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More than 10 percent of all American households, or about 13.7 million, experience food insecurity. This means that 35 million Americans, and 5 million children, live in environments that lack healthy food that allows them to lead a healthy life.

"Food deserts" are communities that do not have adequate access to healthy food, such as fresh fruits and vegetables. You may be curious about why these places exist, how they got there, and what potential solutions there are. If so, keep reading--it will help you be more informed about the world and better positioned to help make it better.

What Makes a Food Desert?

Food deserts are areas where fresh fruits and vegetables, as well as whole grains, legumes, dairy, or meat, are completely lacking or prohibitively expensive. In short, food deserts are areas where families face significant obstacles to accessing healthy foods.

Many factors contribute to the emergence (and persistence) of food insecurity. Lack of proximity to supermarkets or local food markets is a major cause of food deserts. This is true for both inner cities and rural towns.

While 82 percent of people living in food deserts are in urban areas, rural spaces are not exempt. Though vehicles are more of a necessity (and more prevalent) in rural areas, it does not always solve the problem. About 335,000 people in the United States live more than 20 miles away from a grocery store.

Limited income and resources are contributing factors to food deserts. Transportation difficulties among low-income populations are a major factor. This could mean a lack of a vehicle or of public transportation options to access groceries. Infrastructure that makes walking or biking difficult also limits access.

Food deserts disproportionately impact marginalized communities. They have a higher percentage of Black and Latinx populations.

A history of racial segregation has both caused and exacerbated food insecurity. A food system dictated by corporations is also a symptom of systemic racism as it pertains to health inequalities.

For these reasons, the term "food apartheid" has emerged as a more accurate description of this issue. That is because "food desert" implies a natural or haphazard cause for these disparities when that is not the case.

Negative Effects of Food Deserts

People who live in food deserts turn to convenience stores that sell processed foods with lower nutritional value. These boxed or frozen meals are also easier to prepare, which makes them all the more appealing to those working long hours to make ends meet.

(Note that, for this reason, food desserts are often underreported. Corner convenience stores that sell processed foods are often categorized as those that sell fresh produce.)

Nutrition (or lack of it) plays a key role in the development of chronic diseases. These include everything from heart disease, stroke, Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and cancer, to name a few. This results in lower mortality rates for those living in food deserts.

Health problems like obesity--common to food deserts--tend to be intergenerational. Children of obese parents are more likely to become overweight themselves. This creates a vicious cycle that only makes health disparities worse.

Malnutrition also has negative repercussions for pregnant women. It means they are more susceptible to iron, vitamin A, and other nutrient deficiencies. Lack of nutrition contributes to weaker immune systems. These women are more prone to miscarriages and birth defects.

Finally, people in food deserts with food allergies or sensitivities may find it difficult to find safe food to eat. This is not only unhealthy but can be life-threatening as well.

Solutions to Food Deserts

Since the issue of food deserts is complicated and not linked to a single cause, responses will be complex as well. There are a few proven solutions that can begin to chip away at these deficits.

Public Health Policies and Programs

One very straightforward solution to food deserts is beefing up the existing food safety nets. Expanding federal programs that provide food stamps to children and pregnant women would have a huge impact. It would ensure fewer families and individuals fall through the cracks.

Expanding the Earned Income Tax Credit and decreasing income tax thresholds for low-income earners could help as well. It would put more money in families' pockets to help them afford healthier food options.

The government can play a role in incentivizing grocery store development in areas where it is lacking. Tax incentives are an inducement for corporate grocery chains. They also can encourage the opening of local small businesses, like health food stores.

Also, there is a need to expand or develop new government programs that help screen for food insecurity. This would help identify other commonalities in locations where food insecurity problems persist.

Community Health Programs

There are some things local neighborhoods and municipalities can do as well. Community gardens, for instance, can be a great source of healthy food. They also are an opportunity to learn planting and farming skills. They are a way for neighbors to work together, build community, and keep resources local.

Likewise, farmers and community markets support local food production. It also means money going back to individuals and local businesses. This has the added benefit of "cutting out the middle man" and eliminating things like transportation costs.

Nonprofit programs like food banks that address waste can assist as well. Many of these organizations seek out and redistribute acceptable produce from grocery stores that they otherwise would throw out.

Help End Food Deserts

We hope this information on food deserts is helpful to you. Now that you have a better understanding of this complex issue, you can determine in what ways you might be able to contribute to finding solutions.

At Esperança, combating the social determinants of food deserts for communities around the world is just one of many programs we provide to ensure the health of all families.

Esperança is the Portuguese word for "hope." We work domestically and abroad to provide preventative health education, community development projects and surgical intervention to communities. Our regions of focus include North, South, and Central America, as well as Mozambique. Reach out to us toda y to see how you can get involved.

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Food Deserts and Their Impact on Community Health - Esperança

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More than 10 percent of all American households, or about 13.7 million, experience food insecurity. This means that 35 million Americans, and 5 million children, live in environments that lack healthy food that allows them to lead a healthy life. "Food deserts" are communities that do not have adequate access to healthy food, such as fresh fruits and vegetables.

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Health, Pesticide Adjuvants, and Inert Ingredients: California Case Study Illustrates Need for Data Access | Environmental Health Perspectives | Vol. 130, No. 8 (nih.gov)

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Food deserts are communities that have poor access to healthy, affordable foods (, 2).

Also known as healthy food priority areas, food deserts are concentrated in low-income and historically marginalized areas throughout the United States (, 2, 3, ).

In food deserts, healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, peas, beans, meat, and fish are often expensive or unobtainable. The lack of access to healthy foods in these communities translates to health disparities and high rates of chronic disease (, 5, ).

This article examines the causes, health effects, and potential solutions for food deserts.

The causes of food deserts are multifaceted. Public policy and economic practices that are embedded in systemic racism often play a role. Social, economic, and political conditions have been shown to reduce people's access to healthy foods.

Contributing factors include food insecurity, social determinants of health, racial residential segregation, and poor access to transportation among low-income and historically marginalized populations (, , 8, 9).

Food apartheid

Apartheid is an enforced form of racial segregation.

"Food apartheid," however, is an emerging term meant to address the root causes of poor access to healthy, nutrient-dense foods by communities of color and low-income white people.

Food activists like Karen Washington, Malik Yakini, and Dara Cooper believe that this term more accurately represents the systemic racism and health inequities of a corporate-controlled food system.

The term "food desert" is sometimes scrutinized for its misrepresentation of the core issues within these communities.

For instance, the term "desert" suggests a natural, barren landscape and proposes that increasing the number of grocery stores is a quick solution. Furthermore, this term neither resonates with nor is a part of the identities of the individuals who live within these areas.

Instead, "food apartheid" addresses the root causes of poor food environments and health disparities among predominantly low-income communities of color.

Food insecurity

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) estimates that 17.4 million American households were food insecure in 2014 ( 9).

Food security is the physical and economic access to sufficient nutritious foods by all people at all times. When this access is disrupted or limited, food insecurity occurs ( 10).

Food insecurity may be temporary - for example, if you run out of food for a day or two - or long-term, as exemplified by persistent poverty and poor access to food ( 10).

Food insecurity among low-income communities in food deserts is 2.5 times greater than the national average ( 9).

Social determinants of health

Social determinants of health are factors beyond your control, such as access to healthcare or transportation, that affect your quality of life. These factors play a major role in food deserts ( 11).

Barriers like income, community infrastructure, and access to supermarkets all influence the availability of healthy foods. Other social determinants of health that may contribute to food deserts include (, 8, 11, ):

education

employment and job training

socioeconomic status and concentrated poverty

access to healthcare

access to local food markets and fresh produce

access to transportation

racial segregation

public safety

These factors may lead to health disparities characteristic of food deserts, such as high rates of chronic diseases among historically marginalized and low-income communities (, 2, , 11).

Racial segregation

Low-income communities have a high proportion of Black and Latino populations who are disproportionately affected by poor food access (, , 9).

Robust evidence shows that racial segregation places historically marginalized populations, particularly Black people, in impoverished neighborhoods (, 9).

In 2016, compared with the national average, Black households were two times likelier to be food insecure, while Hispanic households had a greater prevalence of food insecurity ( 9).

Notably, 76% of neighborhoods with a high proportion of Black people were among the most impoverished ().

Transportation and proximity to supermarkets

In food deserts, the distance you have to travel to supermarkets is further than in wealthier areas (, ).

Plus, predominantly Black and Hispanic communities have fewer supermarkets and local food markets - which often offer affordable and nutritious produce - than white neighborhoods (, 6, , 9, , 13).

Thus, households in food deserts don't have equal access to the healthy foods available to white and affluent communities ( 6).

Furthermore, public transit and vehicle ownership play a role in food access ( 8, 13).

Summary
Food deserts are attributed to food apartheid and have root causes in food insecurity, racial segregation, proximity to supermarkets, access to a vehicle, and various other social factors.

Because there isn't an exact definition of food deserts, U.S. government agencies instead characterize communities, states, and populations based on food insecurity, income status, and access to stores and vehicles ( 14).

In 2014, an estimated 71.4 million American households were food insecure, while in 2016 31.6% of low-income households experienced food insecurity ( 9).

The Food Environment Atlas, which was developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), shows an interactive map that displays information on food insecurity, socioeconomic conditions, and proximity to supermarkets ( 14).

According to this map, food insecurity rose in 16 states between 2015 and 2017, although only Nevada, New York, and Rhode Island saw a significant increase in the percentage of households with very low food insecurity ( 14).

"Very low food insecurity" is defined as disrupted eating and reduced food intake due to poor access or economic hardship ( 9).

In the United States, populations with low access to stores are concentrated in the Southwest, Midwest, Northwest, and Florida, while households without access to a car and low food access are more common in the Northeast and Southeast ( 14).

As such, food insecurity, poor food access, and potential food deserts exist across the continental United States.

Summary
Food deserts are likely widespread throughout the United States. National statistics characterize geographic areas based on income status, food insecurity, and access to stores and vehicles.

Diet and nutrition play a major role in chronic disease ( 15, ).

Chronic illnesses are the leading cause of death and disability in the United States, with heart disease, diabetes, and cancer being the most common ().

Among low-income and food-insecure communities, disproportionate access to affordable, healthy foods contributes to poor nutrition and perpetuates health disparities, leading to higher rates of obesity and other chronic ailments (, , 9, 13, 15, , 17, ).

Notably, Black people - who are likelier to be food insecure - have the highest rates of disease and mortality, largely related to diabetes and high blood pressure (, ).

A vicious cycle may develop in which people with chronic diseases in food deserts rely on convenience stores and corner stores, which often sell expensive foods with low nutritional value - further limiting people's capacity to buy healthy foods ().

Summary
Food insecurity in low-income, historically marginalized communities is associated with higher rates of chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer.

Understanding food deserts as food apartheid not only addresses their root causes but also challenges the quality of solutions that are often presented.

Temporary fixes that continue to perpetuate wealth inequities and health disparities include the placement of more fast-food chains and corner stores within food deserts (, 13, 19).

Simply increasing access to cheap food doesn't lead to equitable access to affordable and healthy foods ( 13).

At the community level, food distribution, locally run markets, and gardening make great tools for communities to increase food access, reduce food insecurity, and promote healthy diets and lifestyles.

Keep in mind that comprehensive structural and policy changes are necessary to achieve equitable food access. Still, you can get started today on community-run solutions to improve access to affordable healthy foods in food deserts (, ).

Community gardens

In addition to creating green spaces and beautifying the neighborhood, community gardens provide fresh, nutritious produce and encourage healthy diets.

They also teach skills and foundational knowledge about environmental concerns, planting know-how, and where foods come from.

Finally, community gardens may help communities invest in their own health.

Farmers markets, arabbers, and roadside carts

Community markets promote local food production, as well as cultural foods that both appeal to the population and support a healthy diet.

At farmers markets, you buy directly from growers and support a local, thriving economy.

Arabbers - street vendors who sell fruits and vegetables from horse-drawn carts - and roadside produce carts may also create economic opportunities and improve food access in food deserts.

The USDA's Community Food Projects (CFP) Competitive Grant program is a potential source of funding to kick-start and nurture such programs ( 13, 22).

Surplus food sharing

To balance out food waste from wealthy communities with poor food access in food deserts, food sharing collaborations and alliances may support more efficient food economies.

Food rescue organizations even take produce that would be thrown out at grocery stores due to blemishes or physical deformities - but that's still perfectly good to eat - and resell it at affordable prices.

Federal resources for low-income people to get healthy foods

SNAP gives financial assistance to families in need and provides nutrition benefits.

The WIC program provides monthly nutrition packages, incentives for people who are nursing, and benefits for children up to age 5.

The National Council on Aging (NCOA) offers assistance to low-income older adults facing hunger.

Nongovernmental food assistance programs

Meals on Wheels and other organizations like Moveable Feast provide medically tailored food delivery and nutrition education to establish racial, social, and health equity.

Food Not Bombs provides free vegetarian and vegan meals in numerous locations around the globe.

Wholesome Wave works with community organizations to eliminate food insecurity and provide nutritious food to people in need.

Local food pantries, soup kitchens, and food banks run by religious or community organizations offer food to low-income communities to reduce food insecurity and hunger.

Summary
Community-based solutions to improve access to affordable, healthy foods in food deserts include local markets, community gardens, surplus food sharing programs, federal food assistance programs, and food pantries.

For immediate food assistance, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline at 1-866-3-HUNGRY (1-866-348-6479) or 1-877-8-HAMBRE (1-877-842-6273), Mondays through Fridays from 7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. EST.

How to improve your nutrition on a budget

Even if you're on a tight budget and don't have high quality, fresh produce available, there are numerous ways that you can enjoy nutritious foods, including ( 23):

Buy canned or frozen goods. Canned or frozen meats, fruits, and vegetables are both nutritious and inexpensive compared with their fresh counterparts - and they last longer. Opt for low salt canned food when possible.

Try nonmeat protein sources. Meat accounts for a large portion of many people's food bills. Dried peas and beans provide just as much protein as meat but are cheaper and longer-lasting.

