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One preventative measure for depression is assuring that people are in a safe and non-abusive household, particularly when it comes to children. Children that experience different forms of abuse are much more likely to develop depression later in life, and organizations like child protective services and perhaps even orphanages may need to step in if necessary. Needless to say, this can be a very complex problem that would better for everyone if childhood abuse simply ceased to exist, and difficulties that may arise from preventing child abuse may include custody of children after a divorce and financial reliance.

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The primary anatomical structures involved in depression are the amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and thalamus.

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Depression is a mental health condition that involves the feeling of persistent sadness and loss of interest in activities.

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Potential causes of depression include faulty mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability, and stressful life events.

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Who is most likely to suffer from Depression

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Who is most likely to suffer from Depression

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Women are most likely to suffer from this condition over men. The age group ranges from 18-24. While people aging from 64 and older are least likely to suffer from Depression. The most likely Race/ethnicity are Non-Hispanic white adults.

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Depression researchers believe that nerve cell connections, nerve cell growth, and the functioning of nerve circuits are most impactful on depression rather than a set level of specific brain chemicals such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

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Onset of depression more complex than a brain chemical imbalance

It's often said that depression results from a chemical imbalance, but that figure of speech doesn't capture how complex the disease is. Research suggests that depression doesn't spring from simply having too much or too little of certain brain chemicals. Rather, there are many possible causes of depression, including faulty mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability, and stressful life events. It's believed that several of these forces interact to bring on depression.

To be sure, chemicals are involved in this process, but it is not a simple matter of one chemical being too low and another too high. Rather, many chemicals are involved, working both inside and outside nerve cells. There are millions, even billions, of chemical reactions that make up the dynamic system that is responsible for your mood, perceptions, and how you experience life.

With this level of complexity, you can see how two people might have similar symptoms of depression, but the problem on the inside, and therefore what treatments will work best, may be entirely different.

Scientists have learned much about the biology of depression, but their understanding of the biology of depression is far from complete. Major advances in the biology of depression include finding links between specific parts of the brain and depression effects, discovering how chemicals called neurotransmitters make communication between brains cells possible, and learning the impact of genetics and lifestyle events on risk and symptoms of depression.

This article will address the how different parts of the brain affect mood.

Brain regions and mood

Popular lore has it that emotions reside in the heart. Science, though, tracks the seat of your emotions to the brain. Certain areas of the brain help regulate mood. Researchers believe that - more important than levels of specific brain chemicals - nerve cell connections, nerve cell growth, and the functioning of nerve circuits have a major impact on depression.

Increasingly sophisticated forms of brain imaging - such as positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) - permit a much closer look at the working brain than was possible in the past. An fMRI scan, for example, can track changes that take place when a region of the brain responds during various tasks. A PET or SPECT scan can map the brain by measuring the distribution and density of neurotransmitter receptors in certain areas.

Use of this technology has led to a better understanding of which brain regions regulate mood and how other functions, such as memory, may be affected by depression. Areas that play a significant role in depression are the amygdala, the thalamus, and the hippocampus (see Figure 1).

Research shows that the hippocampus is smaller in some depressed people. For example, in one fMRI study published in The Journal of Neuroscience, investigators studied 24 women who had a history of depression. On average, the hippocampus was 9% to 13% smaller in depressed women compared with those who were not depressed. The more bouts of depression a woman had, the smaller the hippocampus. Stress, which plays a role in depression, may be a key factor here, since experts believe stress can suppress the production of new neurons (nerve cells) in the hippocampus.

Researchers are exploring possible links between sluggish production of new neurons in the hippocampus and low moods. An interesting fact about antidepressants supports this theory. These medications immediately boost the concentration of chemical messengers in the brain (neurotransmitters). Yet people typically don't begin to feel better for several weeks or longer. Experts have long wondered why, if depression were primarily the result of low levels of neurotransmitters, people don't feel better as soon as levels of neurotransmitters increase.

The answer may be that mood only improves as nerves grow and form new connections, a process that takes weeks. In fact, animal studies have shown that antidepressants do spur the growth and enhanced branching of nerve cells in the hippocampus. So, the theory holds, the real value of these medications may be in generating new neurons (a process called neurogenesis), strengthening nerve cell connections, and improving the exchange of information between nerve circuits. If that's the case, depression medications could be developed that specifically promote neurogenesis, with the hope that patients would see quicker results than with current treatments.

Figure 1: Areas of the brain involved with depression

The regions shown here are mirrored in both hemispheres of the brain. Also, these structures are interlocking; the illustration suggests relative position but not precise location.

Amygdala: The amygdala is part of a group of structures deep in the brain that's associated with emotions such as anger, pleasure, sorrow, fear, and sexual arousal. Recalling an emotionally charged memory, such as a frightening situation, activates the amygdala. Activity in the amygdala is higher when a person is sad or clinically depressed, and this continues even after recovery from depression. This increase in activity may actually cause the amygdala to enlarge.

