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Sustainability within the Performing Arts

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Sustainability within the Performing Arts

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Association of British Theatre Technicians

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Sustainability in Live Performance - Association of British Theatre Technicians

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Theatre Green Book Resources: Groups and individuals across theatre have been talking for some time about how to make theatre more sustainable and working on blueprints to promote change. The Theatre Green Book aims to bring that thinking together into one place, and develop it as straightforward, p…

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Refer to this assignment brief to help you through all stages of your module and how to achieve your best potential grades.

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Books:

1. "The Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre" by John Russell Brown

This comprehensive book provides an overview of the history of theater, covering various cultures and time periods.

2. "Theatre: Its Art and Craft" by Cynthia M. Gendrich and Stephen Archer

A guide to the fundamentals of theater, including acting, directing, and production.

3. "The Business of Broadway: An Insider's Guide to Working, Producing, and Investing in the World's Greatest Theatre Community" by Mitch Weiss and Perri Gaffney

Explores the business and economic aspects of the Broadway theater scene.

4. "The Empty Space: A Book About the Theatre: Deadly, Holy, Rough, Immediate" by Peter Brook

A classic work on the theory and practice of theater, discussing its evolution and the role of the director.

5. "The Future of the Music Business: How to Succeed with the New Digital Technologies" by Steve Gordon

While focused on the music industry, this book offers insights into the digital transformation of the performing arts.

6. "Theatre, Performance and the Historical Avant-Garde" edited by Günter Berghaus

Explores the historical avant-garde movements and their impact on theater and performance.

Websites:

1. Theatre Communications Group (TCG) - https://www.tcg.org/

TCG is a hub for information about the theater industry, including articles, resources, and job listings.

2. American Theatre Magazine - https://www.americantheatre.org/

Offers news, features, and analysis on the theater industry, including profiles of theater professionals.

3. BroadwayWorld - https://www.broadwayworld.com/

A popular source for news, reviews, and information related to Broadway and the theater world.

4. Dance Magazine - https://www.dancemagazine.com/

Focuses on the dance aspect of performing arts, featuring articles on dance history, choreography, and career advice.

5. The Actors Studio - https://www.actorsstudio.co.uk/

Offers online acting classes and resources for actors looking to improve their skills and find employment opportunities.

6. Performing Arts Alliance - https://www.performingartsalliance.org/

Advocates for the performing arts and provides valuable resources for artists and professionals in the field.

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Information in here about Theater Censorship / Licencing Act (1737 - 1968)

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The V&A's Theatre and Performance collections chart the fascinating history of theatre in Britain from the middle ages to today. From early dramatic forms, such as mystery plays and court masques, to the alternative and 'in yer face' drama of the late 20th century, via the patriotic wartime entertainment of the 1940s, and the foundation of institutions such as the Arts Council and the National Theatre.

Most early theatre in England evolved out of church services of the 10th and 11th centuries. It became a truly popular form around 1350 when religious leaders encouraged the staging of mystery cycles (stories from the Bible) and miracle plays (stories of the lives of saints). These were written and performed in the language of ordinary people rather than latin in order to teach the mainly illiterate masses about Christianity and the bible.

Each play was staged on pageant wagons that processed through the streets and stopped to perform at pre-arranged sites. By the end of medieval times, many towns had specific spaces dedicated to public theatre.
The rise of secular drama
Following the Reformation in the 16th century - a movement that opposed the authority of the Roman Catholic Church - all religious drama in England was suppressed. Licences were issued to theatre companies allowing them to rehearse and perform in public, providing they had the approval and patronage of a nobleman.

Britain's first playhouse 'The Theatre' was built in Finsbury Fields, London in 1576. It was constructed by Leicester's Men - an acting company formed in 1559 from members of the Earl of Leicester's household. Over the next 16 years, 17 new open-air, public theatres were constructed. Most of these theatres were circular, surrounding an open courtyard where members of the audience would stand around the three sides of the stage. New companies flourished and writers were expected to produce a number of new plays every year to satisfy demand. Companies became known by the title of the patron's household. The two most famous companies and fierce rivals were the Admiral's Men and the Lord Chamberlain's Men.

William Shakespeare (1564 - 1616)
William Shakespeare, born 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, is England's most famous playwright. He wrote 38 plays and numerous sonnets. It is not just the breadth of his work that makes Shakespeare the greatest British dramatist but the beauty and inventiveness of his language and the universal nature of his writing.

In 1594 Shakespeare joined the Lord Chamberlain's Men as an actor and their principal playwright. He wrote on average two new plays a year for the company. His earliest plays included The Comedy of Errors (first performed in 1594) and his first published work was the poem Venus and Adonis (1593). Shakespeare wrote many of his most famous plays for the Globe Theatre, which was erected in 1599 by the Lord Chamberlain's Men. When the lease on the land at their playhouse, The Theatre, in Shoreditch ran out, the company decided to dismantle the timber frame building and rebuild it on the south bank of the River Thames, renaming it The Globe.

The masque was a form of festive courtly entertainment that flourished in 16th- and early 17th-century Europe. The English architect and designer, Inigo Jones (1573 - 1652), collaborated with the playwright and poet Ben Jonson (1572 - 1637) to produce a series of elaborate masques for both James I (reigned 1603 - 25) and Charles I (reigned 1625 - 49). One production, The Masque of Oberon (1611) cost over £2,000 to stage, with costumes alone costing over £1,000.