Shop for foods in season. In-season produce is easier to obtain and less expensive than out-of-season fruits and veggies. If they're available in your area, visit roadside stands or other local markets and buy small amounts of fresh produce to avoid waste.

Freeze leftovers. To cut down on costs and food waste, freeze leftovers for reheating later in the week. You can also repurpose leftovers. For instance, plain rice from Sunday lunch can be made into vegetable rice for Monday or Tuesday.

Summary
If you're on a budget, freezing leftovers, eating more peas and beans, buying canned goods, and looking for in-season produce are a few strategies to save money and eat well. If you're experiencing hunger, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline.

Food deserts - where nutritious food is often inexpensive or unavailable - usually occur in low-income, historically marginalized communities. They're marked by high rates of food insecurity, racial and health disparities, and high rates of chronic diseases.

Several federal and nonprofit programs are dedicated to improving food access in food deserts.

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Food Deserts: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

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Food deserts are communities that have poor access to healthy, affordable foods (, 2). Also known as healthy food priority areas, food deserts are concentrated in low-income and historically marginalized areas throughout the United States (, 2, 3, ). In food deserts, healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, peas, beans, meat, and fish are often expensive or unobtainable.

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More than 10 percent of all American households, or about 13.7 million, experience food insecurity. This means that 35 million Americans, and 5 million children, live in environments that lack healthy food that allows them to lead a healthy life.

"Food deserts" are communities that do not have adequate access to healthy food, such as fresh fruits and vegetables. You may be curious about why these places exist, how they got there, and what potential solutions there are. If so, keep reading--it will help you be more informed about the world and better positioned to help make it better.

What Makes a Food Desert?

Food deserts are areas where fresh fruits and vegetables, as well as whole grains, legumes, dairy, or meat, are completely lacking or prohibitively expensive. In short, food deserts are areas where families face significant obstacles to accessing healthy foods.

Many factors contribute to the emergence (and persistence) of food insecurity. Lack of proximity to supermarkets or local food markets is a major cause of food deserts. This is true for both inner cities and rural towns.

While 82 percent of people living in food deserts are in urban areas, rural spaces are not exempt. Though vehicles are more of a necessity (and more prevalent) in rural areas, it does not always solve the problem. About 335,000 people in the United States live more than 20 miles away from a grocery store.

Limited income and resources are contributing factors to food deserts. Transportation difficulties among low-income populations are a major factor. This could mean a lack of a vehicle or of public transportation options to access groceries. Infrastructure that makes walking or biking difficult also limits access.

Food deserts disproportionately impact marginalized communities. They have a higher percentage of Black and Latinx populations.

A history of racial segregation has both caused and exacerbated food insecurity. A food system dictated by corporations is also a symptom of systemic racism as it pertains to health inequalities.

For these reasons, the term "food apartheid" has emerged as a more accurate description of this issue. That is because "food desert" implies a natural or haphazard cause for these disparities when that is not the case.

Negative Effects of Food Deserts

People who live in food deserts turn to convenience stores that sell processed foods with lower nutritional value. These boxed or frozen meals are also easier to prepare, which makes them all the more appealing to those working long hours to make ends meet.

(Note that, for this reason, food desserts are often underreported. Corner convenience stores that sell processed foods are often categorized as those that sell fresh produce.)

Nutrition (or lack of it) plays a key role in the development of chronic diseases. These include everything from heart disease, stroke, Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and cancer, to name a few. This results in lower mortality rates for those living in food deserts.

Health problems like obesity--common to food deserts--tend to be intergenerational. Children of obese parents are more likely to become overweight themselves. This creates a vicious cycle that only makes health disparities worse.

Malnutrition also has negative repercussions for pregnant women. It means they are more susceptible to iron, vitamin A, and other nutrient deficiencies. Lack of nutrition contributes to weaker immune systems. These women are more prone to miscarriages and birth defects.

Finally, people in food deserts with food allergies or sensitivities may find it difficult to find safe food to eat. This is not only unhealthy but can be life-threatening as well.

Solutions to Food Deserts

Since the issue of food deserts is complicated and not linked to a single cause, responses will be complex as well. There are a few proven solutions that can begin to chip away at these deficits.

Public Health Policies and Programs

One very straightforward solution to food deserts is beefing up the existing food safety nets. Expanding federal programs that provide food stamps to children and pregnant women would have a huge impact. It would ensure fewer families and individuals fall through the cracks.

Expanding the Earned Income Tax Credit and decreasing income tax thresholds for low-income earners could help as well. It would put more money in families' pockets to help them afford healthier food options.

The government can play a role in incentivizing grocery store development in areas where it is lacking. Tax incentives are an inducement for corporate grocery chains. They also can encourage the opening of local small businesses, like health food stores.

Also, there is a need to expand or develop new government programs that help screen for food insecurity. This would help identify other commonalities in locations where food insecurity problems persist.

Community Health Programs

There are some things local neighborhoods and municipalities can do as well. Community gardens, for instance, can be a great source of healthy food. They also are an opportunity to learn planting and farming skills. They are a way for neighbors to work together, build community, and keep resources local.

Likewise, farmers and community markets support local food production. It also means money going back to individuals and local businesses. This has the added benefit of "cutting out the middle man" and eliminating things like transportation costs.

Nonprofit programs like food banks that address waste can assist as well. Many of these organizations seek out and redistribute acceptable produce from grocery stores that they otherwise would throw out.

Help End Food Deserts

We hope this information on food deserts is helpful to you. Now that you have a better understanding of this complex issue, you can determine in what ways you might be able to contribute to finding solutions.

At Esperança, combating the social determinants of food deserts for communities around the world is just one of many programs we provide to ensure the health of all families.

Esperança is the Portuguese word for "hope." We work domestically and abroad to provide preventative health education, community development projects and surgical intervention to communities. Our regions of focus include North, South, and Central America, as well as Mozambique. Reach out to us toda y to see how you can get involved.

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Food Deserts and Their Impact on Community Health - Esperança

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More than 10 percent of all American households, or about 13.7 million, experience food insecurity. This means that 35 million Americans, and 5 million children, live in environments that lack healthy food that allows them to lead a healthy life. "Food deserts" are communities that do not have adequate access to healthy food, such as fresh fruits and vegetables.

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Explainer

A key source of food injustice and insecurity in the United States, explained.

Most Americans don't eat enough fruits and vegetables. The reasons for this are complex but one particular challenge for many communities is a lack of access to healthy foods in areas sometimes called food deserts. Along with driving up healthcare costs, living in a food desert also diminishes people's overall quality of life. Some racial groups experience a greater impact than others - especially in low-income neighborhoods where finding affordable and healthy food is extremely challenging. Rural areas also lack large grocery stores that stock healthy foods like fresh fruits and vegetables, nuts, legumes and whole grains. Many residents of these communities areas rely on small convenience stores and fast food.

Where food deserts exist also has historic origins. In the U.S., supermarket redlining traces back to the first instances of this practice in the 1940s, when neighborhoods were color-coded by the federal Home Owners Land Corporation to indicate lending risk. Due to the impact of loan and mortgage restrictions in areas where Black people lived, redlining hindered wealth accumulation in a way that still persists today. The effects of redlining extended to influence where supermarkets decided to put their businesses, which has left a legacy of limited access to nutritious food in historically redlined neighborhoods.

Food Desert, Defined

A food desert is a community or region in which residents face barriers to accessing fresh, healthy and affordable food - especially fruits and vegetables. Though the U.S. Department of Agriculture officially stopped using the term in 2013, the term "food desert" still implies a place in which there are no nearby grocery stores, with increasing reliance on fast food that makes it harder to maintain a healthy diet. Food deserts can be present in both urban and rural areas marked by geographical and socioeconomic disadvantage. In food deserts, the nearest grocery store is far from the home and residents often don't have access to a car. Fast food restaurants and small corner stores are often the only nearby food option.

To identify food deserts, researchers look at how far the people in a neighborhood live from a supermarket or grocery store. They also consider the income of the families living in the area, as well as other resources like access to transportation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture stopped using the term "food desert" in 2013. Instead, it now looks at census tracts that are both low-income and have low supermarket access. Researchers measure census tracts for both a concentration of "low-income" families and their distance from food stores. The food stores included are supermarkets, supercenters and large grocery stores. On the other hand, smaller grocery stores, dollar stores, drugstores, military commissaries and warehouse club stores are excluded. The USDA's criteria does not account for farmers' markets, food banks or community gardens.

Why Do Food Deserts Exist?

In the U.S., food deserts are a result of efforts to segregate U.S. cities into predominantly Black and predominantly white neighborhoods through federal urban planning and housing policies. However, there are many different causes of food deserts, summarized below.

Transportation

In addition to the challenge of living far from a food store, families in so-called food deserts are also less likely to have reliable transportation.

Income Inequality

Even when healthy food is available at local stores, it can remain inaccessible to low-income families. This is due to higher expense of maintaining diets rich in vegetables, fruits, healthy proteins and nuts.

Racial Inequality

Instead of being a natural occurrence, "food deserts" are actually a result of systemic racial inequality. In these areas, affordable groceries are hard to come by due to a long history of unfair policies and discriminatory practices. A study in BMC Nutrition shows that people of color nationwide spend much more time traveling to access healthy foods compared to white populations.

Urbanization and Land-Use Policies

In densely populated urban areas, limited space is available. Grocery stores, which typically require significant space, often find it cost-prohibitive to buy or rent real estate in these urban settings.

Where Are Food Deserts Located?

Food deserts exist across the United States, from large cities to rural towns - and they tend to most impact Black and brown communities. Rural areas in the West, Midwest and South have a high density of food deserts. However, the Northeast sees relatively fewer food deserts due to its more compact population distribution.

The USDA Economic Research Service defines low access to food stores in rural areas as living more than 10 or 20 miles away from the nearest food store. In 2015, 4.6 million people lived in rural census tracts defined as low-income and low-access. Meanwhile, in urban areas, the USDA Economic Research Service defines low access to food stores as living more than half a mile or a mile away from a food store. In 2015, 34.7 million people lived in urban census tracts defined as low-income and low-access.

How Many Americans Live in Food Deserts, and Where Do They Live?

The number of people living in food deserts depends on the definition of "food desert" being used. Existing estimates are rough due to the challenge of quantitatively measuring access to healthy food. The USDA estimated that in 2019 somewhere between 11 and 27 percent of the population lived in areas where there is a significant concentration of poverty and physical distance from a supermarket. Other research suggests that approximately 20 percent of Black households reside in food deserts.

Chicago is the third-most populous city in the United States, and home to over 500,000 residents living in food deserts. An additional 400,000 people also live in neighborhoods with limited access to grocery stores. This makes fast food a more convenient option. A recent study revealed a concerning gap in predominantly Black residential areas, where the closest grocery store is twice as far away as the nearest fast-food restaurant. This disparity highlights the unequal access to nutritious food options in the city.

The issue of food deserts is also pronounced in the rural Mississippi Delta region. According to the USDA, Mississippi has the highest percentage of its population living in low-income, low-access areas in the entire country. In these rural counties, the average distance to a supermarket is approximately one per 190 square miles. This scarcity of grocery stores severely limits the availability of fresh and healthy food options for the local population.

Yet another example - New York City. Despite being a bustling urban area, hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers find themselves living in food deserts. Many residents rely on small corner stores, which tend to prioritize microwavable meals and junk food over fresh, healthy produce.

Finally, in rural New Mexico, approximately three out of every 10 residents live in a food desert. The COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated this situation. Many grocery stores were temporarily shut down as the virus spread, and some never reopened. This has created even greater hardships for residents already facing limited access to fresh and affordable food.

Food Deserts Are a Public Health Threat

Though the cumulative impact of food deserts can be hard to untangle, there are some common concerns related to limited access to healthy and affordable foods.

Studies have considered living in a food desert to be a risk factor for having a "suboptimal diet" for older adults with limited independence and mobility. Consistently consuming foods rich in salt, sugar, carbs and unhealthy fats can raise the risk of diseases such as Type 2 diabetes and high blood pressure.

Easy access to cheap and unhealthy processed foods plays a role, as smaller grocery stores and drugstores are often full of foods that are high in added sugars, hydrogenated fats, salt and calories.

More supermarkets is often put forward as a solution. In one 2020 study, researchers studied the impact of a new supermarket in a food desert. They assessed how it influenced food security, dietary quality and the BMI of local participants in the Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program, or SNAP. The SNAP participants in the neighborhood with a new supermarket significantly reduced their intake of added sugars - and participants in that neighborhood also experienced a lower daily calorie intake from "a combination of solid fats, alcohol and added sugars."

Yet the presence of a new supermarket does not always improve dietary health. And even though many public health experts argue for specific policies that would eliminate food deserts, researchers have found that consumers often continue to make unhealthy food choices even when healthier food choices are more widely available. Many experts argue that more is needed than just a supermarket. For instance, even when a few grocery stores are available in food deserts, the healthy foods they offer may be pricier than processed alternatives. Improving the patterns linked to food deserts requires addressing poverty and increasing consumer education, these critics say.

One group of urban food desert researchers found that how residents perceived their " nutrition environments and household food challenges " were also significant factors in the quality of their diets. This research lends support to efforts to lower the price of fresh produce for low-income households.

Deserts, Swamps and Food Insecurity

In contrast to food deserts, areas characterized as food swamps may have access to healthy food options like fruits and vegetables, yet what's more critical is the proliferation of fast-food restaurants, convenience stores and vending machines that primarily offer junk food, sugary beverages and processed snacks.

People who lack consistent access to sufficient food for a healthy and active life are, by definition, food insecure. From not having enough money to buy sufficient food to skipping meals, food insecurity is a massive challenge for public health leaders in the U.S.

There are many different proposed solutions to unequal food access. These solutions often overlap with initiatives to increase food security, food sovereignty and dismantling systems of oppression.

One promising approach is educating people about food deserts, as taken on by Black farmers like Leah Penniman and Karen Washington. Rather than describe systemic injustice as a natural phenomenon, Penniman, Washington and others explain that we could better describe food deserts with terms like " food apartheid."