Basal ganglia (not pictured): The basal ganglia are a related group of structures deep in the brain. They are connected to and interact with structures that are closer to the brain's surface. They may help facilitate movement and may be involved in memorizing, thinking, and emotional processing. Some studies have found shrinkage and other structural changes in the basal ganglia in people with depression.

Hippocampus: The hippocampus plays a key role in processing long-term memory. Interplay between the hippocampus and the amygdala might account for the adage "once bitten, twice shy." It is this part of the brain that registers fear when you are confronted by a barking, aggressive dog, and the memory of such an experience may make you wary of dogs you come across later in life. The hippocampus is smaller in some depressed people, and research suggests that ongoing exposure to stress hormones impairs the growth of neurons in this part of the brain.

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What causes depression? - Harvard Health

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Depression has many possible causes, including faulty mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability, stressful life events, medications, and medical problems. It's believed that several of these forces interact to bring on depression.

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Depression can occur due to hormones, genetics (inherited traits/conditions), drugs or alcohol, etc.

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The following physiological processes are involved in depression: changes in neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline), changes in hormones (cortisol), and inflammation.

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Physiological Processes: Biological differences and Inherited Traits

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Physiological Processes: Biological differences and Inherited Traits

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Biological Differences is when people with depression have significant changes made in their brains. Inherited Traits would be if someone related to you also had depression meaning a certain gene can be passed down that causes depression.

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A decreased metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, especially dorsolateral and dorsoventral brain regions, is a frequently replicated finding in MDD.

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One of the common ways that depression is treated is through psychotherapy (also known as talk therapy). The two main types of psychotherapy that are used are cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy.

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Depression is often treated with antidepressants such as duloxetine, desvenlafaxine, vilazodone, citalopram, sertraline, and fluoxetine in order to regulate one's emotions.

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Changes in appetite or weight, reduced activity levels, and withdrawal from social situations are all behavioral symptoms of depression.

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Sleep disturbances, including insomnia or sleeping too much at various times and inconsistent times.

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A Symptom of Depression: Suicidal Thoughts

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A Symptom of Depression: Suicidal Thoughts

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One symptom of Depression according to the DSM-V is an idealization of suicide or persistent thoughts of death. This may include someone thinking about harming themselves or harming others. This does not necessarily include a fear of death, and can be noticed through changes in behavior. Thorough analysis of the patient would be needed to understand the severity of their thoughts.

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Difficulty concentrating, making decisions, remembering, slowed thinking and or speech, confusion and forgetfulness are all cognitive symptoms of depression.

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A healthcare provider will perform a physical exam to rule out any other condition with similar symptoms as well as lab tests like blood and urine tests.

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There will also be an interview for the patient to find out when the symptoms began, medical history, home environment, and if they have had any thoughts of self-harm or suicide. This will let the doctor know the severity of your depression.

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Those that struggle with depression are often at an increased risk of developing anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia. This is an example of a cognitive long-term consequence of depression.

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While depression may temporary, the effects of substances resorted to, such as tobacco and alcohol, during a depressive episode may effect someone long after a person's depressive episode.

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Depression can further develop existing health problems like chronic pain and diabetes. They can also be at a higher risk of developing new ones like cardiovascular disease due to poor lifestyle decisions. These choices can include lack of exercise and unhealthy diet.

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Many people oftentimes isolate themselves and don't socialize during depression. This can lead to strained relationships.

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The expected cost of antidepressants is between $4 and $730 (depending on the drug itself and whether it is generic or brand name) per 30-day supply. Most medications are covered but the antidepressants that are covered are dependent upon the tier of medical coverage one has. The long-term consequences of not seeking treatment because of costs of antidepressants is depression persisting, an increase of anxiety, and feelings of hopelessness. Not only that, but their depression can worsen, or other mental health illnesses may manifest.

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One treatment for depression is talk therapy. The expected cost of a typical one hour session of therapy without insurance ranges between $100 and $250. While therapy is not often fully covered, insurance usually allows for a much more affordable copay ranging from around $20 to $50. While most mental health insurance covers talk therapy, not applying for talk therapy may lead to a more severe mental state, which can result in a state of despair and even suicide.

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The cost for light therapy is anywhere between $50 to $200 dollars. This is primarily done with a light box which most insurance companies do not cover. The long term consequence of not taking this treatment is your previous symptoms persisting or even worsening especially during the winter months when natural sunlight is limited.

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Interpersonal therapy addresses current and past relationships that contribute to mental health issues such as depression or anxiety. Interpersonal therapy helps aid and soothe feelings of hopelessness and isolation through development of interpersonal skills. Psychotherapy may be provided by psychologists, psychiatrists, licensed counselors, social workers, and psychiatric nurses.

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Cognitive therapy identifies and modifies negative thought patterns and behaviors to improve coping mechanisms. This is designed to treat. This is designed to treat persistent sadness, hopelessness, and low self esteem. A licensed mental health specialist like a psychologist would be required to deliver treatment.

