GENERAL HYPOTHESIS OF SPECIES DIVERSITY
Division of Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109.
-eros.usgs.gov/ westafrica/node/16

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Panthera leo
(www.ghana411.com)

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From a swiss perspective (my home country), it would be more appropriate to call Ghana's moutains hills (Highest Peak: Afadjato, 885 meters). Most of the highest "moutains" are found in Volta Region (www.wordatlas.com). Their presence induces an incredible beautiful landscape, with many waterfalls (Wli falls, Boti falls, Kintampo falls,...).
"Although the movements of the Earth’s crust that produced the basic geologic structure of the country have now virtually ceased, periodic earthquakes occur"(Quoted from: www.britannica.com).

References:
- www.wordatlas.com
- www.britannica.com

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Ghana is rich in natural resources; gold, manganese, bauxite, industrial diamonds, timber, rubber, hydropower, petroleum, silver, salt and limestone are the main economical goods. 64.4% of Ghana's primary export are gold and bauxite (www.business-reporter.co.uk).

Who talks about natutal resources, talks about mining and sadly, in most cases who talks about mining talks about damaging human activity. Especially the south of the country is a primary location for mining. A paper from 2015 shows up the main environmental problems caused by illegal small scale gold mining. These are the main environmental resources affected:
- Water
- Soil
- Landscape
- Vegetation
The rivers are polluted, the soil is rendered bare which eases the process of erosion and makes it impossible to use it for agriculture, the cleaning of the surrounding vegetation modifies the hydraulic system. Furthermore, it kills the soil-fauna / flora, destroys soil aggregates and reduces the amount of organic matter stocked in the soil (Mensah et al., 2015).

References:
-  Albert K. Mensah, Ishmail O. Mahiri, Obed Owusu, Okoree D. Mireku, Ishmael Wireko, and Evans A. Kissi, “Environmental Impacts of Mining: A Study of Mining Communities in Ghana.” Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences, vol. 3, no. 3 (2015): 81-94. doi: 10.12691/aees-3-3-3.
- www.business-reporter.co.uk

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"To date, there are 182 forest reserves in the high-forest zone covering an area of 1.62 million hectares, 62 forest reserves in the savanna zone covering 600'000 hectares and 16 wildlife protected area in the country"(Quoted from: Forestry Comission, slideplayer.com).

Reference:
- Forestry Comission, slideplayer.com

Kakum National Park, Central Region (RB: 2016)

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The soils in Ghana are dominated by three main processes:
- Weathering
- Leaching
- Formation of Laterite hardpans

Weathering is the process by which the soil gets erroded by biological activity, rain or wind. Leaching is the movement of soluble material from the top of the soil profile to a lower level by percolation. Laterite hardpans are hard and impervious layers composed mainly of iron and aluminium oxides cemented by insoluble materials.

The importance of each of these processes depends on the climatic and geological situation. Leaching is the dominating process in the south (wet) and the formation of laterite is more likely to be seen in the north (drier). Most soils are very old, have been formed from the parent rock material in place and have been subjected to many years of erosion; they therefore have quite low fertility (www.britannica.com).

Reference:
- www.britannica.com

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There are 860 species of butterflies in Ghana (Larsen, 1994). 20 species of butterflies are classified as "endemic" or "nearly-endemic" (ghanabutterflies.uw.hu/).
Reference
- ghanabutterflies.uw.hu/
- Torben B. Larsen, 1994. THE BUTTERFLIES OF GHANA AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE
Compiled for. Ghana Wildlife Department and IUCN.

Butterflies near the Wli Waterfalls (RB: 2015)

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Gecko (Hemidactylus mabouia ?), Cape Coast (RB: 2016

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Baboon, Mole National Park (RB:2016)

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Crocodile, Mole National Park (RB: 2015)

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Warthog, Mole National Park (RB:2015)

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In Mole National Park, there are less than 50 lions left (lionalert.org). The population has been declining more and more in the last decades. The reason are multiple:
- Illegal hunting
- Prey depletion (bushmeat hunting)
- Diseases
- Intraguild competition
- Inbreeding depression

More research has to be done to figure out which are the main factors contributing to this decline and how to counter it (Burton et al., 2011).

