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Meristematic tissue, also known as a meristem, is a type of tissue that actively divides undifferentiated cells, which are found in areas where growth occurs in plants. These cells eventually develop into specialized cells and tissues.

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The main plant body is produced by apical meristems, which are in responsible for extending the roots and shoots.

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Since they are in charge of secondary growth, or an increase in stem thickness and girth, lateral meristems are sometimes referred to as secondary meristems.

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Dermal tissues, consisting of epidermis and periderm, are outermost cell layers with thicker walls and waxy cuticles, protecting against injury, disease, and water loss.

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Vascular tissues, consisting of xylem and phloem, transport water and nutrients, supporting the plant body and are thick-walled cells that die at maturity.

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Ground tissues, including parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma, support growth and development, protect the plant body, and store carbohydrates, particularly starch, through cellular processes.

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Parenchyma, thin-walled cells, mature and support growth and development in ground tissue by performing cellular processes and storing carbohydrates, particularly starch.

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Sclerenchyma, lignin-containing cells, are dead at maturity but serve as ground tissue support and protect the plant body.

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The chloroplast, an organelle found in numerous plant cells, is responsible for photosynthesis and energy absorption in leaf cells.

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The blade, a flattened area of a leaf, is connected to the stem by a petiole. It is the broad expanded part of the leaf.

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A petiole is a stalk-like structure that connects the leaf blade to the plant stem.

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Simple leaves can be lobed or divided, but they do not form distinct leaflets and can only have one blade.

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Leaves can be compound, consisting of multiple leaflets attached to the petiole, each with its own small petiole but without an axillary bud.

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Leaf epidermal cells are tightly packed and covered by a waxy coating called the cuticle. The cuticle prevents water loss and acts as a physical barrier against bacteria, moulds, and insects.

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Spongy mesophyll is the layer beneath a terrestrial plant's lower leaf surface that is composed of up of loosely packed photosynthetic cells with lots of air spaces between them.

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Herbaceous stems are pliable, photosynthesis-activated, and have a thin epidermis, referring to plants without wood-based stems.

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Woody stems in gymnosperms are hard, have bark, and don't typically perform photosynthesis. Most woody angiosperms are eudicots, while some monocots produce wood but have similar tissues like palm and bamboo stems.

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Woody stems grow thicker over time due to the vascular cambium, a layer of meristematic cells in vascular tissue that divides to form new xylem and phloem cells.

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The cork cambium is a meristematic layer in woody plants that produces cork, the tough outer layer that prevents water loss from the stem.

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The periderm, formed during the radial thickening of plant organs like stems and roots, serves as an armor that shields the plant's inner tissues from both biotic and abiotic stress, replacing primary protective tissues.

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Monocots are named for having one cotyledon, the seed-growing part of leaves. They are identified by their multiple flower parts of 3 and have parallel or up/down veins on leaves and scattered vascular bundles on stems.

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Collenchyma, living at maturity, are thick-walled cells that support growth and development in ground tissue by performing cellular processes and protecting the plant body.

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Dicots are named after the two cotyledons in their stems, with flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5, scattering leaf veins, and woody stems with xylem and phloem.

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Xylem in plants is a vascular tissue responsible for water and mineral distribution, providing mechanical strength and providing mechanical support. It is a tubular-shaped structure in the center of the vascular bundle and moves in a u-directional direction, transporting nutrients and water molecules from roots to aerial parts.

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Phloem is a thin-walled cell in plants that transports sugars, proteins, and other organic molecules. It is located on the outer side of the vascular bundle and consists of: companion cells, sieve tubes, bast fibres, phloem fibres, intermediary cells, and the phloem parenchyma. Phloem fibres are larger and present in stems and leaves, moving bidirectionally and living with cytoplasm without the nucleus.

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Transpiration is the process of water evaporation through the stomata of plant leaves. Water and dissolved nutrients enter the root through osmosis and active transport. Transpiration in leaves releases water molecules, causing the uptake of replacement water from soil. Root pressure and capillary action force water up the xylem tubes, while attractive forces between water molecules and cell walls hold the water column together.

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Translocation is the long-distance transport of substances through the phloem, particularly glucose, which is the most efficient method for supplying energy to cells throughout a plant. Unlike xylem tubes, phloem tubes are not hollow, allowing substances to move between living cells. Translocation moves sugars quickly enough to supply energy to cells throughout the plant.