Inigo Jones is credited with introducing into British theatre the proscenium arch - the space which framed the actors on stage - and moveable scenery arranged in perspective. Inspired by stage machinery he had seen whilst travelling in France and Italy, Jones' scenery used a series of shutters that slid in and out using grooves in the floor. He even flew in scenery from above and introduced coloured lighting by placing candles behind tinted glass.
The closure of the theatres
In 1642 civil war broke out in England between supporters of King Charles I and the Parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell. Theatres were closed to prevent public disorder and remained closed for 18 years, causing considerable hardship to professional theatre performers, managers and writers. Illegal performances were only sporadic and many public theatres were demolished.

In 1656, the poet and playwright William Davenant succeeded in producing an all-sung version of the play The Siege of Rhodes in his home. This is widely considered to be the first English opera. After Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, Davenant and the dramatist Thomas Killigrew were granted royal patents, which gave them virtual monopoly over presenting drama in London. These monopolies were not revoked until the 19th century.

The introduction of scenery and elaborate stage machinery to the English public stage in the 1660s gave rise to blockbuster semi-operas. Many of these were adaptations of other plays, often by Shakespeare. These had episodes of music, singing, dancing and special effects. The grandest theatre at this time, which included one of the first proscenium arches, was The Duke's Theatre in Dorset Gardens. Planned by William Davenant and designed by Christopher Wren (architect of St Paul's Cathedral), it cost £9,000 (about £600,000 today). It stood by the River Thames and steps led up from the river for those patrons arriving by boat.

For the first time women were recognised as professional actresses and playwrights. The most famous playwright was Aphra Behn (1640 - 89), who had previously been employed as a spy for Charles II and spent a brief stay in a debtors' prison. A group of women writers known as 'The Female Wits' produced many works for the stage. They included Mary Pix (1666 - 1709), Catherine Trotter (1679 - 1749) and the prolific Susannah Centlivre (about 1670 - 1723), who wrote 19 plays, including the satirical A Bold Stroke for a Wife, first performed in 1718.

The first woman to appear on the professional stage in England is generally considered to be Margaret Hughes (1645 - 1719), who performed in a production of Othello at the Vere Street Theatre, London in 1660. Other notable actresses at this time included Elizabeth Barry (1658 - 1713) , also known as the "queen of tragedy", and Nell Gwyn (1650 - 87), who was reputed to have been painted nude for Charles II and bore him two children.

The 18th century saw the flourishing of theatre as a popular pastime and many theatres were enlarged and new playhouses built in London and throughout the country. One of the most successful shows on the London stage in the early part of the 18th century was John Gay's ballad opera The Beggar's Opera. Gay recycled popular songs of the day and wrote new lyrics that were humorous and satirical.

Shakespeare's plays became increasingly popular during the 18th century but were reworked to suit the tastes of the day. His style was still felt to be too erratic and poets such as Alexander Pope carefully tidied up any uneven verse lines. Shakespeare's ending to King Lear was felt to be too distressing and Nahum Tate's revised version (where Cordelia and the King survive) was preferred to the original. David Garrick rewrote the end of Romeo and Juliet so that the lovers speak to each other before dying in the tomb and turned the Taming of the Shrew into a farce.

Garrick was one of Britain's greatest actors and the first to be called a star. From 1741 until his retirement in 1776, he was a highly successful actor, producer and theatre manager. He wrote more than 20 plays and adapted many more, including plays by Shakespeare. In 1742, the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane hired him and he began a triumphant career that would last for over 30 years. Within five years, he was also managing the theatre.

Garrick changed the whole style of acting. He rejected the fashion for declamation, where actors would strike a pose and speak their lines formally, and instead preferred a more easy, natural manner of speech and movement. The effect was a more subtle, less mannered style of acting and a move towards realism.

The Licensing Act of 1737 had a huge impact on the development of theatre in Britain. It restricted the production of plays to the two patent theatres at Drury Lane and Covent Garden in London and tightened up the censorship of drama, stating that the Lord Chamberlain with his Examiners of Plays must vet any script before a performance was allowed.

The act was put in place by the then Prime Minister Robert Walpole (1676 - 1745), who was concerned that political satire on the stage was undermining him and the authority of the government. A production of The Golden Rump, afarcical play of unknown authorship, was the chief trigger for Walpole pushing the case for banning obscene drama from the public arena. The play scandalously suggested that the Queen administered enemas to the King. Henry Fielding, author of a number of successful satires, and others were suspicious that this play had in fact been engineered by Walpole himself.

To get around the restrictions of the 1737 Licensing Act, non-patent theatres interspersed dramatic scenes with musical interludes. Melodrama and burlesque, with their short scenes and musical accompaniment, became extremely popular at this time. Eventually, the huge growth in demand for theatrical entertainment in the early 19th century made the patent theatres' system unworkable. Theatres had sprung up across London and the boundaries between what was allowed in the patent theatres (legitimate drama) and what was presented in other theatres (illegitimate theatre) had become blurred. In 1843 the Licensing Act was dropped, enabling other theatres to present drama, although Lord Chamberlain's censorship of plays remained in place until 1968.

After the Covent Garden theatre burnt down in 1808, the management decided to raise prices to cover the cost of rebuilding. To increase revenue, the management reconfigured the upper gallery to squeeze in more of the one shilling seats, creating what angry patrons described as 'pigeon holes'. The price for a seat in the pit was raised from three shilling and six pence to four shillings, and the admission to the public boxes went up from six to seven shillings. A whole tier of boxes became 'private' and could only be hired for an entire season. Audiences were furious and turned their anger on the theatre's manager, the actor John Philip Kemble.