Nevertheless, one of the prey of lions in the Mole National Park are Hartebeest. They are widespread inside the park and according to the IUCN Red List, they have the status of "least concern" (iucnredlist.org/species/811/50181009).

References:
- The decline of lions in Ghana’s Mole National
Park. 2010. A. Cole Burton1, Eric B. Buedi, Cletus Balangtaa,David G. Kpelle, Moses K. Sam and Justin S. Brashare. African Journal of Ecology·
- iucnredlist.org/ species/811/50181009

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Carmine bee eater (Merops nubicus)(africanbirdclub.org)

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Locust (Schistocerca gregaria)(Wikipedia:

User:Alvesgaspar)

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Although its name suggests that the carmine bee eater eats only bees, they also eat insects like grasshoppers and locusts(www.hbw.com).
The desert locust can be a big problem for the local agriculture; they can be the cause of famines. One-tenth of the world’s population could potentially be affected by this insect. Due to its life cycle, locust populations grow explosively in huge outbreaks (afrol.com). Natural predators like the carmine bee eater are therefore very important, even though succesful control of the locust populations on a large scale is done with biocontrol (bacteria, fungi) or pesticide (afrol.com).

References:
- www.afrol.com /articles/14429
- www.hbw.com /species/northern-carmine-bee-eater-merops-nubicus

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This gecko species is well adapted to live with humans. They extended their niche to houses, where they do not have much competitors and where they can happily eat mosquitoes.

Reference
- A conservation assessment of the herpetofauna of a moist semideciduous forest in Ghana. 2013. Musah Yahaya, Daniel K. Attuquayefio, Erasmus H. Owusu, Lars H. Holbech, Benjamin Y. Ofori. Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences (JBES).

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Often rural communities use their resources in an unsustainable way because it is their only source of livelihood. This was the case with the Hippopothamus in the Upper West Region of Ghana. Many people believe that these animals saved their ancestors lives. However, they still got poached. In order to protect these sacred creatures better, a sanctuary was created in 1999 (www.ghanahippos.com. A study explored how tourism in a rural setting contributes to environmental conservation (Wuleka and Raymond, 2012).

References:
- www.ghanahippos.com
- Kuuder C. J. Wuleka and Adongo Raymond. 2012. The Wechiau Hippo Sanctuary of Ghana: A Quintessence of Sustainable Tourism. Journal of Environmental Management and Safety.

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The ecological niche of the mascot animal of the Mole National Park, the Loxodonta africana, varies between the wet and the dry season.
While they use 856 km2 during the wet period, they use only 547.68 km2 in the dry season. These are the predictions made by Ashiagbor and Danquah (2017). They based this on the proximity to waterholes and saltlicks as well as on the digital elevation model.

Reference:
- George Ashiagbor & Emmanuel Danquah. Seasonal habitat use by Elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the
Mole National Park of Ghana. 2017. Wiley: Ecology and Evolution.

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Acacia kamerunensis vs. Nauclea diderrichii

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Acacia kamerunensis vs. Nauclea diderrichii

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Acacia lianas and Nauclea (35m to 48m tall)trees share the same niche and they are in competition for the light. Their interaction is modified depending on the openness of the canopy. In an open canopy, the competitive effect of the liana on Nauclea was stronger than in "leaf areas"; the biomass of Nauclea is reduced by 32% in an open canopy area while it is not affected in a "leaf area".
The two species "manage it" because Nauclea diderrichii can develop well in "leaf areas", which let them persist and expand.

Reference:
- Effect of lianas on tree regeneration in gaps and forest understorey
in a tropical forest in Ghana. 2008. Toledo-Aceves, T.1 & Swaine, M.D. Journal of Vegetation Science 19.

