# data[].attributes.body
This gives a few paragraphs of information regarding the Italian revolution and its leaders. It describes what "Realpolitik" is. It also describes the different leaders and what their contributions were to the revolution.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Summary

The movement to unite Italy into one cultural and political entity was known as the Risorgimento (literally, "resurgence"). Giuseppe Mazzini and his leading pupil, Giuseppe Garibaldi, failed in their attempt to create an Italy united by democracy. Garibaldi, supported by his legion of Red Shirts-- mostly young Italian democrats who used the 1848 revolutions as a opportunity for democratic uprising--failed in the face of the resurgence of conservative power in Europe. However, it was the aristocratic politician named Camillo di Cavour who finally, using the tools of realpolitik, united Italy under the crown of Sardinia.

"Realpolitik" is the notion that politics must be conducted in terms of the realistic assessment of power and the self-interest of individual nation-states (and the pursuit of those interests by any means, often ruthless and violent ones) and Cavour used it superbly. In 1855, as prime minister of Sardinia, he involved the kingdom on the British and French side of the Crimean War, using the peace conference to give international publicity to the cause of Italian unification. In 1858, he formed an alliance with France, one that included a pledge of military support if necessary, against Austria, Italy's major obstacle to unification. After a planned provocation of Vienna, Austria declared war against Sardinia in 1859 and was easily defeated by the French army. The peace, signed in November 1959 in Zurich, Switzerland, joined Lombardy, a formerly Austrian province, with Sardinia. In return, France received Savoy and Nice from Italy--a small price to pay for paving the way to unification.

Inspired by Cavour's success against Austria, revolutionary assemblies in the central Italian provinces of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Romagna voted in favor of unification with Sardinia in the summer of 1859. In the spring of 1860, Garibaldi came out of his self-imposed exile to lead a latter day Red Shirt army, known as the Thousand, in southern Italy. By the end of the year, Garibaldi had liberated Sicily and Naples, which together made up the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Cavour, however, worried that Garibaldi, a democrat, was replacing Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy, as the unifier of Italy. To put an end to Garibaldi's offensive, Cavour ordered Sardinian troops into the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples. After securing important victories in these regions, Cavour organized plebiscites, or popular votes, to annex Naples to Sardinia. Garibaldi, outmaneuvered by the experienced realist Cavour, yielded his territories to Cavour in the name of Italian unification. In 1861, Italy was declared a united nation-state under the Sardinian king Victor Immanuel II.

Reapolitik continued to work for the new Italian nation. When Prussia defeated Austria in a war in 1866, Italy struck a deal with Berlin, forcing Vienna to turn over Venetia. In addition, when France lost a war to Prussia in 1870, Victor Immanuel II took over Rome when French troops left. The entire boot of Italy was united under one crown.

Why did Cavour succeed and Garibaldi fail? Was it really only a matter of speed? If Garibaldi had started his crusade earlier and had time to conquer the Papal State before Cavour sent his troops to do so, would Cavour have been forced to give up his territory in the name of a united Italy? Doubtful. But is speed really the only issue? That, too, is doubtful. It seems that of the two, Cavour alone understood the relationship between national and international events, and was thus able to manipulate foreign policy for his own ends. Garibaldi, a democrat, a warrior, and an anti-Catholic, was without question on the road to conflict with the monarchies of Europe. Cavour, with the added credibility of representing a monarch, blended perfectly with the political situation in Europe at the time.

Cavour was a realist who practice realistic politics. He allied with France when necessary and with France's key enemy, Prussia, was necessary. By keeping the goal in mind, Cavour used international power to achieve his domestic goals. Garibaldi was forced to use his own grassroots strength, empowered by young Italian democrats interested in an idealistic future for their nation. In that manner, it is quite doubtful that Garibaldi would have ever been able to gain the upper hand in Italy, relative to Cavour.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A summary of Italian Unification (1848-1870) in 's Europe (1848-1871). Learn exactly what happened in this chapter, scene, or section of Europe (1848-1871) and what it means. Perfect for acing essays, tests, and quizzes, as well as for writing lesson plans.