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A companion cell is a small, nucleated phloem cell that is always linked to a sieve tube element. It has a nucleus and all the other organelles that the sieve tube element lacks.

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Turgor pressure in plant cells helps support the plant and is caused by the fluid contents of the central vacuole, which stores water and substances. Full vacuole exerts pressure against cell wall and this pressure is called turgor pressure.

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Adhesion is the attraction between water molecules and the walls of xylem vessels, involving the attraction between different molecules or substances. Cohesive and adhesive forces are crucial in plant water transport, creating a transpiration pull that lifts water from roots to leaves, facilitating the absorption of necessary nutrients.

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Cohesion force refers to the attraction between similar substances or molecules. Water molecules have a cohesive property due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding, where hydrogen atoms have positive charges and oxygen atoms have negative charges, allowing for alignment with adjacent molecules.

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Tracheid an elongated, tapered xylem cell with thick cell walls containing small pits; tracheids overlap one another at the ends to form continuous tubes from root to shoot

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Sieve cells are phloem cells with narrow pores in their cell walls, containing all necessary cell organelles, including a nucleus, and possess all the organelles found in most cells.

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The palisade mesophyll, located under the upper epidermis, is a layer of elongated, closely packed cells containing numerous chloroplasts. This arrangement maximizes the amount of light a plant can collect and use for photosynthesis, forming part of the mesophyll.

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A root hair is a microscopic hair-like outgrowth from an epidermal cell, extending the epidermal cells of the root.

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The epidermis, the outermost layer of cells on plant shoots, is a protective tissue that covers the entire plant's surface, protecting it from infection, water loss, and regulating gas exchange. It also secretes metabolic substances, absorbs water and essential minerals, and protects against mechanical injury and parasitic fungus invasion. The epidermis also aids in root water absorption.

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Casparian strips are located in endodermis found in roots, formed during early cell ontogeny. They block submicroscopic capillaries in the primary wall, preventing substance movement. The cytoplasm of endodermal cells is firmly attached to the casparian strip, preventing it from separating from the tissue. The strip also forms a barrier for soil solution to pass through the selectively permeable cytoplasm, controlling the uptake of substances into roots.

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The root cortex is a subset of parenchyma cells beneath the root's epidermis, responsible for storing carbohydrates and aiding in water transportation from the epidermis to the xylem.

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The vascular cylinder is the central portion of a root, containing the xylem and phloem. The arrangement of xylem and phloem within the cylinder varies among angiosperm and gymnosperms.

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Root pressure is the osmotic force that pushes xylem sap upward in root vascular tissue, as more nutrients are pumped into the xylem, increasing their concentration and causing water molecules to follow by osmosis.

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Section Three: Plant Growth Regulators and Community

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Section Three: Plant Growth Regulators and Community

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Tropism refers to a directional shift in a plant's growth or movement in response to a stimulus, which is regulated by plant growth regulators.

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Phototropism refers to a plant's change in growth direction in response to uneven lighting in its environment.

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Gravitropism refers to a plant's directional change in growth pattern in response to gravity. Also called geotropism.

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Thigmotropism refers to a directional change in plant growth pattern in response to contact / touch.

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Auxin, a growth regulator in plants, promotes cell elongation, inhibits cell division in certain cases, and stimulates cell division in the vascular cambium, forming new lateral meristems when the apical meristem grows.

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Gibberellins are plant growth regulators that promote cell division and elongation, contribute to flowering and fruit production, and are low in dwarf plants, influenced by environmental conditions.

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Cytokinins are growth regulators in plants, promoting cell division, working with auxins, slowing cell aging, stimulating protein synthesis, and inhibiting ethylene.

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Ethylene, a plant stress hormone depending on environmental conditions, is released when a plant is wounded and affects various aspects of plant growth, including fruit ripening, root and shoot development, flower opening, and leaf and fruit drop.

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Abscisic Acid, present in deciduous trees, regulates temperature, light, and seasons, promoting dormancy in leaf buds and seeds, and controlling stomata closure during dry periods.

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Succession refers to the gradual alteration in the species composition of a community over time, often resulting from population shifts and the emergence or disappearance of certain species.

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Primary succession occurs in areas without plants, animals, or soil, occurring on completely barren rock or mineral deposits.

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Secondary succession refers to the succession that occurs after an existing ecosystem has been disrupted by natural events or human activity.