On 18 September 1809 Kemble stepped on stage in the costume of Macbeth to welcome the audience to the first production in the new theatre, and was met with a barrage of shouting, hissing and hooting which continued throughout the performance. Although magistrates were summoned, and some protesters arrested, the disturbance did not end until two in the morning. This was the start of what were known as the Old Price (or O.P.) Riots. For the next ten weeks every performance at Covent Garden was disrupted. The principal objective of the protesters was to force the management to restore the old system of pricing. By December 1809 the cost of legal fees, wages for bouncers, and free passes for allies who were paid to chant "N.P." ( 'New prices') meant that the theatre was losing £300 per night. Kemble accepted the demands of the rioters and made a public apology from the stage.

At the turn of the 19th century the Kemble family dominated the London stage. Actor John Philip Kemble (1757 - 1823) was said to be the finest actor in England and his sister, Sarah Siddons (1755 - 1831), was regarded as one of the greatest ever tragedians. In her first season, she performed 80 times in seven different roles, inducing faintings and hysterics amongst her audiences. John Philip Kemble made his debut on the London stage in 1783 as Hamlet. His acting style was static and declamatory, with long sweeping lines and a detached grandeur.

The popular actor Edmund Kean (1787 - 1833) replaced Kemble as the darling of the London stage after making his Drury Lane debut as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice in 1814. Kean was one of the few actors who could fill the vast Drury Lane theatre to its capacity of 3,000. His natural passion and fiery spirit suited a melodramatic style of acting. He was said to be at his best in death scenes and those that required intensity of feeling or violent transitions from one mood to another.

Melodrama became popular from the 1780s and lasted until the early 20th century. The first drama in Britain to be labelled a melodrama was Thomas Holcroft's A Tale of Mystery (1802). Melodrama consisted of short scenes interspersed with musical accompaniment and was characterised by simple moral stories with stereotypical characters - there was always a villain, a wronged maiden and a hero acting in an overblown style.

From the middle of the 19th century theatre began to take on a new respectability and draw in more middle-class audiences. They were enthralled by the historical accuracy and attention to detail that was becoming increasingly influential in stage design. Pictorial drama placed great emphasis on costume and reflected a fashionable interest in archaeology and history. The inevitable long and complex scene changes meant that plays, especially those by Shakespeare had to be cut. One of the main exponents of pictorial drama was Charles Kean (1811 - 68), son of Edmund Kean. Charles Kean was known for his painstaking research into historic dress and settings for his productions at the Princess's Theatre in London's Oxford Street during the 1850s.

19th century theatre was dominated by actor-managers who ran the theatres and played the lead roles in productions. Henry Irving (1838 - 1905), Charles Kean and Beerbohm Tree (1852 - 1917) all created productions in which they were the star. Henry Irving dominated the London stage for over 25 years and was hero-worshipped by his audiences. When he died King Edward VII and the President of the United States sent their condolences.

Shakespeare was the most popular writer for these actor-managers. It became fashionable to give Shakespeare's plays detailed and historically realistic sets and costumes. The stage spectacle was often more important than the play itself and texts were cut to allow time to change the massive sets and give maximum exposure to the leading role.

The first woman actor-manager in London was Eliza Vestris (1797 - 1856), a singer and dancer who also managed the Olympic Theatre from 1830. There she presented a programme of Burlesques, many starring herself. Other women managers in the 19th century included Madge Kendal (1848 - 1935) and Sarah Lane (about 1822 - 99) at the Brittania Theatre, Hoxton.

The greatest English actress of the late 19th and early 20th century was Ellen Terry (1847 - 1928). She joined the legendary actor-manager Henry Irving at the Lyceum Theatre from 1878 to 190 as his leading lady, and for more than the next two decades she was considered the leading Shakespearean and comic actress in Britain. Two of her most famous roles were Portia in The Merchant of Venice (1875) and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing (1882). In 1903 Terry took over management of London's Imperial Theatre where she focused on the plays of Bernard Shaw and Henrik Ibsen. However financial failure meant she returned to acting there years later.

The V&A holds The Ellen Terry Collection, which contains a vast quantity of correspondence, including letters written by Terry to her daughter, costume designer Edith Craig, and letters written from her stage co-star Henry Irving. The archive also contains a notebook of Terry's thoughts on Irving.

The sophisticated technology and machinery of the late 19th century stage produced a succession of 'sensation' dramas in which special effects became the principal attraction. Scene painters, working with expert technicians, produced realistic reproductions of the natural world. Using ropes, flats, bridges, treadmills and revolves, they could produce anything from a chariot race in Ben Hur to a rail crash in The Whip.

One of the greatest designers of 'sensation' scenes was Bruce 'Sensation' Smith. He worked at Drury Lane Theatre, which became the acknowledged home of such drama following the introduction of hydraulic stage machinery at the theatre in 1894.

The playwright Tom William Robertson (1829 - 71) introduced a new kind of play onto the 19th century theatre scene. His pioneering 'problem plays' dealt with serious and sensitive issues of the day. Robertson's work was considered so revolutionary in style and subject that no established management would produce his plays. "Danger", said Effie Bancroft, "is better than dullness" and she went on to produce a string of successful and profitable hits by Robertson, such as Ours (1866), Caste (1867), Play (1868) and School (1869). Caste was about marriage across the class barrier and explored prejudices towards social mobility. People talked in normal language and dealt with 'ordinary' situations and the performers didn't 'act' but 'behaved' like their audience - they spoke, they didn't declaim.

New drama in the early 20th century
The turn of the 20th century saw the emergence of two dominate trends in theatre: the dramatisation of contemporary, moral and social issues, and an interest in a simpler and more abstract staging of plays. Innovative work from abroad, particularly playwrights such as Henrik Ibsen and Anton Chekhov, was also influential in the shaping of this new drama.

