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Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ended racial segregation in public schools by reinterpreting the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. This landmark decision spurred further desegregation efforts and became a cornerstone of the Civil Rights Movement.

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Jim Crow laws were a collection of state and local laws established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries across the Southern United States. These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination in everyday life, effectively denying African Americans their equal rights guaranteed by the 14th and 15th Amendments. Jim Crow wasn't a single law, but a system of oppression that limited Black Americans' access to voting, education, and public spaces. The Civil Rights Movement and federal legislation in the 1950s and 1960s dismantled Jim Crow.

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Plessy v. Ferguson, an 1896 Supreme Court case, upheld racial segregation laws for public facilities as long as the facilities for each race were equal, under the "separate but equal" doctrine. This weakened the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause and legalized Jim Crow segregation in the South for decades. Plessy v. Ferguson was eventually overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954

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De jure segregation refers to racial separation mandated by law. Laws enforcing segregation were challenged and overturned by landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education (1954). While these cases didn't directly change the Constitution's text, they revolutionized how the Equal Protection Clause was interpreted, paving the way for desegregation efforts.

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Ratified in 1870, the 15th Amendment prohibited states from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment followed the 13th Amendment (abolition of slavery) and the 14th Amendment (citizenship and equal protection), and is the third in the Reconstruction Amendments passed after the Civil War to secure civil and legal rights for Black Americans.

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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It directly enforced the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause and marked a major turning point for civil rights in the US. It did not amend the Constitution itself, but rather provided legal teeth to existing constitutional protections.

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De facto segregation refers to racial separation that happens in practice, without legal enforcement. It wasn't directly addressed by the Constitution, but arose from social patterns and economic inequalities. De facto segregation persists today and can limit the effectiveness of policies aimed at integration.

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Ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, the 14th Amendment fundamentally reshaped the relationship between states and the federal government. It defined citizenship for all people born or naturalized in the U.S., and prohibited states from denying any person "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law" (Due Process Clause) or "the equal protection of the laws" (Equal Protection Clause). These clauses have been used in landmark Supreme Court cases to strike down discriminatory laws and expand civil rights. The 14th Amendment is part of the Reconstruction Amendments, which aimed to abolish slavery and establish civil and legal equality for Black Americans.

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The Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had prevented many African Americans from voting, especially in the South. It marked a major victory for the Civil Rights Movement by enforcing the 15th Amendment's guarantee of voting rights regardless of race. The Act banned literacy tests, poll taxes, and other tactics used to disenfranchise Black voters.

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Central High refers to the desegregation of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas (1957). Though not a legal case, it highlighted the need for federal enforcement of Brown v. Board of Education. President Eisenhower intervened by sending troops to protect Black students, demonstrating the federal government's commitment to desegregation following Brown v. Board.

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Roe v. Wade, a 1973 Supreme Court decision, legalized abortion nationwide by ruling that a woman's right to privacy under the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment extended to her decision to terminate a pregnancy. This landmark case fundamentally altered the legal framework surrounding reproductive rights in the United States, influencing subsequent legal battles and legislative debates on the issue.

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The 19th Amendment (1920) guaranteed the right to vote regardless of sex. It directly changed the Constitution, prohibiting states and the federal government from denying suffrage based on sex. This amendment marked a major victory for the women's suffrage movement.

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Ratified in 1865, the 13th Amendment outlawed slavery and involuntary servitude throughout the United States, marking a major turning point following the Civil War. This crucial amendment to the Constitution effectively ended the legal institution of slavery in the country. The 13th Amendment paved the way for the 14th and 15th Amendments, which further guaranteed civil and voting rights to all citizens, regardless of race. These three amendments together are known as the Reconstruction Amendments.

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Affirmative action isn't directly mentioned in the Constitution, but arose from federal legislation and executive orders in the 1960s following the Civil Rights Movement. These policies aim to level the playing field in education and employment for groups that faced historical discrimination. Affirmative action is connected to the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, which guarantees everyone equal treatment under the law.

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In 1978, the Supreme Court case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke addressed affirmative action in education. The Court struck down a specific quota system for minority admissions at a medical school, but ruled that race could still be considered as a factor in achieving a diverse student body. This case helped define the legal boundaries of affirmative action programs in the U.S. It came after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race, but before the debate over affirmative action had fully matured.

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In 1857, the Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford infamously ruled that Black Americans were not citizens and had no rights under the Constitution. This decision heightened tensions in the lead-up to the Civil War and is considered one of the worst Supreme Court decisions in U.S. history. The 14th Amendment, ratified after the Civil War, directly contradicted the Dred Scott decision by defining citizenship and prohibiting states from denying equal protection under the law.

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Event that occurred after the 19th Amendment was the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1964, which abolished the poll tax in federal elections, removing a barrier that had disproportionately disenfranchised African American voters in the South.

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Loving v. Virginia in 1967, which struck down laws banning interracial marriage in the United States, affirming the fundamental right to marry regardless of race.

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Constitutional amendment was the 26th Amendment, ratified in 1971. This amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, granting young adults the right to vote in all elections, including federal, state, and local.

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Significant event was the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. This landmark legislation prohibited discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including employment, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications. The ADA represented a major step forward in promoting equality and accessibility for people with disabilities in the United States.