# data[].attributes.body
Impressionism

# data[].attributes.body
This map shows what Italy looked like during the time of its unification.

# data[].attributes.body
This video condenses the information regarding the Italian Unification into about 9 minutes. It talks about Giuseppe Mazzini, and how he was one of the earliest revolutionary speakers. Also, it mentions both the Italian wars, including the second one that broke out in 1859.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How did Italy Become a Country? | Animated History

# data[].attributes.body
This article condenses the information of the German unification into a few paragraphs. It talks about Camillo di Cavour, as well as Bismarck and what they did during the unification. Lastly, it talks about the war between Prussia and France, and how Prussia declared the German Empire (Second Reich)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Summary

Whereas Camillo di Cavour directed Italian unification, a Junker (the Prussian name for an aristocratic landowner from old Prussia in the east) named Otto von Bismarck pushed German unification through "blood and iron" and skillful understanding of realpolitik. As the map of central Europe stood in 1850, Prussia competed with Austria for dominance over a series of small principalities fiercely keen on maintaining their independence and distinctive characteristics. Prussia proper stretched from modern-day Lithuania to central Germany. Prussia also controlled the German lands around the Rhine River in the west. In between, from Denmark to Switzerland, lay small provinces that Bismarck needed to incorporate under the Prussian crown to create a viable German Empire.

In 1862, Bismarck reorganized the Prussian army and improved training in preparation for war. In 1864, he constructed an alliance with Austria to fight Denmark over Denmark's southern provinces of Schleiswig and Holstein. Prussia received Schleiswig while Austria administered Holstein. That situation, however, could not stand for long, as Austrian Holstein was now surrounded by Prussian lands. Bismarck provoked a conflict with Austria over an unrelated border dispute and in the subsequent Seven Weeks' War--named for its brevity--Prussia crushed the collapsing Austrian army. The peace settlement transferred Holstein to Prussia and forced Austria to officially remove itself from all German affairs.

With Austria out of Bismarck's way, his next obstacle was the skepticism of the southern provinces. Overwhelmingly Catholic and anti-militaristic, the southern provinces doubted Prussia's commitment to a united Germany of all provinces. Prussia's Protestantism and historic militarism made the gulf between north and south quite serious. Therefore, Bismarck turned to realpolitik to unite the Germanic provinces by constructing a war against a common enemy. In 1870, Bismarck forged a note from the French ambassador, implying that the ambassador had insulted the Prussian king. After he leaked this letter to both populations, the people of France and Prussia, roused by nationalist sentiment, rose up in favor of war. As Bismarck hoped, the southern provinces rallied to Prussia's side without any hesitation. In July 1870, France declared war on Prussia. Within a matter of weeks of fighting in Alsace-Lorraine, France lost this Franco-Prussian War. Alsace-Lorraine was transferred to Germany in the peace settlement, allowing Prussia to declare the German Empire, or Second Reich, on January 21, 1871.

Like Italy, Germany had quite a few serious issues to resolve once unification took place. Regional differences, developing since the first settlement of the Germanic tribes during the Roman Empire, were distinct, and local princes refused to give up substantial power to the central government. The Berlin assembly, therefore, was kept weak. Germany, like the United States under the Articles of the Confederation, seemed merely a loose of confederation of autonomous states. In Germany's case, one state, Prussia, was absolutely dominant due to its size, power, and military strength. This, combined with Bismarck's skillful conduct in international and national affairs as chancellor, kept the empire together until 1914.