Researchers in 2020 found that the SNAP program improved the quality of the diets of SNAP participants when combined with the introduction of a supermarket into a Pittsburgh neighborhood food desert. One potential policy intervention might be for the government to subsidize retailers to enter neighborhoods identified as lacking access to healthy food.

Outside of supermarkets, some community organizers turn otherwise unused spaces into community gardens as well as increased development of farmers' markets, particularly in areas with high rates of food insecurity. " Agrihood" is a term used to describe urban agriculture initiatives that unite multiple farms for the purpose of feeding people in an urban neighborhood. Using mobile markets and online food delivery services can also help communities access food in urban neighborhoods.

The Bottom Line

Addressing food deserts is a challenging task and a subject of fierce debate among researchers. A path forward that seems to be emerging - acknowledging how this problem is deeply rooted in larger issues like income inequality and systemic racism, which are also deeply ingrained in our flawed food system.

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Food Desert: What is It, Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions

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A key source of food injustice and insecurity in the United States, explained.

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Organic foods have grown increasingly popular over the last 2 decades. In fact, U.S. consumers spent $56 billion on organic produce in 2020 ( 1).

This number increased by nearly 13% from 2019, so their popularity does not seem to be slowing down ( 2).

Some people think organic food is safer, healthier, and tastier than conventionally grown food ( 3).

Others say it's better for the environment and the well-being of animals.

This article compares organic and non-organic foods, including their nutrient content and effects on human health.

The term "organic" refers to how certain foods are produced. Organic foods have been grown or farmed without the use of:

In order to be labelled organic, a food product must be free of artificial food additives. This includes artificial sweeteners, preservatives, coloring, flavoring, and monosodium glutamate (MSG).

Organically grown crops tend to use natural fertilizers like manure to improve plant growth. Animals raised organically are not given antibiotics or hormones.

Organic farming tends to improve soil quality and the conservation of groundwater. It also reduces pollution and may be better for the environment.

The most commonly purchased organic foods are fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy products and meat. Processed organic products are also available, such as sodas, cookies, and meat substitutes.

Summary
Organic foods are produced through farming practices that only use natural substances. This means avoiding all artificial chemicals, hormones, antibiotics, and GMOs.

Studies comparing the nutrient content of organic and non-organic foods have had mixed results.

This is most likely due to natural variation in food handling and production. However, evidence does suggest that foods grown organically may be more nutritious.

Organically grown crops have more antioxidants and vitamins

Several older studies have found that organic foods generally contain higher levels of antioxidants and certain micronutrients, such as vitamin C, zinc, and iron ( 4, , , ).

In fact, antioxidant levels can be up to 69% higher in these foods ().

A 2003 study found that organically grown berries and corn contained 58% more antioxidants and up to 52% higher amounts of vitamin C ().

What's more, one study reported that replacing regular fruit, vegetables and cereals with organic versions could provide extra antioxidants in your diet. This was comparable to eating 1-2 extra portions of fruit and vegetables daily ().

Organic plants do not rely on chemical pesticide sprays to protect themselves. Instead, they produce more of their own protective compounds, namely antioxidants.

This may partly explain the higher levels of antioxidants in these plants.

Nitrate levels are generally lower

Organically grown crops have also been shown to have lower levels of nitrate. In fact, studies have shown that nitrate levels are 30% lower in these crops (, 8).

High nitrate levels are associated with an increased risk of certain types of cancer (, ).

They're also associated with a condition called methemoglobinemia, a disease in infants that affects the body's ability to carry oxygen ( 11, 12).

Organic dairy and meat may have a more favorable fatty acid profile

Organic milk and dairy products may contain higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids and slightly higher amounts of iron, vitamin E, and some carotenoids (, , 15).

However, organic milk may contain less selenium and iodine than non-organic milk. These are two minerals that are essential for health ().

A review of 67 studies found that organic meat contained higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids and slightly lower levels of saturated fats than conventional meat ().

A higher intake of omega-3 fatty acids has been associated with many health benefits, including a reduced risk of heart disease.

However, several other studies found no differences.

While several studies find that organic foods can have significant positive outcomes, others have found insufficient evidence to recommend organic over conventional ().

An observational study comparing the nutrient intakes of nearly 4,000 adults consuming either organic or conventional vegetables found conflicting results.

Although a slightly higher intake of certain nutrients was seen in the organic group, this was most likely due to higher overall vegetable consumption ().

A review of 35 studies found some positive outcomes associated with organic food but couldn't draw any definitive conclusion ().

Another review of 233 studies found a lack of strong evidence to conclude that organic foods are more nutritious than regular foods ().

Nevertheless, it is important to remember that these studies vary quite widely in their results.

This is because the nutrient content of food depends on many factors, such as soil quality, weather conditions, and when the crops are harvested.

The composition of dairy products and meat can be affected by differences in animal genetics and animal breed, what the animals eat, the time of year, and the type of farm.

The natural variations in the production and handling of foods make comparisons difficult. That's why the results of these studies aren't conclusive.

Summary
Organically grown crops may have less nitrate and more of certain vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Organic dairy products and meat may have more omega-3 fatty acids. However, the evidence is mixed.

Many people choose to buy organic food in order to avoid artificial chemicals.

Evidence suggests that consuming these foods may reduce your exposure to pesticide residues and antibiotic-resistant bacteria ().

One study found that levels of cadmium, an extremely toxic metal, were 48% lower in organic produce. In addition, pesticide residues were four times more likely to be found in non-organic crops ().

It is important to note that the higher levels of cadmium and pesticide residue in conventionally grown produce were still well below safety limits ().

However, some experts worry that cadmium can accumulate over time in the body, potentially causing harm. Washing, scrubbing, peeling, and cooking food can reduce these chemicals, although it doesn't always remove them completely ( 22, ).

Nevertheless, evidence suggests that the risk of exposure to pesticide residue in foods is small and unlikely to cause harm (, ).

Summary
Choosing organic foods may reduce your exposure to toxins, pesticide residues, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, the levels of toxins in regular produce are generally well below the safety limits.

There is some evidence suggesting that organic foods have health benefits.

For example, several lab studies found that their higher antioxidant content helped protect cells from damage. And animal studies show that organic diets may benefit growth, reproduction, and the immune system ().

One study also reported that chickens fed an organic diet showed reduced weight gain and had stronger immune systems ().

Older observational studies suggest that organic foods may lower risk of allergies and eczema in children and infants. (, , ).

A large 2014 observational study of 623,080 women found no difference in cancer risk between people who never ate organic food and those who ate it regularly ().

Unfortunately, there's simply not enough strong evidence available to confirm that organic foods benefit human health more than conventional foods.

More high quality human studies are needed.

Summary
There is not enough strong evidence available to prove that eating organic provides health benefits over eating regular foods.

Just because a product is labeled "organic," it doesn't mean that it is nutrient dense.

Some of these products are still highly processed foods high in calories, added sugar, salt, and added fats.

For example, items such as organic cookies, chips, sodas, and ice cream should be consumed in moderation. Despite being organic, these products may still be low in nutrients.

When making the choice of what to eat, it may be more beneficial to choose based on your dietary needs and the vitamins and minerals contained in the food, rather than on the basis of organic versus conventional.

Summary
Highly processed organic food can still be low in nutrients and high in added fat, sugar, and calories.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has set up an organic certification program. This means any farmer or food producer selling organic food must meet strict government standards.

If you decide to choose organic, it's important to look for the USDA organic seal.

Also, watch for these statements on food labels, so you can identify food that is truly organically grown:

100% organic. This product is made entirely from organic ingredients.

Organic. At least 95% of the ingredients in this product are organic.

Made with organic ingredients. At least 70% of the ingredients are organic.

If a product contains less than 70% organic ingredients, it cannot be labeled organic or use the USDA seal. Similar standards are enforced in Europe, Canada, and Australia. Each country or continent has its own seal to help consumers identify organic food.

Summary
To identify organic food, look for the appropriate seal or a statement like one of the three examples above.

The evidence is mixed on whether organic foods contain more antioxidants and nutrients than conventionally grown food.

Consuming organic food may reduce your exposure to artificial chemicals, added hormones, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

However, it can cost more and may not be accessible to everyone. Additionally, it's not clear if going organic has additional health benefits.

Whether to buy organic is a choice you should make based on your personal preferences.

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What Is Organic Food, and Is It More Nutritious Than Non-Organic Food?

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Organic food has become incredibly popular. This article explains what it is and whether it is really healthier than non-organic food.

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https://school.eb.com/levels/middle/article/pest-control/276378

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Enter the Access ID and Passcode provided by your school to access Britannica School.

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Organic production and handling standards. U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.ams.usda.gov/publications/content/organic-production-handling-standards. Accessed March 30, 2022.

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Food deserts are communities that have poor access to healthy, affordable foods (, 2).

Also known as healthy food priority areas, food deserts are concentrated in low-income and historically marginalized areas throughout the United States (, 2, 3, ).

In food deserts, healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, peas, beans, meat, and fish are often expensive or unobtainable. The lack of access to healthy foods in these communities translates to health disparities and high rates of chronic disease (, 5, ).

This article examines the causes, health effects, and potential solutions for food deserts.

The causes of food deserts are multifaceted. Public policy and economic practices that are embedded in systemic racism often play a role. Social, economic, and political conditions have been shown to reduce people's access to healthy foods.

Contributing factors include food insecurity, social determinants of health, racial residential segregation, and poor access to transportation among low-income and historically marginalized populations (, , 8, 9).

Food apartheid

Apartheid is an enforced form of racial segregation.

"Food apartheid," however, is an emerging term meant to address the root causes of poor access to healthy, nutrient-dense foods by communities of color and low-income white people.

Food activists like Karen Washington, Malik Yakini, and Dara Cooper believe that this term more accurately represents the systemic racism and health inequities of a corporate-controlled food system.

The term "food desert" is sometimes scrutinized for its misrepresentation of the core issues within these communities.

For instance, the term "desert" suggests a natural, barren landscape and proposes that increasing the number of grocery stores is a quick solution. Furthermore, this term neither resonates with nor is a part of the identities of the individuals who live within these areas.

Instead, "food apartheid" addresses the root causes of poor food environments and health disparities among predominantly low-income communities of color.

Food insecurity

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) estimates that 17.4 million American households were food insecure in 2014 ( 9).

Food security is the physical and economic access to sufficient nutritious foods by all people at all times. When this access is disrupted or limited, food insecurity occurs ( 10).

Food insecurity may be temporary - for example, if you run out of food for a day or two - or long-term, as exemplified by persistent poverty and poor access to food ( 10).

Food insecurity among low-income communities in food deserts is 2.5 times greater than the national average ( 9).

Social determinants of health

Social determinants of health are factors beyond your control, such as access to healthcare or transportation, that affect your quality of life. These factors play a major role in food deserts ( 11).

Barriers like income, community infrastructure, and access to supermarkets all influence the availability of healthy foods. Other social determinants of health that may contribute to food deserts include (, 8, 11, ):

education

employment and job training

socioeconomic status and concentrated poverty

access to healthcare

access to local food markets and fresh produce

access to transportation

racial segregation

public safety

These factors may lead to health disparities characteristic of food deserts, such as high rates of chronic diseases among historically marginalized and low-income communities (, 2, , 11).

Racial segregation

Low-income communities have a high proportion of Black and Latino populations who are disproportionately affected by poor food access (, , 9).

Robust evidence shows that racial segregation places historically marginalized populations, particularly Black people, in impoverished neighborhoods (, 9).

In 2016, compared with the national average, Black households were two times likelier to be food insecure, while Hispanic households had a greater prevalence of food insecurity ( 9).

Notably, 76% of neighborhoods with a high proportion of Black people were among the most impoverished ().

Transportation and proximity to supermarkets

In food deserts, the distance you have to travel to supermarkets is further than in wealthier areas (, ).

Plus, predominantly Black and Hispanic communities have fewer supermarkets and local food markets - which often offer affordable and nutritious produce - than white neighborhoods (, 6, , 9, , 13).

Thus, households in food deserts don't have equal access to the healthy foods available to white and affluent communities ( 6).

Furthermore, public transit and vehicle ownership play a role in food access ( 8, 13).

Summary
Food deserts are attributed to food apartheid and have root causes in food insecurity, racial segregation, proximity to supermarkets, access to a vehicle, and various other social factors.

Because there isn't an exact definition of food deserts, U.S. government agencies instead characterize communities, states, and populations based on food insecurity, income status, and access to stores and vehicles ( 14).

In 2014, an estimated 17.4 million American households were food insecure, while in 2016 31.6% of low-income households experienced food insecurity ( 9).

The Food Environment Atlas, which was developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), shows an interactive map that displays information on food insecurity, socioeconomic conditions, and proximity to supermarkets ( 14).

According to this map, food insecurity rose in 16 states between 2015 and 2017, although only Nevada, New York, and Rhode Island saw a significant increase in the percentage of households with very low food insecurity ( 14).

"Very low food insecurity" is defined as disrupted eating and reduced food intake due to poor access or economic hardship ( 9).

In the United States, populations with low access to stores are concentrated in the Southwest, Midwest, Northwest, and Florida, while households without access to a car and low food access are more common in the Northeast and Southeast ( 14).

As such, food insecurity, poor food access, and potential food deserts exist across the continental United States.

Summary
Food deserts are likely widespread throughout the United States. National statistics characterize geographic areas based on income status, food insecurity, and access to stores and vehicles.

Diet and nutrition play a major role in chronic disease ( 15, ).

Chronic illnesses are the leading cause of death and disability in the United States, with heart disease, diabetes, and cancer being the most common ().

Among low-income and food-insecure communities, disproportionate access to affordable, healthy foods contributes to poor nutrition and perpetuates health disparities, leading to higher rates of obesity and other chronic ailments (, , 9, 13, 15, , 17, ).

Notably, Black people - who are likelier to be food insecure - have the highest rates of disease and mortality, largely related to diabetes and high blood pressure (, ).

A vicious cycle may develop in which people with chronic diseases in food deserts rely on convenience stores and corner stores, which often sell expensive foods with low nutritional value - further limiting people's capacity to buy healthy foods ().

Summary
Food insecurity in low-income, historically marginalized communities is associated with higher rates of chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer.