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Mole National Park, Northern Region (RB: 2015)

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imagessure.com

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Wli Waterfalls, Volta Region (RB:2015)

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African Elephant, Mole National Park (RB:2015)

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Favourable Habitat for elephants in dry season and wet season in Mole National Park (Ashiagbor and Danquah, 2017)

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www.graphic.com.gh

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"In regions such as Bahia, southern Cameroon, southwest Nigeria, eastern
Ghana, and initially the Côte d’Ivoire, cocoa was grown in complex agroforests that are among the most diversified and forest-like of all agricultural systems (see Chapter 10, this volume); in other cases, such as most of the Côte d’Ivoire, western Ghana, Malaysia, and Sulawesi in Indonesia, cocoa was grown in plantations with little or no shade, often almost monocultures. It is
obviously important for biodiversity, both on the plot and on the landscape
scale, whether forest is replaced by a tree crop monoculture or a complex agroforest with an understory of cocoa trees under the shade of old forest trees.
Even more important, however, for regional biodiversity is how these land use types affect primary forest cover in the long term. Both the longevity of a tree crop such as cocoa and the ease of replanting it on the same site are system characteristics that are influenced by the degree of shading and may influence,in turn, the long-term forest consumption by cocoa farms, as we shall see." (Quoted from Ruf and Schroth, 2003). As you can read in the previous quote, the cocoa culture is handled in two different ways in Ghana. In regions where the farms are implemented in an agroforestry system, coccoa production is more of habitat degradation and in regions where the farms consist only of Coccoa, it is habitat loss.

Reference:
- Ruf and Schroth, 2003. Chocolate Forests and Monocultures:
A Historical Review of Cocoa Growing
and Its Conflicting Role in Tropical
Deforestation and Forest Conservation. In book: Agroforestry and Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Landscapes, Publisher: Island Press, Washington, Editors: G. Schroth, G.A.B. Fonseca, C.A. Harvey, C. Gascon, H. Vasconcelos, A.M.N. Izac, pp.107-134.

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www.confectionerynews.com

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www.dw.com

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Ghana river frog (Phrynobatrachus ghanensis)

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Ghana river frog (Phrynobatrachus ghanensis)

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Status: endangered

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Status: vulnerable

(Picture: RB - 2016)

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Status: endangered (one of the 25 most threatened species of ape worldwide.)
Picture: www.iucn.nl

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Status: Vulnerable
Picture: florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg

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"Cinnamomum camphora is native to Japan, China, Taiwan and northern Vietnam. C. camphora has become widely naturalised in Australia. In the United States, it grows along the Gulf Coast and in California. C. camphora seeds are easily spread by birds from cultivated yards to open forests, and it is also spread to new locations through plant nursery sales. C. camphora fruits, leaves, and roots are toxic to humans in large doses." (quoted from: issg.org/database/species.Unfortunately, I could not find whether it has been introduced in Ghana during the last decade, but probably it was before,

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Since Ghana is a coastal country (south) and has already a tendency towards desertification nowadays (Savanna in the North: ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ghana-to-mark-World-Desertification-and-Drought-Day-448276#), it will be heavily impacted by climate change. As can be seen on the map "Soil degradation worldwide", the soil in Ghana is quite touched today. "about 35% of the total land mass of the country has already been turned into semi desert and that climate change has advanced desert in an already fragile regions, the Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions, which together constitute about 40% of the total land mass of the country". (quoted from: http://2celsius.net )
25% of the population of Ghana lives along the coast, where the risks of flooding is high according to climate scenarios. Solutions against these problems have to be found fast to avoid heavy repercussions on nature and humanity.

References:
-climatelinks.org/
resources/climate-change-risk-profile-ghana
- www.ghanaweb.com/
GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ghana-to-mark-World-Desertification-and-Drought-Day-448276#
- http://2celsius.net/
climate-change-furthers-desertification-up-north/

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I find it fascinating how diversified the Bio-Areas are. From Switzerland, to Belgium, to Greece, to the Philippines and many more, a lot of species were desribed in their environments. What is even more fascinating is that this is only one glance at one Bio-areas and that there is still so much to see for all of us! So: let's keep on exploring!! :D