Harley Granville-Barker's management of the Royal Court between 1903 and 1907 saw the popularisation of the work of George Bernard Shaw. Bernard Shaw was one of the most successful writers of the early 20th century and an outspoken member of the Fabian Society, an organisation committed to social reform and considered by many at the time to be subversive. He challenged the morality of his bourgeois audiences with his satirical and often humorous writing that included uncomfortable topics such as religion and prostitution. Many of his plays were censored by the Lord Chamberlain, including Mrs Warren's Profession (1893, first public performance in England 1925), which centred on a former prostitute and her attempt to come to terms with her disapproving daughter.

At a more grass roots level, theatre groups aimed at promoting the socialist cause and the Labour Party sprang up across the country.

Between 1926 and 1935 the Workers' Theatre Movement (WTM), which was allied with the Communists, used theatre to agitate for social change. WTM developed an 'agit-prop' style that took songs and sketches onto the streets in an attempt to incite change.

Unity Theatre grew out of the WTM. It's aim was 'to foster and further the art of drama in accordance with the principle that true art, by effectively presenting and truthfully interpreting life as experienced by the majority of people, can move the people to work for the betterment of society'. Unity pioneered new forms of theatre, presenting factual information on current events to audiences, as well as satirical pantomimes that challenged the Lord Chamberlain's censorship.

Other influential political companies included the Salford-based Red Megaphones and the Hackney People's Players. Committed to removing the bourgeois trappings of theatre, they wanted to create a more physical theatre that reflected the machine age. Popular plays were Ernst Toller's Masses and Men (1923)and The Machine Wreckers (1922) and Karel Capek's futuristic nightmare RUR (1920) where machines and robots are used to replace the working class.

Founded in 1908, the Actresses' Franchise League supported the suffrage movement by staging events and readings. By 1914, membership numbered 900 and there were groups in all major UK cities. Plays included Cecily Hamilton and Christopher St John's How the Vote Was Won (1909), and Hamilton's most famous work Diana of Dobson's (1908).

The Pioneer Players was founded by Edith Craig, daughter of Ellen Terry, the renowned English actress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The company aimed to present plays of 'interest and ideas' and particularly those which dealt with current social, political and moral issues, including suffrage. The Pioneer Players performed at the Little Theatre which operated as a club theatre to avoid the censorship of the Lord Chamberlain. Productions included Margaret Wynn Nevinson's In the Workhouse (1911) and Christopher St John's The First Actress (1911).

The repertory theatre movement was forged out of the passion and conviction of Barry Jackson and Annie Horniman, who believed that a wide variety of theatrical experience should be made available to people at a price they could afford. Horniman believed that by subsidising theatres you could both raise the standards of performance and broaden the programme a theatre could offer to its community.

Horniman was the daughter of a wealthy tea merchant with no family connections to the theatre but she recognised the cultural value of the state-subsidised repertory companies in Germany. In 1903, Horniman put up the money to open the Abbey Theatre in Dublin and the Gaiety Theatre in Manchester in 1907. In just ten years they produced over 200 plays at the Gaiety but were forced to close in 1917 because of financial difficulties.

Birmingham Repertory Theatre opened on 15 February 1913 with a production of Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. Its founder Barry Jackson, like Horniman, was passionate about the need to offer the people of Birmingham a wide variety of theatrical experience, and personally subsidised the building of the Rep Theatre as a base for his company.
Club Theatres in the early 20th century
In 1899 the Stage Society was founded with the aim of supporting a theatre of ideas. Frustrated with the conservative nature of more commercial theatres, it presented private Sunday performances of experimental plays that had not been granted licences by the Lord Chamberlain. After a police raid on their first production (Bernard Shaw's You Never Can Tell) it was argued that because these were private performances, the Lord Chamberlain's restrictions on Sunday performances and licensed plays were not applicable. The Stage Society won the case and other 'club' theatres opened with members paying a small subscription rather than an entrance fee. These theatres became the home of unlicensed, experimental and controversial plays - a situation that lasted until 1968 when censorship was finally overturned.

The Arts Theatre opened as a club theatre in 1927 and quickly developed a reputation for innovative and exciting work. Plays by French and German writers such as Racine and Goethe were staged there, as well as new writing from British playwrights. Actors such as John Gielgud and Sybil Thorndike worked at the Arts Theatre even when they were well known in the West End - such was their commitment to presenting more experimental work.
West End theatre between the wars
West End theatre between the wars was a strange mixture. For the most part theatres were impoverished by the Depression and remained conservative both in the content of their work and the staging.

The plays of George Bernard Shaw, Somerset Maugham, Terence Rattigan, Noël Coward and J B Priestley dominated the scene. Whilst Priestley and Shaw had a strong left-wing agenda, the plays were essentially conservative in form. Shakespeare's plays virtually vanished from the West End. His home now was the Old Vic Theatre and the regional repertory theatres which experimented with contemporary dress productions. It was John Gielgud who brought Shakespeare back to the West End in 1935 with his productions of Romeo and Juliet, Richard III and The Merchant of Venice.

Commercial theatre thrived and at Drury Lane large budget musicals by Ivor Novello and Noël Coward used huge sets, extravagant costumes and large casts to create spectacular productions. Coward's Cavalcade (first production in 1931) was an epic play which traced the history of the early years of the 20th century through the lives of one family. Coward remained one of the popular writers of this period with comedies such as The Vortex (1924), Fallen Angels (1925) and Present Laughter (1942).