Understanding food deserts as food apartheid not only addresses their root causes but also challenges the quality of solutions that are often presented.

Temporary fixes that continue to perpetuate wealth inequities and health disparities include the placement of more fast-food chains and corner stores within food deserts (, 13, 19).

Simply increasing access to cheap food doesn't lead to equitable access to affordable and healthy foods ( 13).

At the community level, food distribution, locally run markets, and gardening make great tools for communities to increase food access, reduce food insecurity, and promote healthy diets and lifestyles.

Keep in mind that comprehensive structural and policy changes are necessary to achieve equitable food access. Still, you can get started today on community-run solutions to improve access to affordable healthy foods in food deserts (, ).

Community gardens

In addition to creating green spaces and beautifying the neighborhood, community gardens provide fresh, nutritious produce and encourage healthy diets.

They also teach skills and foundational knowledge about environmental concerns, planting know-how, and where foods come from.

Finally, community gardens may help communities invest in their own health.

Farmers markets, arabbers, and roadside carts

Community markets promote local food production, as well as cultural foods that both appeal to the population and support a healthy diet.

At farmers markets, you buy directly from growers and support a local, thriving economy.

Arabbers - street vendors who sell fruits and vegetables from horse-drawn carts - and roadside produce carts may also create economic opportunities and improve food access in food deserts.

The USDA's Community Food Projects (CFP) Competitive Grant program is a potential source of funding to kick-start and nurture such programs ( 13, 22).

Surplus food sharing

To balance out food waste from wealthy communities with poor food access in food deserts, food sharing collaborations and alliances may support more efficient food economies.

Food rescue organizations even take produce that would be thrown out at grocery stores due to blemishes or physical deformities - but that's still perfectly good to eat - and resell it at affordable prices.

Federal resources for low-income people to get healthy foods

SNAP gives financial assistance to families in need and provides nutrition benefits.

The WIC program provides monthly nutrition packages, incentives for people who are nursing, and benefits for children up to age 5.

The National Council on Aging (NCOA) offers assistance to low-income older adults facing hunger.

Nongovernmental food assistance programs

Meals on Wheels and other organizations like Moveable Feast provide medically tailored food delivery and nutrition education to establish racial, social, and health equity.

Food Not Bombs provides free vegetarian and vegan meals in numerous locations around the globe.

Wholesome Wave works with community organizations to eliminate food insecurity and provide nutritious food to people in need.

Local food pantries, soup kitchens, and food banks run by religious or community organizations offer food to low-income communities to reduce food insecurity and hunger.

Summary
Community-based solutions to improve access to affordable, healthy foods in food deserts include local markets, community gardens, surplus food sharing programs, federal food assistance programs, and food pantries.

For immediate food assistance, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline at 1-866-3-HUNGRY (1-866-348-6479) or 1-877-8-HAMBRE (1-877-842-6273), Mondays through Fridays from 7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. EST.

How to improve your nutrition on a budget

Even if you're on a tight budget and don't have high quality, fresh produce available, there are numerous ways that you can enjoy nutritious foods, including ( 23):

Buy canned or frozen goods. Canned or frozen meats, fruits, and vegetables are both nutritious and inexpensive compared with their fresh counterparts - and they last longer. Opt for low salt canned food when possible.

Try nonmeat protein sources. Meat accounts for a large portion of many people's food bills. Dried peas and beans provide just as much protein as meat but are cheaper and longer-lasting.

Shop for foods in season. In-season produce is easier to obtain and less expensive than out-of-season fruits and veggies. If they're available in your area, visit roadside stands or other local markets and buy small amounts of fresh produce to avoid waste.

Freeze leftovers. To cut down on costs and food waste, freeze leftovers for reheating later in the week. You can also repurpose leftovers. For instance, plain rice from Sunday lunch can be made into vegetable rice for Monday or Tuesday.

Summary
If you're on a budget, freezing leftovers, eating more peas and beans, buying canned goods, and looking for in-season produce are a few strategies to save money and eat well. If you're experiencing hunger, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline.

Food deserts - where nutritious food is often expensive or unavailable - usually occur in low-income, historically marginalized communities. They're marked by high rates of food insecurity, racial and health disparities, and high rates of chronic diseases.

Several federal and nonprofit programs are dedicated to improving food access in food deserts.

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Food Deserts: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

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Food deserts are areas in which healthy food is overly expensive or unavailable. This article explains the causes and health effects of food deserts, along with potential solutions.

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https://clarkstreetpress.com/a-brief-history-of-high-fructose-corn-syrup/

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https://www.helpguide.org/articles/healthy-eating/organic-foods.htm

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Organic Foods: What You Need to Know - HelpGuide.org

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Is organic food really healthier? Is it worth the expense? Find out what the labels mean and which foods give you the most bang for your buck.

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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

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A pesticide is any substance used to kill, repel, or control certain forms of plant or animal life that are considered to be pests. Pesticides include herbicides for destroying weeds and other unwanted vegetation, insecticides for controlling a wide variety of insects, fungicides used to prevent the growth of molds and mildew, disinfectants for preventing the spread of bacteria, and compounds used to control mice and rats.

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https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pesticides/index.cfm

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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

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Introduction

Pesticides kill, repel, or control forms of animal and plant life considered to damage or be a nuisance in agriculture and domestic life. Used broadly, the term includes these types of chemicals:

Herbicides destroy or control weeds and other unwanted vegetation. They are commonly used on lawns.

Insecticides kill or control insects. They are used in agriculture, industry, businesses, and households.

Fungicides control fungi and can be used on plants or other surfaces where mold or mildew grow. They may also have a role in protecting crops.

Over 800 pesticides are registered for use in the United States, some of which are used in large quantities and may pose risks for a variety of health problems.

Because of widespread use, people are exposed to low levels of pesticide residue through a variety of ways in their homes, schools, workplaces, and other facilities. Pesticides can get inside a body from eating, drinking, breathing them in, and through skin contact.

What Is NIEHS Doing?

Agricultural Health Study

Since 1993, NIEHS has led the Agricultural Health Study (AHS), which gathers data on more than 89,000 farmers and their spouses on farms in North Carolina and Iowa. It is funded by NIEHS and the National Cancer Institute in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

AHS research has led to more than more than 200 papers published in the peer reviewed scientific literature. These studies have linked pesticides to risk for Parkinson's disease, thyroid disease, diabetes, kidney diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, and shingles (herpes zoster), among other health issues. Evidence suggests that children are particularly susceptible to adverse effects from exposure to pesticides, including neurodevelopmental effects.

Atopy - In one study, early-life farm exposures were strongly associated with reduced risk in adults of atopy, which is a genetic tendency to develop allergic diseases. These results suggest that protective effects on atopy of early-life farming exposures, particularly in people born to mothers who performed farming activities, endure across a life course.

Autoimmunity - An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks normal healthy cells in the body. Certain types of organochlorine insecticides may increase risk of developing autoimmunity in male farmers. Another AHS study looked at male farmers who are also licensed pesticide applicators and found an link to rheumatoid arthritis, a type of autoimmune inflammatory disease.

Kidney Disease - A comprehensive study of pesticide use found links to renal cell carcinoma, the most common form of kidney cancer. Four herbicides (2,4,5-T, atrazine, cyanazine, and paraquat) and two insecticides (chlorpyrifos and chlordane) were implicated. A related study suggests that two widely used herbicides, pendimethalin and atrazine, may also be associated with impaired kidney function among male pesticide applicators.

Shingles - Several specific pesticides were associated with increased risk of shingles in farmers, especially with recurrent use. Shingles is a painful rash caused by the chickenpox virus (varicella-zoster).

Thyroid Disease - Many pesticides have long been suspected as being disruptive to thyroid functioning. An AHS study linked exposure to several pesticides and increased hypothyroidism risk. Another study observed increased risk of thyroid cancer associated with use of metalaxyl, a fungicide, and lindane, an insecticide. More work is needed to understand the potential role of these chemicals in thyroid carcinogenesis. Lindane is designated as carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.

Pesticides and Sense of Smell (PASS) Study

This study is related to the Agricultural Health Study. Loss of the sense of smell is common with aging, especially in patients with Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Study participants who reported a high pesticide exposure event, such as getting a large amount of pesticides on their skin, were more likely to report a loss of sense of smell 20 years later. Such high pesticide exposure events, especially when clean-up was delayed and skin contact or inhalation was involved, may cause long-lasting damage to our sense of smell.

Researchers funded by NIEHS also reported that inhalation of the widely used pesticide paraquat reduced the sense of smell in male mice for several months.

Pesticides and Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's Disease (PD) is the second most common condition involving loss of brain cells, or neurons, such as those that produce the brain signaling chemical dopamine. Dopamine is important for many functions, including movement. More than 10 million people worldwide are living with PD, according to the Parkinson's Foundation. Yet it is among the least inheritable diseases - meaning that the causes, to a large extent, are likely environmental.

Pesticides may directly or indirectly disrupt the biological pathways that normally protect brain cells selectively attacked by PD.

NIEHS-funded researchers found that the accumulation in the brain of DOPAL, a toxic residue of dopamine, can increase the risk of PD. Pesticides such as dieldrin and benomyl can cause degeneration of dopamine and inhibit the biological mechanism that reduces DOPAL to a less toxic acid - thus increasing the risk of developing PD.

The Parkinson's Disease, Environment, and Genes study showed that some pesticides, including paraquat, maneb, ziram, benomyl, and several organophosphate pesticides, including diazinon and chlorpyrifos, contribute to PD onset and progression. Other studies have confirmed motor, cognitive, or depressive symptom progression with such pesticides.

The National Toxicology Program (NTP) has also identified paraquat exposure as a contributor to PD.

Protective glove use and hygiene practices appeared to reduce risk of PD.

Other Studies

CHAMACOS
unded by NIEHS and other federal agencies, the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, at the University of California, Berkeley, is the longest running longitudinal birth cohort study of pesticides and other environmental exposures among children in a farmworker community. CHAMACOS means "little children" in Mexican Spanish.

CHAMACOS research covers:

Effects of pesticides on children's brain development and respiratory health.

Methods to reduce pesticide exposures.

Interaction of stress and early life adversity on health in people exposed to chemicals like pesticides.

Research shows young children who are exposed to glyphosate, an herbicide that controls weeds and grasses, may suffer from liver inflammation and metabolic disorder later in life. Study participants lived in Salinas Valley, California. The research suggests that a child's lifetime exposure to the popular weed killer may increase the risks in young adulthood of conditions that could lead to liver cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Infants' Environmental Health Study (Infantes y Salud Ambiental - ISA)
ISA is a community-based cohort of nearly 300 mothers and their children (5-7 years old) living in rural underserved areas of Costa Rica. It is funded in part by NIEHS and coordinated by the Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances at Universidad Nacional in Costa Rica. It is one of the first comprehensive examinations conducted in Central America on the health effects of pesticide exposure. Researchers have found that pesticide exposure during pregnancy can lead to thyroid hormonal imbalance, which can result in a number of health problems.

A different study, the Puerto Rico Testsite for Exploring Contamination Threats () is an ongoing investigation of environmental factors that contribute to preterm birth. This study found that glyphosate was associated with preterm birth in the first study of a glyphosate byproduct and birth outcomes.

NTP Developmental Neurotoxicity Health Effects Innovation Program
Recognizing the need for a new framework to evaluate chemicals with potential to affect brain development, NTP created the Developmental Neurotoxicity Health Effects Innovation program. It expedites research on industrial and commercial chemicals, such as pesticides, that might play a role in conditions such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder. One pesticide being examined is chlorpyrifos, a common pesticide, early exposure to which may cause long-term damage to the function of a key brain signaling pathway.

Further Reading

Stories from the Environmental Factor (NIEHS newsletter)

Additional Resources

Glyphosate & Glyphosate Formulations: National Toxicology Program - Due to the multiple interpretations of evidence on the potential health risks of glyphosate exposure, major public concern about exposure risks, and reported differences in the toxicity of different glyphosate products, NTP is conducting more research on glyphosate and its formulations. NTP is testing the potential genetic and mechanistic toxicity, and will also examine the published scientific literature for data on the effects of glyphosate on non-cancer outcomes.

PestiBytes: A Podcast Series on Common Pesticide Questions - PestiBytes are brought to you by the National Pesticide Information Center, a cooperative agreement between Oregon State University and the Environmental Protection Agency and produced by OSU's Environmental Health Sciences Center, funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Pesticide Exposure - The National Library of Medicine's (NLM) Enviro-health links website provides an excellent set of resources that address the relationship between pesticides and human health. The webpage provides links to selected websites on pesticide exposure, as well as on the treatment and prevention of pesticide poisoning.

Related Health Topics

This content is available to use on your website.

Please visit NIEHS Syndication to get started.

Pesticides kill, repel, or control forms of animal and plant life considered to damage or be a nuisance in agriculture and domestic life. Used broadly, the term includes these types of chemicals:

Herbicides destroy or control weeds and other unwanted vegetation. They are commonly used on lawns.

Insecticides kill or control insects. They are used in agriculture, industry, businesses, and households.

Fungicides control fungi and can be used on plants or other surfaces where mold or mildew grow. They may also have a role in protecting crops.

Over 800 pesticides are registered for use in the United States, some of which are used in large quantities and may pose risks for a variety of health problems.

Because of widespread use, people are exposed to low levels of pesticide residue through a variety of ways in their homes, schools, workplaces, and other facilities. Pesticides can get inside a body from eating, drinking, breathing them in, and through skin contact.

Atopy - In one study, early-life farm exposures were strongly associated with reduced risk in adults of atopy, which is a genetic tendency to develop allergic diseases. These results suggest that protective effects on atopy of early-life farming exposures, particularly in people born to mothers who performed farming activities, endure across a life course.

Autoimmunity - An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks normal healthy cells in the body. Certain types of organochlorine insecticides may increase risk of developing autoimmunity in male farmers. Another AHS study looked at male farmers who are also licensed pesticide applicators and found an link to rheumatoid arthritis, a type of autoimmune inflammatory disease.