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Pioneer species are the first organisms to colonize an area of bare surface during succession.

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The climax community, also known as stable community or climatic vegetation, is the final stable community in a sere, self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat.

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An ecosystem is a geographic region where each factor is interdependent. It comprises biotic and abiotic factors, with biotic being living parts and abiotic being nonliving parts. Biotic factors include organisms, while abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity.

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Asexual reproduction produces individuals that are genetically identical to the parent plant.

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A stolon, also known as a runner, is a slender stem that grows horizontally along the ground, forming roots and aerial branches at nodes.

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A corm is a vertical, underground stem used in seed plants for food storage and asexual reproduction, containing membranous or scaly leaves and buds, without visible rings.

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Grafting is the process of attaching a young branch from one plant to the stem and root of another plant, typically from the same or closely related species.

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Scion is the detached young branch from a plant used for grafting

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The stock is the plant that provides the stem and root system, onto which a scion is grafted.

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Gymnosperms are evergreen plants with haploid tissue, and has scalelike and needle-like leaves. A seed is produced by non-flowering plants and is unenclosed or naked. Softwood type plants rely on wind for reproduction, with unisexual reproductive systems in cones and a cone-like reproductive system.

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Angiosperms, with a seed produced by flowering plants enclosed with an ovary, have a seasonal lifecycle, triploid tissue, and flat leaves. Hardwood types rely on animals and wind for reproduction, with the reproductive system in flowers (unisexual or bisexual).

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Seeds are the embryonic stage of plant life, consisting of an embryo, endosperm, and seed coat. The embryo is a tiny plant with roots, stem, and leaves. Endosperm is the seed's nutritive tissue, often containing starch, oil, and protein. The seed coat provides a protective covering, ensuring seeds remain viable for extended periods.

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Angiosperm seeds contain nutritive tissue supplied by either cotyledons or a specialized layer called endosperm.

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Microspores are small haploid structures that give rise to the male gametophyte.

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Pollen grains are haploid cells that form the male reproductive gamete of the plant. Pollen grains are found in seed plants only.

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The male gametophyte, a cone-like structure found in angiosperms, produces male gametes. It forms a functional three-cell structure in an anther and develops in two phases, pre and post pollination. It disintegrates after fertilization and is present on separate male cones in gymnosperms, while in angiosperms, it is part of the flower.

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The female gametophyte, a structure found in the ovule, forms an eight-cell structure in angiosperms, derived from megaspores. It has a single growth phase and forms new structures after fertilization. In gymnosperms, it is present on separate cones, while in angiosperms, it is part of the flower.

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Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from one plant to another.

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The pollen tube is a hollow tube that originates from a pollen grain and transports the pollen nucleus to the female sex cell.

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The zygote is the progenitor stem cell that forms embryonic and post-embryonic tissues and organs. In gymnosperms, a diploid zygote forms when sperm and egg nuclei fuse, while in flowering plants, it forms the first diploid cell.

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The diploid sporophyte of angiosperms and gymnosperms is the conspicuous and long-lived stage of the life cycle. The sporophytes differentiate specialized reproductive structures called sporangia, which are dedicated to the production of spores.

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The stamen, a male reproductive floral part consisting of an anther and a filament, is the main component of the male reproductive flower.

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The anther is the part of the male floral reproductive parts and it produces pollen.

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The filament is a thin stalk that supports the anther, raising it above the female organs.

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The carpel, a part of the female reproductive system, includes a stigma, style, ovary, and ovule.

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The stigma is a sticky surface on top of the style that serves as a pollen grain landing site.

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The style, a tube-like structure below the stigma, is responsible for leading down to the ovary.

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An ovary in flowering plants is the pistil's part that holds the ovule(s) and is connected to the base of the petals and sepals.

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Petals, or corolla, are modified leaves surrounding flowers' reproductive parts, often brightly colored or unusually shaped, attracting pollinators.

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The plant embryo, also known as the seed embryo, is the earliest form of a plant's roots, stem, and leaves, containing stored food material in starch-filled cells.

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The pericarp, a fruit wall, forms from the fertilized angiosperm carpel's ovary wall, which can be fleshy or dry.

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Fruit development begins with double fertilization of an ovule, forming a mature ovary of an angiosperm containing the seed(s).

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Self-pollination involves the transfer of pollen from one flower to another on a single plant, allowing plants to cross-pollinate.

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Shared structures of both