The Second World War saw a surge of interest in the arts with many civilian and military audiences experiencing drama, opera and ballet for the first time. This interest led to the establishment of the Arts Council by the government in 1946 with an annual grant to distribute among the arts. This grant ensured the survival of companies like the Sadler's Wells Ballet and Opera and the eventual establishment of the Royal Opera, the Royal Shakespeare Company and the National Theatre, as well as supporting theatre in the regions and the work of individual artists and companies. By 1956 the Arts Council was subsidising 40 companies across the country and between 1958 and 1970 15 new theatres had been constructed with public money.
Post-war West End theatre
After the end of the Second World War, the West End was dominated by the commercial sector. Farces and 'who-dunnits' became popular, the most famous being The Mousetrap, an adaptation of an Agatha Christie novel that opened in 1952 and is still going today. The glamorous productions of the 1950s, produced by Binkie Beaumont and H M Tennent, soon became economically unviable. Actors moved into TV to make more money and West End productions shrank in size.

This period also saw an explosion of new writing with John Osborne's Look Back in Anger (1956) seen as the landmark for a new generation of young writers who included Arnold Wesker, Tom Stoppard, Edward Bond and Harold Pinter. Small venues continued to promote and support new writing as more experimental productions moved into the mainstream theatres, including George Devine's Royal Court. The phrase 'In yer face theatre' has been applied to many of the young writers who were produced by the Royal Court in the 1990s. This aggressive and confrontational style was designed to assault the audience's sensibilities. It explored the gut-wrenching extremes of the human condition and rammed the excesses of contemporary society down its throat. One of the most successful 'In yer face' productions was Mark Ravenhill's Shopping and Fucking, which opened at the Royal Court in 1996. "A shocker in every sense of the word", declared The Daily Mail.

The National Theatre Company was formed in 1963 at the Old Vic under Laurence Olivier and moved to its new home on London's South Bank in 1976, directed by Peter Hall. Peter Hall had also directed the first years of the Royal Shakespeare Company at Stratford-upon-Avon.

Political theatre also flourished at this time - notably the work of Joan Littlewood and the Portable Theatre Company, who produced young political writers such as John McGrath, David Edgar, Trevor Griffiths, David Hare and Howard Brenton. The company Joint Stock pioneered a process of collaborative working, with writers workshopping their ideas with the company to develop a script. Joint Stock was responsible for developing many of Caryl Churchill's early plays.

The end of theatre censorship in 1968 saw a surge in the alternative theatre movement in Britain. No longer restricted by the Lord Chamberlain's censorious eye, companies were free to express any agenda they chose. Feminist theatre companies like Red Ladder and the Women's Theatre Group (now the Sphinx) began to put on plays that expressed the political agenda of the feminist movement and questioned the male dominance of writers and directors in British theatre. Women writers like Caryl Churchill and Pam Gems wrote for companies like Joint Stock before moving onto success in mainstream theatre.

Companies also explored new ways of creating theatre, devising work which aimed to be more democratic by involving the whole company in all aspects of the creative process from initial concept to final performances.

In the funding crisis of the 1980s many 'alternative' companies had their (meagre) subsidy cut and could no longer afford to continue. However, others successfully developed into the mainstream like Hull Truck and Mike Leigh who later moved successfully into film and television.
Physical and visual theatre
Throughout the 1980s and 90s companies began to experiment with a more physical type of theatre. They wanted to get away from the restraints of realistic and naturalistic drama and create an energetic visual theatre that combined strong design with choreography and physical imagery. Influenced by the work of Philippe Gaulier and Jacques Lecoq, companies such as Theatre de Complicite applied their style to the reworking of classic texts and created new work in collaboration with writers.

This departure was not completely new - in the 1960s Peter Brook had become interested in a more physical and visual theatre. He had been inspired by Japanese Noh theatre and influenced by the work of Adrienne Mnouchkine's Theatre du Soleil in Paris. Earlier innovators in this area included Bauhaus, Dadaist and surrealist performers, choreographer Rudolf Laban and directors Meyerhold and Jerzy Grotowski and Richard Schechozer.

Today, theatre companies and groups are producing ever-more experimental works that explore social and political questions and challenge conventions of what a performance is and how it should be presented.

Blast Theory describe their work as collaborative and interdisciplinary. Works such as Can You See Me Now? (2001) - a chase game played online and on the streets mixed video games and performance, whilst I'd Hide You (2012), My Neck Of The Woods (2013) and Too Much Information (2015) engaged diverse audiences through different media. Similarily, Punchdrunk, a British theatre company, produces work that eliminates the boundaries between stage and audience by creating immersive presentations in which the audience is free to choose what to watch and where to go.

The National Video Archive of Performance
The V&A holds the National Video Archive of Performance (NVAP), archive of over 300 high quality live theatre performance recordings made since 1992. This unique collection is available for free to all whether you are a researcher, an actor preparing for an audition, a stage designer reviewing past interpretations, or someone who missed the opportunity to attend a production during its run.

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The V&A's Theatre and Performance collections chart the fascinating history of theatre in Britain from the middle ages to today. From early dramatic forms, such as mystery plays and court masques, to the alternative and 'in yer face' drama of the late 20th century, via the patriotic wartime entertainment of the 1940s, and the foundation of institutions such as the Arts Council and the National Theatre.

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Google Scholar provides a simple way to broadly search for scholarly literature. Search across a wide variety of disciplines and sources: articles, theses, books, abstracts and court opinions.

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Create a presentation (with recorded voice over) that analyses how two related roles work together in either the performing or production arts industry.