Kidney Disease - A comprehensive study of pesticide use found links to renal cell carcinoma, the most common form of kidney cancer. Four herbicides (2,4,5-T, atrazine, cyanazine, and paraquat) and two insecticides (chlorpyrifos and chlordane) were implicated. A related study suggests that two widely used herbicides, pendimethalin and atrazine, may also be associated with impaired kidney function among male pesticide applicators.

Shingles - Several specific pesticides were associated with increased risk of shingles in farmers, especially with recurrent use. Shingles is a painful rash caused by the chickenpox virus (varicella-zoster).

Thyroid Disease - Many pesticides have long been suspected as being disruptive to thyroid functioning. An AHS study linked exposure to several pesticides and increased hypothyroidism risk. Another study observed increased risk of thyroid cancer associated with use of metalaxyl, a fungicide, and lindane, an insecticide. More work is needed to understand the potential role of these chemicals in thyroid carcinogenesis. Lindane is designated as carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.

CHAMACOS research covers:

Effects of pesticides on children's brain development and respiratory health.

Methods to reduce pesticide exposures.

Interaction of stress and early life adversity on health in people exposed to chemicals like pesticides.

Glyphosate & Glyphosate Formulations: National Toxicology Program - Due to the multiple interpretations of evidence on the potential health risks of glyphosate exposure, major public concern about exposure risks, and reported differences in the toxicity of different glyphosate products, NTP is conducting more research on glyphosate and its formulations. NTP is testing the potential genetic and mechanistic toxicity, and will also examine the published scientific literature for data on the effects of glyphosate on non-cancer outcomes.

PestiBytes: A Podcast Series on Common Pesticide Questions - PestiBytes are brought to you by the National Pesticide Information Center, a cooperative agreement between Oregon State University and the Environmental Protection Agency and produced by OSU's Environmental Health Sciences Center, funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Pesticide Exposure - The National Library of Medicine's (NLM) Enviro-health links website provides an excellent set of resources that address the relationship between pesticides and human health. The webpage provides links to selected websites on pesticide exposure, as well as on the treatment and prevention of pesticide poisoning.

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A pesticide is any substance used to kill, repel, or control certain forms of plant or animal life that are considered to be pests. Pesticides include herbicides for destroying weeds and other unwanted vegetation, insecticides for controlling a wide variety of insects, fungicides used to prevent the growth of molds and mildew, disinfectants for preventing the spread of bacteria, and compounds used to control mice and rats.

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www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/high-fructose-corn-syrup-questions-and-answers

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FDA receives many inquiries and comments from the public about the chemistry of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) in relation to other sweeteners such as table sugar and honey, and whether HFCS is safe to eat.
Where does HFCS come from?
HFCS is derived from corn starch. Starch itself is a chain of glucose (a simple sugar) molecules joined together.
When corn starch is broken down into individual glucose molecules, the end product is corn syrup, which is essentially 100% glucose.

To make HFCS, enzymes are added to corn syrup in order to convert some of the glucose to another simple sugar called fructose, also called "fruit sugar" because it occurs naturally in fruits and berries.

HFCS is 'high' in fructose compared to the pure glucose that is in corn syrup. Different formulations of HFCS contain different amounts of fructose.
How much fructose is in HFCS?
The most common forms of HFCS contain either 42 percent or 55 percent fructose, as described in the Code of Federal Regulations (21 CFR 184.1866), and these are referred to in the industry as HFCS 42 and HFCS 55. The rest of the HFCS is glucose and water. HFCS 42 is mainly used in processed foods, cereals, baked goods, and some beverages. HFCS 55 is used primarily in soft drinks.

Sucrose (sugar), the most well-known sweetener, is made by crystallizing sugar cane or beet juice. Sucrose is also made up of the same two simple sugars, glucose and fructose, joined together to form a single molecule containing one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule, an exact one-to-one ratio.

The proportion of fructose to glucose in both HFCS 42 and HFCS 55 is similar to that of sucrose. The primary differences between sucrose and the common forms of HFCS are:

HFCS contains water.

In sucrose, a chemical bond joins the glucose and fructose. Once one eats, stomach acid and gut enzymes rapidly break down this chemical bond.

In HFCS, no chemical bond joins the glucose and fructose.

Other nutritive sweeteners can vary in their fructose content (by "nutritive," we mean that the sweetener contains calories). Honey is a common nutritive sweetener with an approximately one-to-one ratio of fructose to glucose. Fruit and nectar-based sweeteners may have more fructose than glucose, especially those that come from apples and pears.
Is HFCS less safe than other sweeteners?
FDA receives many inquiries asking about the safety of HFCS, often referring to studies about how humans metabolize fructose or fructose-containing sweeteners. These studies are based on the observation that there are some differences between how we metabolize fructose and other simple sugars.

We are not aware of any evidence, including the studies mentioned above, that there is a difference in safety between foods containing HFCS 42 or HFCS 55 and foods containing similar amounts of other nutritive sweeteners with approximately equal glucose and fructose content, such as sucrose, honey, or other traditional sweeteners. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that everyone limit consumption of all added sugars, including HFCS and sucrose. FDA participated in the development of the Dietary Guidelines and fully supports this recommendation.

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High Fructose Corn Syrup Questions and Answers

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FDA receives many inquiries and comments from the public about the chemistry of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) in relation to other sweeteners such as table sugar and honey, and whether HFCS is safe to eat. Where does HFCS come from? HFCS is derived from corn starch.

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Organic 101: What the USDA Organic Label Means

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This is the third installment of the Organic 101 series that explores different aspects of the USDA organic regulations.
Amidst nutrition facts, ingredients lists, and dietary claims on food packages, “organic” might appear as one more piece of information to decipher when shopping for foods. So un…

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https://www.fishersci.com/us/en/scientific-products/publications/lab-reporter/2016/issue-4/the-evolution-chemical-pesticides.html

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Modern pest management and control is an increasingly diverse science with thousands of different management strategies. Synthetic chemical pesticides, which were first deployed during the World War II era, are a relatively new development in an epic battle against pests and parasites. Prior to the development of synthetic pesticides, there was a slow, perpetual battle of simple tools and natural chemicals against the incessant onslaught of pests. More recently, pest control efforts have evolved into management strategies.

Chemical pest control methods encompass a large range of strategies from companion planting to chemical sterilization agents. The most common forms of chemical pest controls are pesticides, which are chemical or biological agents designed to deter, discourage, incapacitate, or kill a pest. Early pesticides included the use of botanicals and simple elements or compounds. Early Romans, for example, discovered that crushed olive pits could produce an oil called Amurea that was capable of killing pests. Subsequent scientific and cultural development led to the discovery and utilization of additional pesticide agents.

The heavy metal compounds were probably first employed as pesticides because of their high toxicity. Arsenic compounds (particularly Arsenic (III) oxides) were found to be highly toxic to insects, bacteria and fungi. Arsenic (III) oxides, which combine rapidly with thiols found in biologically important molecules such as cysteine and coenzyme A, interrupt enzymatic activities that include ATP production. Arsenic compounds are still used today in wood treatment and preservative processes as well as some arsenate pesticides. Mercury compounds (primarily organic mercury compounds) also have a high affinity for thiols, similar to arsenic compounds, and can disrupt biological and enzymatic processes. Meanwhile, lead compounds act as a calcium analog and cause incomplete heme synthesis, which leads to anemia.

The benefit of these inorganic pesticides, at the time, was that they lasted a long time and were not easily degraded. Unfortunately, they often leached into the ecosystem, wreaking havoc on local wildlife and posing a health threat to its human inhabitants.

Pest Control from the Middle Ages to the Victorian Era

In the span from the Middle Ages to the Victorian era, science moved from the realm of religion and magic to practical study. The disciplines of chemistry and biology were embraced, opening up studies into chemical compounds, reactions, and chemical synthesis. Pest control methods definitely benefited from this pursuit of knowledge. Older methods of pest control were still in use (removal, barriers, botanicals, and elemental salts) but the mechanisms behind their efficacy were still being discovered.

The 19th century marked the dawn of manufactured chemical pesticides, when chemicals began to be extracted from their botanical sources and were purified in laboratories. It was at this time that nicotine compounds were purified from tobacco, pyrethrums were extracted from flowers, and rotenone isolated from roots. In addition, cyanides were recognized as toxic compounds in the pits of some fruits.

During this era, chemical compounds were blended and produced for the purpose of pest control. In 1814, an inorganic compound of copper (II) acetoarsenite called "Paris Green" was introduced as a pigment. By 1867, Paris Green was widely sold as an insecticide and rodenticide. In fact, Paris Green paints even continued to be produced up until the 1960s.

Similarly, the Bordeaux Mixture was developed in the late 19th century to fight the Great French Wine Blight. Its mixture of copper (II) sulfate and calcium hydroxide was designed to combat fungal and mildew infections in vineyards.

It was during the Victorian era that traditional methods of pest control were formally investigated and put to the scientific method. As a result, all of the chemical compounds that were historically available in their botanical forms (e.g., rotenone in roots and pyrethrums in chrysanthemums) were purified for commercial and home use, and elemental compounds were blended to create more efficient pesticides. The humble beginnings of simple, natural repellents and physical pest controls grew into chemical and agricultural industries seeking out new and improved methods.

The Advance of Pesticides Through the 20th Century

The primitive tools now had scientific reasoning to explain their efficacy and identify their chemical formulations, moving them from the realm of natural extracts to synthesized pesticides, and signaling the rise of the chemical pesticide revolution. Pest control, which had begun with simple tools and methods, was refined over centuries and completely reborn during World War II. The late 19th and early 20th century world of the first synthetic organic chemicals gave rise to the first modern synthetic pesticides in the form of organochloride compounds.

Many organochloride compounds, such as BHC and DDT, were first synthesized in the 1800s, but their properties as insecticides were not fully discovered and exploited until the late 1930s. BHC (Benzene hexachloride) was first produced by the English scientist Michael Faraday in 1825, but its properties as an insecticide were not identified until 1944. DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was first prepared by Othmar Ziedler, an Austrian chemist, in 1825, but the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller did not discover DDT's insecticidal properties until 1939 - a discovery that led to Müller's award of the Nobel Prize in 1948.

By 1945, DDT was made available for agricultural applications. But the first signs of insect resistance to DDT began to appear in the 1950s. In 1962 Rachel Carson, a marine biologist and conservationist, published Silent Spring, a book that highlighted the detrimental effects of pesticides on the environment. The widespread popularity of Carson's book led to the establishment of influential grassroots organizations that called for greater environmental protections and stricter controls on pesticide use. Part of that call to change was the reduction or elimination of DDT and many other pesticides developed from the 1940s through the 1960s from the pest-fighting arsenal.

DDT remained in widespread use around the world until the 1980s, but its decline hastened once the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) canceled most uses of DDT by 1972. Many other countries followed suit shortly thereafter by removing DDT from lists of approved agricultural applications. In 2004, the Stockholm Convention outlawed many persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and restricted the use of DDT to vector control (primarily for malaria). Despite increasing worldwide restrictions and bans on DDT, as of 2008, India and North Korea were still using DDT in agricultural applications. Today, India is the only country in the world still producing DDT.

Since the start of the production boom in the 1940s to present day, a huge catalog of thousands of insecticides, herbicides, and general pesticides was developed, including organochlorides (DDT, BHC), organophosphates (Parathion, Malathion, Azinophos Methyl), phenoxyacetic acids (2,4-D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T), Captan, Carbamates (Aldicarb, Carbofuran, Oxamyl, Methomyl), neonicotinoids (Imidacloprid, Acetamiprid, Clothianidin, Nitenpyram), and Glysophates.

The neonicotinoids are neuro-active insecticides, similar to nicotine compounds that were developed in the 1980s and 1990s. Of all the neonicotinoids, Imidacloprid has become one of the most abundantly used insecticides in the world. Patented in 1988 and registered with the EPA in 1994 by Bayer Crop Science, Imidacloprid works by disrupting the transmission of nerve impulses in insects by binding to an insect's nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, resulting in paralysis and death. Imidacloprid is highly toxic to insects and other arthropods, including marine invertebrates. It is considered to be moderately toxic to mammals if ingested at high dosages.

The acute toxicity and environmental fate of Imidacloprid and other neonicotinoid pesticides have been greatly debated since their adoption in the 1990s. Many studies have examined the persistence of neonicotinoids in water supplies and their ecological impacts on other environmentally and economically important arthropods. Studies published within the last two decades have linked bee colony collapse disorders with Imidacloprid and other similar pesticides. The most toxic pesticide in the world today for honey bees (genus Apis) is also the most commonly used insecticide in the world: Imidacloprid.

If Imidacloprid is the most widely used insecticide in the world, Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide on Earth. Glysophate was developed by a Monsanto chemist, John E. Franz, in 1970. Roundup, as it was trademarked, quickly became one of the most popular herbicides in the world among both agricultural enterprises and home users. The mode of action for Glyphosate is to inhibit a plant enzyme that is integral to the synthesis of aromatic amino acids. The inhibition of the amino acid production affects primarily the growing regions of the plants, killing plants in their growth cycle but not in their seed stage.

In 1994, the Roundup Ready Soybean was commercially approved in the United States. This genetically engineered soybean was created to be resistant to glyphosate. These types of crops allowed for the use of glyphosate to control other pest plants without endangering the crop. The list of glyphosate-resistant crops has grown since the introduction of the Roundup Ready Soybean to include corn, canola, alfalfa, cotton, and wheat.

GMOs: The Future of Pest Control?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have become widely used in the United States since their initial introduction in the 1990s. Genetically modified crops are grown by millions of farmers in dozens of countries. The predominant modified crops are soybeans, corn or maize, cotton, and canola.

GMO labeling is required in many countries but not in the United States. Scientists and economists argue that the potential benefits of GMO crops include reductions in the use of pesticides and other hazardous pollutants and an increase in the nutritional value and production of agricultural products. Opponents of GMOs claim that all the latent risks have not been adequately identified, especially the potential long-term impact of GMOs on human health and the environment.