However, the creation of a unified Germany in central Europe marked one of the greatest revolutions in the history of international relations. Since the establishment of nation-states in Europe, France, under the Valois-Bourbon royal line, dedicated its foreign policy to the weakening of Habsburg (Austrian and Spanish royal families) and the continued disunity of the Germanic provinces. Now that central Europe was united into two major powers--Germany and Italy--Europe was quite a different place. What would now become of the traditional balance of power in place since the defeat of Napoleon? The whole point had been that no one nation should gain excessive power and strength on the Continent. With the unification of Germany in central Europe--an essential economic and strategic region--was the balance of power doomed?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A summary of German Unification (1850-1871) in 's Europe (1848-1871). Learn exactly what happened in this chapter, scene, or section of Europe (1848-1871) and what it means. Perfect for acing essays, tests, and quizzes, as well as for writing lesson plans.

# data[].attributes.body
Realism

# data[].attributes.body
This map shows what Germany looked like in 1871, during the time of German unification.

# data[].attributes.body
This video gives the history and talks more about German unification within three minutes. It also talks about the leaders of the German unification, like Otto von Bismarck. Moreover, it talks about the Palace of Versailles and proclaiming Wilhelm the new emperor of Germany.

# data[].attributes.body
This article provides information for the leaders of the revolution, as well as other information about the revolution. It gives the background of Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Morelos. It also talks about their independence in general.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The war for Independence 1810- 1821

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Jose Marcia Morelos y Pavon

Congress of Chilpancingo

Army revolt in Spain

Plan de Iguala

Independence

Unlike in America, where there was a broad groundswell at indignation at English abuses and taxation without representation, only a few conspired for independence in New Spain . There were some military officers kept out of the highest ranks by virtue of being born in New Spain rather than the motherland. Merchants and civil servants exposed to ideas of the Enlightenment and the American and French revolutions. The most radical were the parish priests who saw the suffering of their Indian parishioners firsthand. Most Creoles ( Criollo) wished to change the system so that they could have equality with the peninsulares, but not equality for all. Creole discontent with Spanish rule had been brewing since the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 . Many of the Jesuits were Creoles . When Napoleon occupied Spain in 1809, direct Spanish control over the colonies was lost and the flame of rebellion spread .The lower classes, the Indians and mixed castes had nothing much to lose, their lot was so hard . They did rebel, but these rebellions were not organized enough to spread far .

The Mexican War of Independence

Charles IV

Despite a lack of fervor for radical change as in France and America, events in Europe caused it to be a necessity . Unlike the wise Charles III, his son Charles IV ( 1788 -1808 ) exploited the wealth of the colonies. The most ruinous decision was to take the charitable funds of the church to help pay for European wars . These church funds were sources of credit for Creoles. The church had to call in their mortgages, destroying many Creoles financially .Uprisings against Charles IV in Spain forced him abdicate in favor of his son in 1808 .

It all began with a "shout", with Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla calling on the people of New Spain to fight for their independence
The Mexican Wars for Independence
This perceptive history paints Mexico's 1810-1821

struggle for independence

There was more turmoil in Spain when Napoleon forced the Spanish Bourbons into exile and place his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1808 . Because Spain was virtually cut off from its colonies during the Peninsular War of 1808 - 1814, Latin America was, in these years, ruled by independent juntas. Without a true Spanish monarchy, many Creoles thought they should rule themselves. The peninsulares thought otherwise .The Inquisition was used to spy against and try those who agitated for reform . By 1810 many secret societies were formed by Creoles to fight for independence .

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

One of the first to call for independence was priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (May 8, 1753 - July 30, 1811) in Guanajuato . He became a bishop in 1778 and was investigated by the Inquisition in 1800 for questioning the celibacy of priests ( he had a mistress ), reading proscribed books, doubting the veracity of the virgin birth and the infallibility of the pope and considered the king a tyrant .However, none of these charges could be proved and he was released . However, he lost his position as a rector at the collage of San Nicolas in Morelia .