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(Unrelated to the assignment. Please ignore) The Great Depression 1929-1939

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(Unrelated to the assignment. Please ignore) The Great Depression 1929-1939

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The Great Depression was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty; drastic reductions in liquidity, industrial production, and trade; and widespread bank and business failures around the world. The economic contagion began in 1929 in the United States, the largest economy in the world, with the devastating Wall Street stock market crash of October 1929 often considered the beginning of the Depression. Among the countries with the most unemployed were the U.S., the United Kingdom, and Germany.

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Yes, there are physical impairments that can be caused by depression. However, calling them impairments may be a bit a leap. The two physical ailments we found are psychomotor agitation and psychomotor retardation. Psychomotor agitation basically describes someone who has trouble relaxing and staying still. Psychomotor retardation is basically the opposite of psychomotor agitation, where someone's thoughts and movements slow down. However, while someone's movements can be affected by depression, the treatments for depression are too psychologically related for either physical or occupational therapy to be viable. It is worth noting that while physical therapy is not very applicable, it's still important to be active in order to help prevent or alleviate depression. Furthermore, there are breathing techniques which can help alleviate physical symptoms of depression such as profuse sweating, fast heart rate, as well as numbness.

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While depression can have effect on speech and hearing, it can absolutely impair someone's cognizance. Someone with MDD (major depressive order) may experience a lack of response or interest in conversation. The most severe cases, where a patient shows an extreme shutdown in function is called catatonia. One treatment that I found to be very interesting is electroconvulsive therapy, where a patient is put under anesthesia, then has low amounts of electricity directed into their brain, around 0.4 amps. It should be noted that this is a relatively uncommon treatment, and is usually only used either in severe cases of depression or if a patient has trouble processing medication, as well as other mental disorders such as schizophrenia and dementia. It should also be noted that electroconvulsive therapy should only be done if a patient is healthy enough in order to reduce the risk. Nonetheless, it can very quickly improve someone's mood, and should not be shunned due to its nontraditional and perhaps its seemingly frankenstein-like methods. The procedure is conducted by a psychiatrist, an anesthesiologist, as well as a nurse or physician assistant.

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Making social connections could be things like spending time with family and joining social circles at school or work. This helps because it could bring emotional support and help with the feelings of loneliness. The challenges could be things like having difficulty maintaining these habits and environmental factors.

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One public health measure that has been used, and is still used, is the use of the suicide preventative hotline. The main idea of this hotline is to simply help people that may be experiencing severe mental hurdles in their life. The number was even changed from a lengthy 1-800-273-TALK to just three easy to remember numbers: 988. A common problem people have having the strength to get help, and hotlines provide an accessible way for people to get the help they need.

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In recent years, there have been many ways that mental healthcare has become more affordable. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) has ensured that mental healthcare is covered under insurance. Many practices, for example, BetterHelp, will work with patients to find care for as low as $50. While that still may be tough to budget in, there are sometimes local therapists who may offer free care, and for students, there are often many options for them on campus.

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Getting adequate sleep, at least 8 hours each night is crucial in keeping our mental health sharp. Participating in regular exercise sessions of 45 minutes and eating a well-balanced diet filled with fruits, vegetables, protein, and whole grains will aid in reducing the chances of developing depression. This can sometimes be tricky as life is unpredictable and having a set routine isn't always possible with one's lifestyle. Consistency is key.

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One rather uncommon technology that helps to treat depression is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, or TMS, also known as rTMS. I've previously mentioned the use of Electro Convulsive Therapy, and TMS is essentially a non-invasive and more accessible version of ECT. No anesthesia is needed, much less electricity is directed into your brain, which also means a seizure is not induced, unlike ECT. I also found it rather amusing how on the official Mayo Clinic web page that talks about TMS, they saw improvement in patients that went through TMS, but weren't really sure why.

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With wearable devices like a FitBit Watch or an Ōura Ring, psychological tracking may help people potentially track and identify patterns of depression. Of course, any patterns picked up by these wearables should be further investigated by a health professional as these devices are not intended to self-diagnose. There are also some apps, like Lumen on the Amazon Alexa, that can work through problem-solving therapy with people. While there was found to be improvement in the mental health of those who used Lumen, it is generally agreed upon that apps and devices should never replace the advice of a professional who can confirm or investigate symptoms to their fullest extent and provide you with individualized treatment.

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One special population that I found to be uniquely affected by depression is pregnant women, and more specifically, after a pregnant woman gives birth. After a birth, the woman has roughly a seventy percent chance of developing postpartum blues AKA baby blues. This condition lasts for around two weeks and is not severe. However, around fifteen percent of mothers experience postpartum depression, which is basically a more severe version of baby blues. It may involve bouts of crying, irritability, fatigue, etc. Women who experience more serious versions of postpartum depression may be affected by financial instability, current or previous mental illnesses, as well as previous births.

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Individuals with chronic illnesses are affected by depression because their illnesses like diabetes, cancer, or heart diseases raise the risk of developing depression. Depression may come as a side effect of the other illnesses. Some challenges when faced with depression may be a cycle of constant pain from their illness and from depression.