The issue is not a question of whether genetically modified organisms should be used as a pest strategy. The truth is that genetic modification is already well established as the newest tool in the arsenal of pest management. It will be up to future generations to decide if the history of this nascent pest-management strategy will go the way of heavy metal pesticides and DDT, or if GMOs will become the ultimate solution for pest control.
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Modern pest management and control is an increasingly diverse science with thousands of different management strategies. Synthetic chemical pesticides, which were first deployed during the World War II era, are a relatively new development in an epic battle against pests and parasites.

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Introduction

The term pesticide covers a wide range of compounds including insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, plant growth regulators and others. Among these, organochlorine (OC) insecticides, used successfully in controlling a number of diseases, such as malaria and typhus, were banned or restricted after the 1960s in most of the technologically advanced countries. The introduction of other synthetic insecticides - organophosphate (OP) insecticides in the 1960s, carbamates in 1970s and pyrethroids in 1980s and the introduction of herbicides and fungicides in the 1970s-1980s contributed greatly to pest control and agricultural output. Ideally a pesticide must be lethal to the targeted pests, but not to non-target species, including man. Unfortunately, this is not the case, so the controversy of use and abuse of pesticides has surfaced. The rampant use of these chemicals, under the adage, "if little is good, a lot more will be better" has played havoc with human and other life forms.

Production and usage of pesticides in India

The production of pesticides started in India in 1952 with the establishment of a plant for the production of BHC near Calcutta, and India is now the second largest manufacturer of pesticides in Asia after China and ranks twelfth globally (Mathur, 1999). There has been a steady growth in the production of technical grade pesticides in India, from 5,000 metric tons in 1958 to 102,240 metric tons in 1998. In 1996-97 the demand for pesticides in terms of value was estimated to be around Rs. 22 billion (USD 0.5 billion), which is about 2% of the total world market.

The pattern of pesticide usage in India is different from that for the world in general. As can be seen in , in India 76% of the pesticide used is insecticide, as against 44% globally (Mathur, 1999). The use of herbicides and fungicides is correspondingly less heavy. The main use of pesticides in India is for cotton crops (45%), followed by paddy and wheat.

Hazards of pesticides

Direct impact on humans

If the credits of pesticides include enhanced economic potential in terms of increased production of food and fibre, and amelioration of vector-borne diseases, then their debits have resulted in serious health implications to man and his environment. There is now overwhelming evidence that some of these chemicals do pose a potential risk to humans and other life forms and unwanted side effects to the environment (Forget, 1993; Igbedioh, 1991; Jeyaratnam, 1981). No segment of the population is completely protected against exposure to pesticides and the potentially serious health effects, though a disproportionate burden, is shouldered by the people of developing countries and by high risk groups in each country (WHO, 1990). The world-wide deaths and chronic diseases due to pesticide poisoning number about 1 million per year (Environews Forum, 1999).

The high risk groups exposed to pesticides include production workers, formulators, sprayers, mixers, loaders and agricultural farm workers. During manufacture and formulation, the possibility of hazards may be higher because the processes involved are not risk free. In industrial settings, workers are at increased risk since they handle various toxic chemicals including pesticides, raw materials, toxic solvents and inert carriers.

OC compounds could pollute the tissues of virtually every life form on the earth, the air, the lakes and the oceans, the fishes that live in them and the birds that feed on the fishes (Hurley et al., 1998). The US National Academy of Sciences stated that the DDT metabolite DDE causes eggshell thinning and that the bald eagle population in the United States declined primarily because of exposure to DDT and its metabolites (Liroff, 2000). Certain environmental chemicals, including pesticides termed as endocrine disruptors, are known to elicit their adverse effects by mimicking or antagonising natural hormones in the body and it has been postulated that their long-term, low-dose exposure is increasingly linked to human health effects such as immune suppression, hormone disruption, diminished intelligence, reproductive abnormalities and cancer (Brouwer et al., 1999; Crisp et al., 1998; Hurley et al., 1998)

A study on workers (N=356) in four units manufacturing HCH in India revealed neurological symptoms (21%) which were related to the intensity of exposure (Nigam et al., 1993). The magnitude of the toxicity risk involved in the spraying of methomyl, a carbamate insecticide, in field conditions was assessed by the National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH) (Saiyed et al., 1992). Significant changes were noticed in the ECG, the serum LDH levels, and cholinesterase (ChE) activities in the spraymen, indicating cardiotoxic effects of methomyl. Observations confined to health surveillance in male formulators engaged in production of dust and liquid formulations of various pesticides (malathion, methyl parathion, DDT and lindane) in industrial settings of the unorganised sector revealed a high occurrence of generalised symptoms (headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, irritation of skin and eyes) besides psychological, neurological, cardiorespiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms coupled with low plasma ChE activity (Gupta et al., 1984).

Data on reproductive toxicity were collected from 1,106 couples when the males were associated with the spraying of pesticides (OC, OP and carbamates) in cotton fields (Rupa et al., 1991).A study in malaria spraymen was initiated to evaluate the effects of a short-term (16 week) exposure in workers (N=216) spraying HCH in field conditions (Gupta et al., 1982).

A study on those affected in the Seveso diaster of 1976 in Italy during the production of 2,4,5 T, a herbicide, concluded that chloracne (nearly 200 cases with a definite exposure dependence) was the only effect established with certainty as a result of dioxin formation (Pier et al., 1998). Early health investigations including liver function, immune function, neurologic impairment, and reproductive effects yielded inconclusive results. An excess mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases was uncovered, possibly related to the psychosocial consequences of the accident in addition to the chemical contamination. An excess of diabetes cases was also found. Results of cancer incidence and mortality follow-up showed an increased occurrence of cancer of the gastrointestinal sites and of the lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue. Results cannot be viewed as conclusive, however, because of various limitations: few individual exposure data, short latency period, and small population size for certain cancer types. A similar study in 2001 observed no increase in all-cause and all-cancer mortality. However, the results support the notion that dioxin is carcinogenic to humans and corroborate the hypotheses of its association with cardiovascular- and endocrine-related effects (Pier et al., 2001). During the Vietnam War, United States military forces sprayed nearly 19 million gallons of herbicide on approximately 3.6 million acres of Vietnamese and Laotian land to remove forest cover, destroy crops, and clear vegetation from the perimeters of US bases. This effort, known as Operation Ranch Hand, lasted from 1962 to 1971. Various herbicide formulations were used, but most were mixtures of the phenoxy herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). Approximately 3 million Americans served in the armed forces in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Some of them (as well as some Vietnamese combatants and civilians, and members of the armed forces of other nations) were exposed to defoliant mixtures, including Agent Orange. There was evidence on cancer risk of Vietnam veterans, workers occupationally exposed to herbicides or dioxins (since dioxins contaminated the herbicide mixtures used in Vietnam), and of the Vietnamese population (Frumkin, 2003).

Impact through food commodities

For determining the extent of pesticide contamination in the food stuffs, programs entitled 'Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in Products of Plant Origin in the European Union' started to be established in the European Union since 1996. In 1996, seven pesticides (acephate, chlopyriphos, chlopyriphos-methyl, methamidophos, iprodione, procymidone and chlorothalonil) and two groups of pesticides (benomyl group and maneb group, i.e. dithiocarbamates) were analysed in apples, tomatoes, lettuce, strawberries and grapes. An average of about 9 700 samples has been analysed for each pesticide or pesticide group. For each pesticide or pesticide group, 5.2% of the samples were found to contain residues and 0.31% had residues higher than the respective MRL for that specific pesticide. Lettuce was the crop with the highest number of positive results, with residue levels exceeding the MRLs more frequently than in any of the other crops investigated. The highest value found in 1996 was for a compound of the maneb group in lettuce which corresponded to a mancozeb residue of 118 mg/kg. In 1997, 13 pesticides (acephate, carbendazin, chlorothalonil, chlopyriphos, DDT, diazinon, endosulfan, methamidophos, iprodione, metalaxyl, methidathion, thiabendazole, triazophos) were assessed in five commodities (mandarins, pears, bananas,beans, and potatoes). Some 6 000 samples were analysed. Residues of chlorpyriphos exceeded MRLs most often (0.24%), followed by methamidophos (0.18%), and iprodione (0.13%). With regard to the commodities investigated, around 34% contained pesticide residues at or below the MRL, and 1% contained residues at levels above the MRL. In mandarins, pesticide residues were most frequently found at levels at or below the MRL (69%), followed by bananas (51%), pears (28%), beans (21%) and potatoes (9%). MRLs were exceeded most often in beans (1.9%), followed by mandarins (1.8%), pears (1.3%), and bananas and potatoes (0.5%). Estimation of the dietary intake of pesticide residues (based on the 90th percentile) from the above-mentioned commodities, where the highest residue levels of the respective pesticides were found, shows that there is no exceeding of the ADI with all the pesticides and commodities studied (European Commission, 1999). In 1998, four commodities (oranges, peaches, carrots, spinach) were analysed for 20 pesticides (acephate, benomyl group, chlopyriphos, chlopyriphos-methyl, deltamethrin, maneb group, diazinon, endosulfan, methamidophos, iprodione, metalaxyl, methidathion, thiabendazole, triazophos, permethrin, vinclozolin, lambdacyalothrin, pirimiphos-methyl, mercabam). With regard to all four commodities investigated in 1998 (oranges, peaches, carrots, spinach), about 32% contained residues of pesticides at or below MRL, and 2% above the MRL (1.8% for EU-MRLs, 0.4% for national MRLs). Residues at or below the MRL were found most often in oranges (67%), followed by peaches (21%), carrots (11%) and spinach (5%). MRL values were exceeded most often in spinach (7.3%), followed by peaches (1.6%), carrots (1.2%)and oranges (0.7%). The intake of pesticide residues has not exceeded the ADI in any case. It was found to be below 10% of the ADI for all pesticides. The exposure ranges from 0.35% of the ADI for the benomyl group to 9.9% of the ADI for the methidathion group. In 1999, four commodities (cauliflower, peppers, wheat grains, and melon) were analysed for the same 20 pesticides as in the 1998 study (European Commission, 2001). Overall, around 4700 samples were analysed. Residues of methamidophos exceeded MRLs most often (8.7%), followed by the maneb group (1.1%), thiabendazole (0.57%), acephate (0.41%) and the benomyl group (0.35%). The MRL for methamidophos was exceeded most often in peppers and melons (18.7 and 3.7%, respectively). The residues of the maneb group exceeded the MRL most often in cauliflower (3.9%); residues of thiabendazole exceeded the MRL most often in melons (2.8% of the melon samples). With regard to all the commodities investigated, around 22% of samples contained residues of pesticides at or below the MRL and 8.7% above the MRL. Residues at or below MRL were found most often in melons (32%), followed by peppers (24%), wheat grains (21%) and cauliflower (17%). MRL values were exceeded most often in peppers (19%), followed by melons (6.1%), cauliflower (3%) and wheat grains (0.5%). The intake of pesticide residues did not exceed the ADI in any case. It was below 1.5% of the ADI for all pesticides. The exposure ranged between 0.43% of the ADI for methamidophos and 1.4% of the ADI for endosulfan. The intakes for the highest residue levels in a composite sample for chlorpyriphos, deltamethrin, endosulfan and methidathion were below the ARfD for adults. They range between 1.5% of the ARfD for deltamethrin and 67% of the ARfD for endosulfan (Nasreddine and Parent-Massin, 2002). In spite of food contamination, most pesticide deaths recorded in hospital surveys are the result of self-poisoning (Eddleston, 2000). The Global Burden of Disease Study 6 estimated that 798 000 people died from deliberate self-harm in 1990, over 75% of whom were from developing countries (Murray and Lopez, 1996). More recent WHO estimates showed that over 500 000 people died from self-harm in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific during 2000 alone (WHO, 2001). Suicide is the commonest cause of death in young Chinese women and Sri Lankan men and women (Murray and Lopez, 1996; Sri Lankan Ministry of Health, 1995; WHO, 2001).

In India the first report of poisoning due to pesticides was from Kerala in 1958, where over 100 people died after consuming wheat flour contaminated with parathion (Karunakaran, 1958). This prompted the Special Committee on Harmful Effects of Pesticides constituted by the ICAR to focus attention on the problem (Report of the Special Committee of ICAR, 1972). In a multi-centric study to assess the pesticide residues in selected food commodities collected from different states of the country (Surveillance of Food Contaminants in India, 1993), DDT residues were found in about 82% of the 2205 samples of bovine milk collected from 12 states. About 37% of the samples contained DDT residues above the tolerance limit of 0.05 mg/kg (whole milk basis). The highest level of DDT residues found was 2.2 mg/kg. The proportion of the samples with residues above the tolerance limit was highest in Maharastra (74%), followed by Gujarat (70%), Andhra Pradesh (57%), Himachal Pradesh (56%), and Punjab (51%). In the remaining states, this proportion was less than 10%. Data on 186 samples of 20 commercial brands of infants formulae showed the presence of residues of DDT and HCH isomers in about 70 and 94% of the samples with their maximum level of 4.3 and 5.7 mg/kg (fat basis) respectively. Measurement of chemicals in the total diet provides the best estimates of human exposure and of the potential risk. The risk of consumers may then be evaluated by comparison with toxicologically acceptable intake levels. The average total DDT and BHC consumed by an adult were 19.24 mg/day and 77.15 mg/day respectively (Kashyap et al., 1994). Fatty food was the main source of these contaminants. In another study, the average daily intake of HCH and DDT by Indians was reported to be 115 and 48 mg per person respectively, which were higher than those observed in most of the developed countries (Kannan et al., 1992).

Impact on environment

Pesticides can contaminate soil, water, turf, and other vegetation. In addition to killing insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to a host of other organisms including birds, fish, beneficial insects, and non-target plants. Insecticides are generally the most acutely toxic class of pesticides, but herbicides can also pose risks to non-target organisms.