Points to consider:

Skills (for each role)
Roles / Responsibilities (for each role)
Qualification routes and CPD  (for each role)
Contract types and working conditions / expectations  (for each role)

How they work together
How are they interdependent
Industry successes and shortcomings
Theatre / job role hierarchy

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1. Apollo's Angels: A History of Ballet" by Jennifer Homans

This comprehensive book traces the history of ballet from its origins to the present day, providing insights into the evolution of dance as an art form.

2. "The Dance Experience: Insights into History, Culture, and Creativity" by Myron Howard Nadel

Explores the cultural and historical context of dance, shedding light on its significance in various societies.

3. "Merce Cunningham: Fifty Years" by David Vaughan

A tribute to the iconic choreographer Merce Cunningham, offering a glimpse into the evolution of modern dance.

4. "Dance as a Theatre Art: Source Readings in Dance History from 1581 to the Present" edited by Selma Jeanne Cohen

A collection of writings and documents that provide historical perspectives on dance as a theater art.

5. "Dance Anatomy and Kinesiology" by Karen S. Clippinger

A valuable resource for dancers and dance educators, exploring the anatomy and kinesiology relevant to dance technique and injury prevention.

6. "The Future of the Ballet" by Robert Greskovic

Examines the future trends and challenges facing the ballet industry, discussing the evolution of ballet in contemporary times.

Websites:

1. Dance Magazine - https://www.dancemagazine.com/

Provides articles, news, and resources related to various dance forms, choreography, and career advice for dancers.

2. DanceUSA - https://www.danceusa.org/

A national service organization dedicated to supporting the dance field. Offers valuable resources, research, and networking opportunities.

3. The Joyce Theater - https://www.joyce.org/

The official website of The Joyce Theater in New York City, featuring information on performances, auditions, and dance-related events.

4. Pointe Magazine - https://www.pointemagazine.com/

Focused on ballet, this website offers articles, interviews, and tips for aspiring ballet dancers.

5. Dance/USA's Jobs in the Arts - https://www.danceusa.org/jobs

A dedicated job board for employment opportunities in the dance industry, including auditions, teaching positions, and administrative roles.

6. International Association for Dance Medicine & Science (IADMS) - https://www.iadms.org/

Offers research, educational resources, and information on dance medicine and science, helping dancers maintain their health and well-being.

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Dance is a form of art made by purposefully recreating selected sequences of human motion, which can be imbued with the values of aesthetics and symbolism acknowledged by performers and observers from within the particular culture. The dance itself can be freeform or have a predefined choreography that may or may not align with traditions of origin or historical period.

The dance can be performed to serve various functions (social, competitive, ceremonial, martial, erotic...). Still, it also has two distinct forms - theatrical dance in which dancers perform for an audience, and participatory social dance where dancing in a group is encouraged by anyone. Participatory dances are most commonly performed at weddings, social gatherings, and festivals. They can be enjoyed with folk music alone or in groups (pairs, lines, chains, or other forms).

Theatrical dance is known for having more elaborate choreography, planning, costume, scenery and other elements that make the entire production feel more professional. The performers of theatrical dance are usually professional " virtuoso dancers" who practice their craft over the years. They are often tasked to interpret the musical accompaniment with advanced dance moves or routines.

Origins and Early History

The dance has always been with us, even before the arrival of written language and modern history when our earliest cultures evolved utilizing oral and performance methods to pass the stories from one generation to the next. Many historians believe that social, celebratory, and ritual dances are essential factors in the development of early human civilizations.

The earliest findings have pinpointed the origins of ancient dances in 9000-year-old India or 5300-year-old Egypt. Still, the records of more common infusion of dance into modern culture can be found in Ancient Greece, China, and India. All these old dances evolved, eventually morphing into various Roman and European medieval, traditional Chinese, Hindi, and other traditional dances, respectively.

After the arrival of the European Renaissance, the history of music and dance exploded with new additions to song and dance. Ease of travel and immigration to the new world brought these dances into the mix with many native cultures of the New World, forging countless new dance types that are still popular today.

Do you know these facts about dance?

First archeological proof of dance comes from the 9 thousand-year-old cave paintings in India.

One of the earliest uses of structured dance was introduced in religious ceremonies that told the stories of ancient myths and gods. Egyptian priests used this kind of visual storytelling in their rituals.

Ancient Egyptians used dancing for both entertainment and religion.

Dance represented important parts of many Greek and Roman religious ceremonies.

Ancient Greeks and Romans annually celebrated their wine gods Dionysus and Bacchus with several days long festivities filled with alcohol, song , anddance.

History of European medieval dance is fragmented and limited, but it is believed that simple folk dances were widespread among common and wealthy classes.

Modern dance history in Europe started with Renaissance, when many new dances were invented. After that, periods of Baroque, post-French Revolution, the Elizabethan era, World War 1, Prohibition, Ragtime, and pre-WW2 brought many new dance styles.

Waltz, one of the most popular dances today, came into popularity in the mid-19th century through the efforts of the famous composer Johann Strauss, but its origins can be traced even to the distant 16th century.

At first, the waltz was performed at arm's length between male and female dances. The shocking transition to the close embrace happened only after English Queen Victoria fell in love with the dance and forced this change.

Around 30 thousand people are employed in the UK dance industry today, maintaining around 200 dance companies.

Even people in wheelchairs can dance! Such dancing is very popular in Europe, where there are even competitions in Latin dances with special wheelchair choreographies.

Professional dance is today regarded as one of the most demanding physical abilities and sports. According to studies, 80% of all professional dances have at least one major injury during their career, and a staggering 93% of all dance teachers were forced into that position after career-ending injury.