Ignacio Allende

He became the priest in the city of Dolores in 1803 . A few years later he met the revolutionary Ignacio Allende, a captain of the cavalry . Allende introduced him to his revolutionary coterie and planned an uprising for December 8, 1810. However, the plot was discovered and they decided to strike for independence at once .Hidalgo rang the church bells and summoned his parishioners and delivered his famous grito ( cry ) de Dolores on September 16, 1810. Until he delivered his speech he was a minor figure in the revolutionary movement . In response to his call ' Viva Guadalupe ! ( after the Virgin of Guadalupe, who became an independence symbol, her humble clothes contrasting with the richly decorate virgin of the secular church ) The crowd shouted Death to the peninsulares !

The initial response was enthusiastic . With Hidalgo at their head, they marched for San Miguel, gathering more recruits along the way. They took San Migual without trouble and the local militia joined the rebels . They started to pillage and Hidalgo could not control them. Next they took Celya and then marched on Guanajuato. There the peninsulares gathered in a makeshift fortress and decided to wait for aid from Mexico City .

History of Mexico - The of the fight for Independence

Alhondiga de Granaditas

La Antorcha encendida : la toma de la Alhondiga de Granaditas

It never came and over 500 peninsulares were killed holding out in the Alhondiga de Granaditas (public granary) and 2,000 rebels were killed . Hidalgo and Allende felt strong enough at this time to split their forces . Within a month they had taken the important silver mining town of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi and Valladolid . By late October the army had about 80,000 marching on Mexico City .

Site of the battle of Monte de las Cruces

La Batalla del Monte de Las Cruces

The professional army was defeated by sheer numbers at Monte de las Cruces . The army retreated into Mexico City . An immediate attack on Mexico City might have taken the city and brought independence then . However, Hidalgo had taken heavy losses and was short of ammunition . He was also hesitant to let the undeciplined forces lose on Mexico City . Over Allendes objection he decided to retreat into toward Guadalajara and the Spanish forces under General Felix Calleja began to regroup . The rebels took Guadalajara .

Battle of Puente de Calderon

La Antorcha Encendida ~ Puente de Calderón Battle of Puente de Calderon

The Spanish army engaged them at Puente de Calderon. In the middle of the battle, a Spanish cannon shot hit a rebel ammunition wagon and the resulting explosion caused a panic in the rebel army and thousands of rebels broke rank and ran, turning into a rout . Hidalgo and Allende took what was left of their forces and retreated northward. They were betrayed and captured in the Texas territory and executed for treason by firing squad on July 31, 1811. Their decapitated heads hung of the walls where the Spaniards were slaughtered at Alhondiga de Granaditas for 10 years as a warning .

Miguel Hidalgo was executed at the Government Palace of Chihuahua

on July 30, 1811 by a Spanish firing squad

The Independence movement after

the death of Miguel Hidalgo

Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon

Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon

The popularity of the Independence movement waned after this . The movement was continued under the mestizo priest Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon (September, 30, 1765, - December 22, 1815 ) , who had been recruited by Hildago . Morelos organized his soldiers into small bands that carried out guerrilla warfare . By 1813 they won enough territory to encircle the capital . Morelos proved to be a talented strategist, and became one of the greatest revolutionary military commanders of the independence movement. In his first nine months, he won 22 victories, defeating the armies of three Spanish royalist leaders and dominating almost all of what is now the state of Guerrero. In December, he captured Acapulco for the first time, except for the fortress of San Diego.

Congress of Chilpancingo

( September to November 1813 )

Morelos then held a congress in Chilpancingo to discuss the plans for the nation once the Spanish were driven out . They issued a Declaration of Independence, those opposed to it were guilty of treason . In their constitution that declared that suffrage should be universal and that slavery and the caste system should be abolished. Government monopolies should also be done away with and replaced with a 5% income tax . Catholicism would remain the official religion of the state .

Viceroy Apodaca

Meanwhile, the Spanish army gathered strength and broke the encirclement, retaking many towns . Gradually, the rebel army dwindled and in 1815 Morelos was captured and executed .