Surface water contamination

Pesticides can reach surface water through runoff from treated plants and soil. Contamination of water by pesticides is widespread. The results of a comprehensive set of studies done by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) on major river basins across the country in the early to mid- 90s yielded startling results. More than 90 percent of water and fish samples from all streams contained one, or more often, several pesticides (Kole et al; 2001). Pesticides were found in all samples from major rivers with mixed agricultural and urban land use influences and 99 percent of samples of urban streams (Bortleson and Davis, 1987-1995). The USGS also found that concentrations of insecticides in urban streams commonly exceeded guidelines for protection of aquatic life (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). Twenty-three pesticides were detected in waterways in the Puget Sound Basin, including 17 herbicides. According to USGS, more pesticides were detected in urban streams than in agricultural streams (US Department of the Interior, 1995). The herbicides 2,4-D, diuron, and prometon, and the insecticides chlorpyrifos and diazinon, all commonly used by urban homeowners and school districts, were among the 21 pesticides detected most often in surface and ground water across the nation (U.S. Geological Survey, 1998). Trifluralin and 2,4-D were found in water samples collected in 19 out of the 20 river basins studied (Bevans et al., 1998; Fenelon et al., 1998; Levings et al., 1998; Wall et al., 1998). The USGS also found that concentrations of insecticides in urban streams commonly exceeded guidelines for protection of aquatic life (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). According to USGS, "in general more pesticides were detected in urban streams than in agricultural streams", (Bortleson and Davis, 1987-1995). The herbicide 2,4-D was the most commonly found pesticide, detected in 12 out of 13 streams. The insecticide diazinon, and the weed-killers dichlobenil, diuron, triclopyr, and glyphosate were detected also in Puget Sound basin streams. Both diazinon and diuron were found at levels exceeding concentrations recommended by the National Academy of Sciences for the protection of aquatic life (Bortleson and Davis, 1987-1995).

Ground water contamination

Groundwater pollution due to pesticides is a worldwide problem. According to the USGS, at least 143 different pesticides and 21 transformation products have been found in ground water, including pesticides from every major chemical class. Over the past two decades, detections have been found in the ground water of more than 43 states (Waskom, 1994). During one survey in India, 58% of drinking water samples drawn from various hand pumps and wells around Bhopal were contaminated with Organo Chlorine pesticides above the EPA standards (Kole and Bagchi, 1995). Once ground water is polluted with toxic chemicals, it may take many years for the contamination to dissipate or be cleaned up. Cleanup may also be very costly and complex, if not impossible (Waskom 1994; O'Neil, 1998; US EPA, 2001).

Soil contamination

A large number of transformation products (TPs) from a wide range of pesticides have been documented (Barcelo' and Hennion, 1997; Roberts, 1998; Roberts and Hutson, 1999). Not many of all possible pesticide TPs have been monitored in soil, showing that there is a pressing need for more studies in this field. Persistency and movement of these pesticides and their TPs are determined by some parameters, such as water solubility, soil-sorption constant (K oc), the octanol/water partition coefficient (K ow), and half-life in soil (DT ₅₀). Pesticides and TPs could be grouped into:(a) Hydrophobic, persistent, and bioaccumulable pesticides that are strongly bound to soil. Pesticides that exhibit such behavior include the organochlorine DDT, endosulfan, endrin, heptachlor, lindane and their TPs. Most of them are now banned in agriculture but their residues are still present. (b) Polar pesticides are represented mainly by herbicides but they include also carbamates, fungicides and some organophosphorus insecticide TPs. They can be moved from soil by runoff and leaching, thereby constituting a problem for the supply of drinking water to the population. The most researched pesticide TPs in soil are undoubtedly those from herbicides. Several metabolic pathways have been suggested, involving transformation through hydrolysis, methylation, and ring cleavage that produce several toxic phenolic compounds. The pesticides and their TPs are retained by soils to different degrees, depending on the interactions between soil and pesticide properties. The most influential soil characteristic is the organic matter content. The larger the organic matter content, the greater the adsorption of pesticides and TPs. The capacity of the soil to hold positively charged ions in an exchangeable form is important with paraquat and other pesticides that are positively charged. Strong mineral acid is required for extracting these chemicals, without any analytical improvement or study reported in recent years. Soil pH is also of some importance. Adsorption increases with decreasing soil pH for ionizable pesticides (e.g. 2,4-D,2,4,5-T, picloram, and atrazine) (Andreu and Pico', 2004).

Effect on soil fertility (beneficial soil microorganisms)

Heavy treatment of soil with pesticides can cause populations of beneficial soil microorganisms to decline. According to the soil scientist Dr. Elaine Ingham, "If we lose both bacteria and fungi, then the soil degrades. Overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have effects on the soil organisms that are similar to human overuse of antibiotics. Indiscriminate use of chemicals might work for a few years, but after awhile, there aren't enough beneficial soil organisms to hold onto the nutrients" (Savonen, 1997). For example, plants depend on a variety of soil microorganisms to transform atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates, which plants can use. Common landscape herbicides disrupt this process: triclopyr inhibits soil bacteria that transform ammonia into nitrite (Pell et al., 1998); glyphosate reduces the growth and activity of free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil (Santos and Flores, 1995) and 2,4-D reduces nitrogen fixation by the bacteria that live on the roots of bean plants (Arias and Fabra, 1993; Fabra et al., 1997), reduces the growth and activity of nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae (Singh and Singh, 1989; Tözüm-Çalgan and Sivaci-Güner, 1993), and inhibits the transformation of ammonia into nitrates by soil bacteria (Frankenberger et al., 1991, Martens and Bremner, 1993). Mycorrhizal fungi grow with the roots of many plants and aid in nutrient uptake. These fungi can also be damaged by herbicides in the soil. One study found that oryzalin and trifluralin both inhibited the growth of certain species of mycorrhizal fungi (Kelley and South, 1978). Roundup has been shown to be toxic to mycorrhizal fungi in laboratory studies, and some damaging effects were seen at concentrations lower than those found in soil following typical applications (Chakravarty and Sidhu, 1987; Estok et al., 1989). Triclopyr was also found to be toxic to several species of mycorrhizal fungi (Chakravarty and Sidhu, 1987) and oxadiazon reduced the number of mycorrhizal fungal spores (Moorman, 1989).

Contamination of air, soil, and non-target vegetation

Pesticide sprays can directly hit non-target vegetation, or can drift or volatilize from the treated area and contaminate air, soil, and non-target plants. Some pesticide drift occurs during every application, even from ground equipment (Glotfelty and Schomburg, 1989). Drift can account for a loss of 2 to 25% of the chemical being applied, which can spread over a distance of a few yards to several hundred miles. As much as 80-90% of an applied pesticide can be volatilised within a few days of application (Majewski, 1995). Despite the fact that only limited research has been done on the topic, studies consistently find pesticide residues in air. According to the USGS, pesticides have been detected in the atmosphere in all sampled areas of the USA (Savonen, 1997). Nearly every pesticide investigated has been detected in rain, air, fog, or snow across the nation at different times of the year (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). Many pesticides have been detected in air at more than half the sites sampled nationwide. Herbicides are designed to kill plants, so it is not surprising that they can injure or kill desirable species if they are applied directly to such plants, or if they drift or volatilise onto them. Many ester-formulation herbicides have been shown to volatilise off treated plants with vapors sufficient to cause severe damage to other plants (Straathoff, 1986). In addition to killing non-target plants outright, pesticide exposure can cause sublethal effects on plants. Phenoxy herbicides, including 2,4-D, can injure nearby trees and shrubs if they drift or volatilise onto leaves (Dreistadt et al., 1994). Exposure to the herbicide glyphosate can severely reduce seed quality (Locke et al., 1995). It can also increase the susceptibility of certain plants to disease (Brammall and Higgins, 1998). This poses a special threat to endangered plant species. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has recognized 74 endangered plants that may be threatened by glyphosate alone (U.S. EPA Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, 1986). Exposure to the herbicide clopyralid can reduce yields in potato plants (Lucas and Lobb, 1987). EPA calculated that volatilisation of only 1% of applied clopyralid is enough to damage non-target plants (US EPA, 1990). Some insecticides and fungicides can also damage plants (Dreistadt et al., 1994). Pesticide damage to plants is commonly reported to state agencies in the Northwest. (Oregon Dept. of Agriculture, 1999; Washington Dept. of Health, 1999). Plants can also suffer indirect consequences of pesticide applications when harm is done to soil microorganisms and beneficial insects. Pesticides including those of new the generation, e.g., dacthal, chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos, metolachlor, terbufos and trifluralin have been detected in Arctic environmental samples (air, fog, water, snow) (Rice and Cherniak, 1997), and (Garbarino et al., 2002). Other studies have identified the ability of some of these compounds to undergo short-range atmospheric transport (Muir et al., 2004) to ecologically sensitive regions such as the Chesapeake Bay and the Sierra Nevada mountains (LeNoir et al., 1999; McConnell et al., 1997; Harman-Fetcho et al., 2000, Thurman and Cromwell , 2000). One long-term study that investigated pesticides in the atmosphere of British Columbia (BC), dating from 1996 (Belzer et al., 1998) showed that 57 chemicals were investigated at two sampling sites (Agassiz and Abbotsford) in the Fraser Valley, from February 1996 until March 1997. Atrazine, malathion, and diazinon, highly toxic chemicals identified as high-priority pesticides by Verrin et al. (2004), were detected as early as the end of February (72 pg/m ³) until mid-October (253 pg/m ³), with a peak concentration in mid-June of 42.7 ngm −3. Dichlorvos is a decomposition product of another pesticide, Naled (Dibrom) (Hall et al., 1997). Captan and 2,4-D showed the highest concentrations and deposition rates at these two sites, followed by dichlorvos and diazinon (Dosman and Cockcraft, 1989). Air concentrations of currently used pesticides in Alberta were investigated in 1999 at four sampling sites that were chosen according to geography and pesticide sales data (Kumar, 2001). Triallate and trifluralin were the two mostly detected pesticides at the four sites. Insecticides (malathion, chlorpyrifos, diazinon and endosulfan) were detected intermittently with concentrations in the range 20-780 pg/m ³. South of Regina, Saskatchewan, in 1989 and 1990, 2,4-D reached 3.9 and 3.6 ng/m ³ at the end of June (Waite et al., 2002a). Triallate, dicamba, bromoxynil concentrations were also higher in 1989 (peak concentration of 4.2 ng/m ³ in mid-June) compared with 1990 (600-700 pg/m ³ in mid-June). In a more recent study, Waite et al. (2005) studied spatial variations of selected herbicides on a threesite, 500km transect that included two agricultural sites-Bratt's Lake, located 35 km southwest of Regina and Hafford to the North-and a background site at Waskesiu. Some acid herbicides were also investigated in South Tobacco Creek, Manitoba during 1993-1996. Once again, maximum concentrations occurred during periods of local use (Rawn et al., 1999a). A neutral herbicide, atrazine, was also investigated in 1995 (Rawn et al., 1998). It was first detected in mid-April, peaked mid- June at about 300 pg/m ³, and was detected until the end of October. The insecticide dacthal was identified throughout the sampling periods in 1994, 1995 and 1996 (Rawn and Muir, 1999) even though it was not used in this area (<20-300 pg/m ³).