High amount of injuries in professional dancing is induced by high levels of fatigue, little time for rest, inadequate healing techniques, and high-stress levels. All those factors can produce burnout periods when dancers have decreased strength, coordination, and cognitive and immune functions.

Lion Dance is one of the most popular religious and ceremonious dances in China and the surrounding countries of Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. This dance can signify bringing of good fortune, ward off evil spirits, and be an excellent showcase in martial arts proficiency.

Facts about Dancing

Professional dances are today regarded as athletes.

Dancing is very beneficial to your health. It lowers the chances of heart and blood vessel diseases, improves posture and weight, reduces stress and tension, improves brain function because of the constant presence of music, and can improve the relationship between dance partners.

Because of the need to maintain a strict head position while dancing, doctors often prescribe the use of dance for those patients that need to develop their peripheral vision.

First balled dancer that used pointe shoes was Marie Taglioni in 1832 ballet "La Sylphide".

One tutu shoe costs up to $2000 dollars to be made, and one ballerina wears between 2 and three pairs per week.

Because of the high physical demand on their bodies, most professional dancers retire from dancing during their mid-30s.

Famous modern dance Cha-Cha originated from Cuba.

Famous energetic ballroom dance can-can (or cancan), performed by a row of female dances in long skirts, originated from 1830s Paris ballrooms.

The origin of tap-dancing comes from the tribal dances of enslaved Africans. Their arrival in North America introduced that dance to western audiences.

Dancing with metal tap shoes became popular in United States during 1920s and 1930s. One of the most famous tap-dancing performers of that time were Nicholas brothers, who were instrumental in bringing that dance style into Hollywood movies.

Famous movie stars such as Fred Astaire, Ray Bolger, and Gene Kelley used tap dancing to enchant the minds of the worldwide audience with great success.

Hindu religion closely relates to dance and music. This connection can most visibly be seen in the countless Bollywood movies that all celebrate dancing.

One of the dances that changed the landscape of dance history completely is ! This energetic dance focused on young women who liked to jump, hop and turn swept across the world in the mid-19th century.

Dancing represent great physical exercise for people of all age. It can be safely practiced from the age of 2 to 102!

Many historical waves of dance were perceived as the "destructors" of the old way of dance. Examples of that can be found in the 1920s Charleston and the era of Rock music.

First ballroom dance that was ever created is Italian Viennese Waltz.

One reason that ballroom dancing is starting to become popular is the famous TV competition show "Dancing with the Stars".

Enslaved Africans that were brought to Brazil 300-400 years ago were prohibited from practicing martial arts. Therefore, they developed the mix of dancing and fighting known today as capoeira.

Breakdancing was first created as a "less lethal" form of fighting between warring African-American street gangs in the 1970s Bronx area of New York City. This form of dancing re-emerged in worldwide popularity during the 1990s.

Dance marathon competition started as early as 14th century England. They reached the height of their popularity in the bloom of US entertainment expansion during the 1930s depression era. Some competitions were performed in the 22-day-long marathons.

The most sensual dance of modern times is without a doubt a . It originated in 1890s Argentina but quickly became very successful in Europe.

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Dance is a form of art made by purposefully recreating selected sequences of human motion, which can be imbued with the values of aesthetics and symbolism acknowledged by performers and observers from within the particular culture. The dance itself can be freeform or have a predefined choreography that may or may not align with traditions of origin or historical period.

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Using Canva as a suggested platform (link above), create a performing arts magazine, based on the historical development of your chosen specialism (e.g. Acting, Musical Theatre, Dance, Technical Theatre)

Your magazine will include:
- A front cover
- A double page spread including a holistic timeline overview
- 4 double page spread (at least) on chosen historical eras that clearly document the development of your chosen specialism.

Your 4 double page spreads will include an analysis on:
- Major turning points
- Trends & development
- Technological Advancements
- Social, Political, Cultural impacts upon your specialism.

Points you may wish to consider:

·       Invention of lighting equipment

·       Set design and development

·       The creation and development of the camera

·       The Internet

·       Social Media

·       Rise of the Mobile Phone

·       Accessibility of the arts

·       The dropping of the Licencing Act (1737 - 1968)

·       World Wars

·       The impact of the Corona-Virus pandemic

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Canva is a free-to-use online graphic design tool. Use it to create social media posts, presentations, posters, videos, logos and more.

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Books:

1. "The Secret Life of the American Musical: How Broadway Shows Are Built" by Jack Viertel

Offers an insider's look at the structure and creative process behind successful musicals on Broadway.

2. "The Oxford Handbook of the American Musical" edited by Raymond Knapp, Mitchell Morris, and Stacy Wolf

A comprehensive reference guide that delves into the history, culture, and future of American musical theater.

3. "Musical Theatre: A History" by John Kenrick

Traces the evolution of musical theatre from its origins to contemporary productions, with a focus on key developments and influential figures.

4. "Broadway: An Encyclopedia" by Ken Bloom

A comprehensive encyclopedia of all things Broadway, covering shows, actors, composers, and theaters throughout history.

5. "Careers in the Performing Arts: Theater, Music, Dance" by Roy A. Cook and Cindy S. Heller

Explores career opportunities within the performing arts industry, including practical advice for aspiring musical theatre professionals.

6. "Musical Theatre Auditions and Casting: A Performer's Guide Viewed from Both Sides of the Audition Table" by Neil R. Brown

Provides insights into the audition process and tips for actors seeking roles in musical theatre productions.

Websites:

1. Broadway.com - https://www.broadway.com/

Offers news, ticket information, and features on current Broadway productions, actors, and upcoming shows.