The execution of Morelos

With the execution of Morelos the Independence movement reached its lowest point . For the next 5 years the movement was little more than guerrilla fighting by a number of independent bands without coordination . After awhile only two major bands remained, one led by Guadalupe Victoria with about 2.000 troops around Puebla and Vicente Guerrero with about 1,000 around Oaxaca . By 1819, the Spanish viceroy, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca was able to report to king Ferdinand that the situation was under control .He offered a pardon for all who would lay down their arms.

King Ferdinand VII

Army revolt in Spain

Meanwhile, King Ferdinand had been gathering a powerful fighting force to quell the more serious Independence movements in South America . At Cadiz, Spain, in January 1820, troops who had assembled for an expedition to America were angry over infrequent pay, bad food, and poor quarters and mutinied under the leadership of Colonel Rafael del Riego y Nunez .Colonel Rafael Riego declared himself in revolt and thousands of troops followed . The Spanish troops demanded that the king should abide by the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 which affirmed the sovereignty of the people, free speech and curbed the power of the church . If this was not done there would be a military coup .The king, a virtual prisoner of the army at this point, yielded to their demands .

Ironically, the Creoles found this change too liberal, and began to support Independence and secretly meet with the former colonel Agustin de Iturbide to be their leader to insure a more conservative government . Iturbide had fought against the rebels for nearly a decade . He resigned from the royal army after being accused of corruption. The Creoles convinced the viceroy to reinstate him in the army .

Colonel Iturbide

Plan de Iguala

In 1820 viceroy Apodaca placed colonel Iturbide in charge of 2,500 men to fight Guerrero . Iturbide marched his force toward those of Guerrero and instead of fighting him asked for a meeting and peace if he could dictate the terms . Guerrero agreed and on Feb 24 they issued the Plan de Iguala, the major points of which were that: independent Mexico would be a constitutional monarchy, led by King Ferdinand or another European prince , . The Catholic Church would remain the only official church in the country, Creoles and peninsularies would have equal rights. A new army would be created, the Army of the Three Guarantees to enforce the plan .

Flag of the Army of the Three Guarantees

The three guarantees which it was meant to defend: religion, independence, and unity. Mexico was to be a Catholic country, independent from Spain, and united against its enemies.

This was a much more conservative plan than that of Morelos. The revolution of Hidalgo and Morelos never gathered support from the conservative upper classes of New Spain, this plan could and military units and common people began to defect to the Army of the Three Guarantees. Priests spoke in support of it from the pulpit . Even many Spanish in Mexico supported the plan since they saw a future for themselves in Mexico, unlike the earlier more radical plans that demanded death or exile of the peninsulares .After many cities fell to the Army of the Three Guarantees, viceroy Apodaca resigned .

Independence Celebration in Mexico City

Independence

The Crown was not ready to give up New Spain and appointed a new viceroy, Juan de O'Donoju, the last viceroy of New Spain . O'Donoju became convinced that Spain could not hold on to Mexico, and accepted the Plan de Iguala and signed a treaty at Cordoba . One more proviso was added by Iturbide ; if no European leader was available to become the emperor of Mexico, a Mexican congress would chose an emperor, this was to become an important point . On September 27, 1821 , Iturbide marched into the capital with Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria and the army. After so many years of fighting and over 300 years of Spanish rule, Mexico was independent at last .

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The war for Independence 1810- 1821 MexicanHistory.org Mexican history from ancient times to today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The war for Independence 1810- 1821 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Jose Marcia Morelos y Pavon Congress of Chilpancingo Army revolt in Spain Plan de Iguala Independence Unlike in America, where there was a broad groundswell at indignation at English abuses and taxation without representation, only a few conspired for independence in New Spain .

# data[].attributes.body
Romanticism

# data[].attributes.body
This map shows what Mexico looked like in 1821, towards the end of their revolution.

# data[].attributes.body
This video talks about how Mexico won their independence. They declared their independence officially from Spain in 1813. In 1821, they they were formally recognized as their own country.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mexican War of Independence | 3 Minute History