2. American Theatre Wing - https://www.americantheatrewing.org/

The official website of the organization behind the Tony Awards. Provides resources, educational programs, and career development opportunities in theatre.

3. Backstage - https://www.backstage.com/

A platform for actors and performers to find casting calls, audition information, and career advice, including opportunities in musical theatre.

4. Playbill - https://www.playbill.com/

A leading source for theatre news, casting notices, and information on Broadway, Off-Broadway, and regional theatre productions.

5. Musical Theatre Resources - https://musicaltheatreresources.com/

A website dedicated to providing resources, articles, and advice for aspiring and professional musical theatre artists.

6. The Educational Theatre Association (EdTA) - https://www.schooltheatre.org/

Offers educational and networking opportunities for theatre educators and students interested in musical theatre.

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Working Backstage illuminates the work of New York City’s theater technicians, shining a light on the essential contributions of unionized stagehands, carpenters, electricians, sound engineers, properties artisans, wardrobe crews, makeup artists, and child guardians. Too-often dismissed or misunders…

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Write an article (1500 - 2000) words that explores and analyses current and future issues, trends and developments within the performing arts industry.

This can have some links to your chosen specialism.

Topics to consider (at least 3 to pass):

Growth of Mass Media and self-promotion

Funding of arts / education

Covid-19

Advances in Technology  (Automation, Motion-capture, AI)

Project Primrose, The Las Vegas Sphere, Abba Voyage

Diversity and Inclusion (LGBTQ+,  ethnicities, abilities, body types & sizes)

Sustainability & why it is important that the performing arts industry adheres to the demands of sustainable working

Pushing the ‘boundaries’,  and different types of production (e.g. immersive installations)

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Technical Theatre Reading & Website List 

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Technical Theatre Reading & Website List 

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1. American Society of Theatre Consultants (ASTC) - Website

ASTC provides valuable resources and information on theatre planning and design.

2. Theatre Design & Technology - Website

The official journal of the United States Institute for Theatre Technology (USITT), offering articles on various aspects of technical theatre.

3. StageMilk - Website

StageMilk offers a range of articles and resources for actors and technicians, including technical theatre concepts and tips.

4. BackstageJobs.com - Website

A job board and resource center for theatre professionals, including technical positions.

5. Theatrecrafts.com - Website

A comprehensive online encyclopedia of technical theatre, covering everything from lighting and sound to set design and stage management.

6. ETC LearningStage - Website

ETC (Electronic Theatre Controls) offers online courses and resources related to lighting and control systems.

7. Stage Lighting Online - Website

An online resource for learning about stage lighting techniques and technology.

Books:

1. "The Backstage Handbook: An Illustrated Almanac of Technical Information" by Paul Carter

A must-have reference for stagehands and technicians, covering a wide range of technical theatre topics.

2. "Stage Rigging Handbook" by Jay O. Glerum

This book provides a comprehensive guide to stage rigging techniques and safety procedures.

3. "Scene Design and Stage Lighting" by W. Oren Parker, R. Craig Wolf, and Dick Block

A classic textbook on scenic design and stage lighting, suitable for both beginners and advanced students.

4. "Sound Reinforcement Handbook" by Gary Davis and Ralph Jones

An essential guide to sound reinforcement and audio technology in the theatre.

5. "The Costume Technician's Handbook" by Rosemary Ingham and Liz Covey

Covers costume construction, fabric selection, and costume shop management.

6. "The Stage Manager's Toolkit: Templates and Communication Techniques to Guide Your Theatre Production from First Meeting to Final Performance" by Laurie Kincman

A practical guide for stage managers, offering templates and tips for successful production management.

7. "Technical Theater for Nontechnical People" by Drew Campbell

Geared towards those new to technical theatre, this book provides a user-friendly introduction to the field.

8. "Automation for Theatre: A Technical Theatre Workbook" by Mark A. Shanda

Focuses on automation and technology in theatre production, including motorized rigging and control systems.

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Technical Theatre History Video & Study Resources

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Technical Theatre History Video & Study Resources

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Technical Theatre History Facebook Group

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Technical Theatre History Facebook Group

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Musical Theatre: A History is a new revised edition of a proven core text for college and secondary school students - and an insightful and accessible celebration of twenty-five centuries of great theatrical entertainment.

As an educator with extensive experience in professional theatre production, author John Kenrick approaches the subject with a unique appreciation of musicals as both an art form and a business. Using anecdotes, biographical profiles, clear definitions, sample scenes and select illustrations, Kenrick focuses on landmark musicals, and on the extraordinary talents and business innovators who have helped musical theatre evolve from its roots in the dramas of ancient Athens all the way to the latest hits on Broadway and London's West End.

Key improvements to the second edition:
· A new foreword by Oscar Hammerstein III, a critically acclaimed historian and member of a family with deep ties to the musical theatre, is included
· The 28 chapters are reformatted for the typical 14 week, 28 session academic course, as well as for a two semester, once-weekly format, making it easy for educators to plan a syllabus and reading assignments.
· To make the book more interactive, each chapter includes suggested listening and reading lists, designed to help readers step beyond the printed page to experience great musicals and performers for themselves.

A comprehensive guide to musical theatre as an international phenomenon, Musical Theatre: A History is an ideal textbook for university and secondary school students.

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Musical Theatre: A History is a new revised edition of a proven core text for college and secondary school students - and an insightful and accessible celebration of twenty-five centuries of great theatrical entertainment. As an educator with extensive experience in professional theatre production, author John Kenrick approaches the subject with a unique appreciation of musicals as both an art form and a business.