Non-target organisms

Pesticides are found as common contaminants in soil, air, water and on non-target organisms in our urban landscapes. Once there, they can harm plants and animals ranging from beneficial soil microorganisms and insects, non-target plants, fish, birds, and other wildlife. Chlorpyrifos, a common contaminant of urban streams (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999), is highly toxic to fish, and has caused fish, kills in waterways near treated fields or buildings (US EPA, 2000). Herbicides can also be toxic to fish. According to the EPA, studies show that trifluralin, an active ingredient in the weed-killer Snapshot, "is highly to very highly toxic to both cold and warm water fish" (U.S. EPA, 1996). In a series of different tests it was also shown to cause vertebral deformities in fish (Koyama, 1996). The weed-killers Ronstar and Roundup are also acutely toxic to fish (Folmar et al., 1979; Shafiei and Costa, 1990). The toxicity of Roundup is likely due to the high toxicity of one of the inert ingredients of the product (Folmar et al., 1979). In addition to direct acute toxicity, some herbicides may produce sublethal effects on fish that lessen their chances for survival and threaten the population as a whole. Glyphosate or glyphosate-containing products can cause sublethal effects such as erratic swimming and labored breathing, which increase the fish's chance of being eaten (Liong et al., 1988). 2,4-D herbicides caused physiological stress responses in sockeye salmon (McBride et al., 1981) and reduced the food-gathering abilities of rainbow trout (Little, 1990). Several cases of pesticide poisoning of dolphins have been reported worldwide. Because of their high trophic level in the food chain and relatively low activities of drug-metabolising enzymes, aquatic mammals such as dolphins accumulate increased concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (Tanabe et al., 1988) and are thereby vulnerable to toxic effects from contaminant exposures. Dolphins inhabiting riverine and estuarine ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to the activities of humans because of the restricted confines of their habitat, which is in close proximity to point sources of pollution. River dolphins are among the world's most seriously endangered species. Populations of river dolphins have been dwindling and face the threat of extinction; the Yangtze river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) in China and the Indus river dolphin (Platanista minor) in Pakistan are already close to extinction (Renjun, 1990; Perrin et al., 1989; Reeves et al., 1991; Reeves and Chaudhry, 1998). In addition to habitat degradation (such as construction of dams) (Reeves and Leatherwood, 1994), boat traffic, fishing, incidental and intentional killings, and chemical pollution have been threats to the health of river dolphins (Kannan et al., 1993b, 1994, 1997; Senthilkumar et al., 1999). Earlier studies reported concentrations of heavy metals (Kannan et al., 1993), organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Kannan et al., 1994), and butyltin compounds (Kannan et al., 1997) in Ganges river dolphins and their prey. The continuing use of organochlorine pesticides and PCBs in India is of concern (Kannan et al., 1992; Kannan et al., 1997a; Kannan et al., 1997b; Tanabe et al., 1998). The Ganges river basin is densely populated and heavily polluted by fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial and domestic effluents (Mohan, 1989). In addition to fish, other marine or freshwater animals are endangered by pesticide contamination. Exposure to great concentrations of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic contaminants such as DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis[ p-chlorophenyl]ethane) and PCBs has been shown to elicit adverse effects on reproductive and immunological functions in captive or wild aquatic mammals (Helle et al., 1976; Reijnders, 1986; Ross et al., 1995; Martineau et al., 1987; Kannan et al., 1993; Colborn and Smolen, 1996). Aquatic mammals inhabiting freshwater systems, such as otters and mink, have been reported to be sensitive to chemical contamination (Leonards et al., 1995; Leonards et al., 1997). 2,4-D or 2,4-D containing products have been shown to be harmful to shellfish (Cheney et al., 1997) and other aquatic species (U.S. EPA, 1989; Sanders, 1989) The weed-killer trifluralin is moderately to highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates, and highly toxic to estuarine and marine organisms like shrimp and mussels (U.S. EPA, 1996). Since herbicides are designed to kill plants, it makes sense that herbicide contamination of water could have devastating effects on aquatic plants. In one study, oxadiazon was found to severely reduce algae growth (Ambrosi et al., 1978). Algae is a staple organism in the food chain of aquatic ecosystems. Studies looking at the impacts of the herbicides atrazine and alachlor on algae and diatoms in streams showed that even at fairly low levels, the chemicals damaged cells, blocked photosynthesis, and stunted growth in varying ways (U.S. Water News Online, 2000). The herbicide oxadiazon is also toxic to bees, which are pollinators (Washington State Department of Transportation, 1993). Herbicides may hurt insects or spiders also indirectly when they destroy the foliage that these animals need for food and shelter. For example spider and carabid beetle populations declined when 2,4-D applications destroyed their natural habitat (Asteraki et al., 1992). Non-target birds may also be killed if they ingest poisoned grains set out as bait for pigeons and rodents (US EPA, 1998). Avitrol, a commonly used pigeon bait, poses a large potential for ingestion by non target grain feeding birds. It can be lethal to small seed-eating birds (Extoxnet, 1996). Brodifacoum, a common rodenticide, is highly toxic to birds. It also poses a secondary poisoning hazard to birds that may feed on poisoned rodents (US EPA, 1998). Herbicides can also be toxic to birds. Although trifluralin was considered "practically nontoxic to birds" in studies of acute toxicity, birds exposed multiple times to the herbicide experienced diminished reproductive success in the form of cracked eggs (U.S. EPA, 1996). Exposure of eggs to 2,4-D reduced successful hatching of chicken eggs (Duffard et al., 1981) and caused feminisation or sterility in pheasant chicks (Lutz et al., 1972). Herbicides can also adversely affect birds by destroying their habitat. Glyphosate treatment in clear cuts caused dramatic decreases in the populations of birds that lived there (MacKinnon et al., 1993) Effects of some organochlorines (OCs) on fish-eating water birds and marine mammals have been documented in North America and Europe (Barron et al., 1995; Cooke, 1979; Kubiak et al., 1989). Despite the continuing usage, little is known about the impacts of OCs in bird populations in developing countries. Among the countries that continue to use OCs, India has been one of the major producers and consumers in recent years. As a consequence, wild birds in India are exposed to great amounts of OC pesticides (Tanabe et al., 1998). Use of OCs in tropical countries may not only result in exposure of resident birds but also of migratory birds when they visit tropical regions in winter. The Indian sub-continent is a host to a multitude of birds from western Asia, Europe and Arctic Russia in winter(Woodcock, 1980). Hundreds of species of waterfowl, including wading birds such as plovers, terns and sandpipers, migrate each winter to India covering long distances (Grewal, 1990). While concentrations of OC pesticides in wholebody homogenates of birds have been reported elsewhere (Tanabe et al., 1998), concentrations of OCs in prey items and in eggs of Indian birds have not been reported.

A few studies related to the decline in the populations of bats in various parts of the world to OC exposure were also being conducted (Altenbach et al., 1979; Clark, 1976; Clark, 1983; Clark, 1981; Geluso et al., 1976; Jefferies, 1976; Thies and Mc Bee, 1994). The world population of bats was estimated to be 8.7 million during 1936 and it declined to approximately 200,000 in 1973 (Geluso et al., 1976) It has recovered slightly to an estimated number of 700,000 in 1991 (Geluso et al., 1976; Thies and Mc Bee, 1994). High tissue concentrations of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene ( p,p'-DDE) have been found in bats in Carlsbad Caverns in Mexico and in New Mexico in the USA (Geluso et al., 1976; Thies and Mc Bee, 1994). Occurrence of stillbirths in little brown bats exposed to high concentrations of PCBs, p,p'-DDE, and/or oxychlordane was documented (Clark, 1976; Jefferies, 1976). These observations indicate that bats can accumulate high concentrations of OCs and may be affected by their potential toxic effects. The flying fox or the new world fruit bat, short-nosed fruit bat and Indian pipistrelle bat are resident species and are very common in South India. Their habitat is mainly agricultural areas, rock caves, and abandoned houses in domesticated areas. Insects constitute an important diet for many bats, allowing the passage of OCs in their body (Mc Bee et al., 1992). Several studies found OC pesticides and PCBs in livers and eggs of birds in developed countries (Becker, 1989; Bernardz et al., 1990; Cade et al., 1989; Castillo et al., 1994; Mora, 1996; Mora, 1997). Similarly, several studies reported OCs in a variety of biota including humans and wildlife from India (Senthilkumar et al., 2000). However, no study has used whole body homogenates of birds, which is important to evaluate biomagnification features and body burdens of OCs (Mc Bee et al., 1992). Earlier studies used specific body tissues to estimate biomagnification of OCs. However theoretically, estimation of biomagnification factors requires whole body concentrations rather than specific tissue concentrations.

Conclusion

The data on environmental-cum-health risk assessment studies may be regarded as an aid towards a better understanding of the problem. Data on the occurrence of pesticide-related illnesses among defined populations in developing countries are scanty. Generation of base-line descriptive epidemiological data based on area profiles, development of intervention strategies designed to lower the incidence of acute poisoning and periodic surveillance studies on high risk groups are needed. Our efforts should include investigations of outbreaks and accidental exposure to pesticides, correlation studies, cohort analyses, prospective studies and randomised trials of intervention procedures. Valuable information can be collected by monitoring the end product of human exposure in the form of residue levels in body fluids and tissues of the general population. The importance of education and training of workers as a major vehicle to ensure a safe use of pesticides is being increasingly recognised.

Because of the extensive benefits which man accrues from pesticides, these chemicals provide the best opportunity to those who juggle with the risk-benefit equations. The economic impact of pesticides in non-target species (including humans) has been estimated at approximately $8 billion annually in developing countries. What is required is to weigh all the risks against the benefits to ensure a maximum margin of safety. The total cost-benefit picture from pesticide use differs appreciably between developed and developing countries. For developing countries it is imperative to use pesticides, as no one would prefer famine and communicable diseases like malaria. It may thus be expedient to accept a reasonable degree of risk. Our approach to the use of pesticides should be pragmatic. In other words, all activities concerning pesticides should be based on scientific judgement and not on commercial considerations. There are some inherent difficulties in fully evaluating the risks to human health due to pesticides. For example there is a large number of human variables such as age, sex, race, socio-economic status, diet, state of health, etc. - all of which affect human exposure to pesticides. But practically little is known about the effects of these variables. The long-term effects of low level exposure to one pesticide are greatly influenced by concomitant exposure to other pesticides as well as to pollutants present in air, water, food and drugs.

Pesticides are often considered a quick, easy, and inexpensive solution for controlling weeds and insect pests in urban landscapes. However, pesticide use comes at a significant cost. Pesticides have contaminated almost every part of our environment. Pesticide residues are found in soil and air, and in surface and ground water across the countries, and urban pesticide uses contribute to the problem. Pesticide contamination poses significant risks to the environment and non-target organisms ranging from beneficial soil microorganisms, to insects, plants, fish, and birds. Contrary to common misconceptions, even herbicides can cause harm to the environment. In fact, weed killers can be especially problematic because they are used in relatively large volumes. The best way to reduce pesticide contamination (and the harm it causes) in our environment is for all of us to do our part to use safer, non-chemical pest control (including weed control) methods.

The exercise of analysing the range and nature of benefits arising from pesticide use has been a mixture of delving, dreaming and distillation. There have been blind alleys, but also positive surprises. The general picture is as we suspected: there is publicity, ideological kudos and scientific opportunity associated with 'knocking' pesticides, while praising them brings accusations of vested interests. This is reflected in the imbalance in the number of published scientific papers, reports, newspaper articles and websites against and for pesticides. The colour coding for types of benefit, economic, social or environmental, reveals the fact that at community level, most of the benefits are social, with some compelling economic benefits. At national level, the benefits are principally economic, with some social benefits and one or two issues of environmental benefits. It is only at global level that the environmental benefits really come into play.

There is a need to convey the message that prevention of adverse health effects and promotion of health are profitable investments for employers and employees as a support to a sustainable development of economics. To sum up, based on our limited knowledge of direct and/or inferential information, the domain of pesticides illustrates a certain ambiguity in situations in which people are undergoing life-long exposure. There is thus every reason to develop health education packages based on knowledge, aptitude and practices and to disseminate them within the community in order to minimise human exposure to pesticides.

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Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: their benefits and hazards

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The term pesticide covers a wide range of compounds including insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, plant growth regulators and others. Among these, organochlorine (OC) insecticides, used successfully in controlling a number of diseases, such as malaria and typhus, were banned or restricted after the 1960s in most of the technologically advanced countries.

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https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pesticides/index.cfm

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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

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Introduction

Pesticides kill, repel, or control forms of animal and plant life considered to damage or be a nuisance in agriculture and domestic life. Used broadly, the term includes these types of chemicals:

Herbicides destroy or control weeds and other unwanted vegetation. They are commonly used on lawns.

Insecticides kill or control insects. They are used in agriculture, industry, businesses, and households.

Fungicides control fungi and can be used on plants or other surfaces where mold or mildew grow. They may also have a role in protecting crops.

Over 800 pesticides are registered for use in the United States, some of which are used in large quantities and may pose risks for a variety of health problems.

Because of widespread use, people are exposed to low levels of pesticide residue through a variety of ways in their homes, schools, workplaces, and other facilities. Pesticides can get inside a body from eating, drinking, breathing them in, and through skin contact.

What Is NIEHS Doing?

Agricultural Health Study

Since 1993, NIEHS has led the Agricultural Health Study (AHS), which gathers data on more than 89,000 farmers and their spouses on farms in North Carolina and Iowa. It is funded by NIEHS and the National Cancer Institute in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

AHS research has led to more than more than 200 papers published in the peer reviewed scientific literature. These studies have linked pesticides to risk for Parkinson's disease, thyroid disease, diabetes, kidney diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, and shingles (herpes zoster), among other health issues. Evidence suggests that children are particularly susceptible to adverse effects from exposure to pesticides, including neurodevelopmental effects.

Atopy - In one study, early-life farm exposures were strongly associated with reduced risk in adults of atopy, which is a genetic tendency to develop allergic diseases. These results suggest that protective effects on atopy of early-life farming exposures, particularly in people born to mothers who performed farming activities, endure across a life course.

Autoimmunity - An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks normal healthy cells in the body. Certain types of organochlorine insecticides may increase risk of developing autoimmunity in male farmers. Another AHS study looked at male farmers who are also licensed pesticide applicators and found an link to rheumatoid arthritis, a type of autoimmune inflammatory disease.

Kidney Disease - A comprehensive study of pesticide use found links to renal cell carcinoma, the most common form of kidney cancer. Four herbicides (2,4,5-T, atrazine, cyanazine, and paraquat) and two insecticides (chlorpyrifos and chlordane) were implicated. A related study suggests that two widely used herbicides, pendimethalin and atrazine, may also be associated with impaired kidney function among male pesticide applicators.

Shingles - Several specific pesticides were associated with increased risk of shingles in farmers, especially with recurrent use. Shingles is a painful rash caused by the chickenpox virus (varicella-zoster).

Thyroid Disease - Many pesticides have long been suspected as being disruptive to thyroid functioning. An AHS study linked exposure to several pesticides and increased hypothyroidism risk. Another study observed increased risk of thyroid cancer associated with use of metalaxyl, a fungicide, and lindane, an insecticide. More work is needed to understand the potential role of these chemicals in thyroid carcinogenesis. Lindane is designated as carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.

Pesticides and Sense of Smell (PASS) Study

This study is related to the Agricultural Health Study. Loss of the sense of smell is common with aging, especially in patients with Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Study participants who reported a high pesticide exposure event, such as getting a large amount of pesticides on their skin, were more likely to report a loss of sense of smell 20 years later. Such high pesticide exposure events, especially when clean-up was delayed and skin contact or inhalation was involved, may cause long-lasting damage to our sense of smell.

Researchers funded by NIEHS also reported that inhalation of the widely used pesticide paraquat reduced the sense of smell in male mice for several months.

Pesticides and Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's Disease (PD) is the second most common condition involving loss of brain cells, or neurons, such as those that produce the brain signaling chemical dopamine. Dopamine is important for many functions, including movement. More than 10 million people worldwide are living with PD, according to the Parkinson's Foundation. Yet it is among the least inheritable diseases - meaning that the causes, to a large extent, are likely environmental.

Pesticides may directly or indirectly disrupt the biological pathways that normally protect brain cells selectively attacked by PD.

NIEHS-funded researchers found that the accumulation in the brain of DOPAL, a toxic residue of dopamine, can increase the risk of PD. Pesticides such as dieldrin and benomyl can cause degeneration of dopamine and inhibit the biological mechanism that reduces DOPAL to a less toxic acid - thus increasing the risk of developing PD.

The Parkinson's Disease, Environment, and Genes study showed that some pesticides, including paraquat, maneb, ziram, benomyl, and several organophosphate pesticides, including diazinon and chlorpyrifos, contribute to PD onset and progression. Other studies have confirmed motor, cognitive, or depressive symptom progression with such pesticides.

The National Toxicology Program (NTP) has also identified paraquat exposure as a contributor to PD.

Protective glove use and hygiene practices appeared to reduce risk of PD.

Other Studies

CHAMACOS
unded by NIEHS and other federal agencies, the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, at the University of California, Berkeley, is the longest running longitudinal birth cohort study of pesticides and other environmental exposures among children in a farmworker community. CHAMACOS means "little children" in Mexican Spanish.

CHAMACOS research covers:

Effects of pesticides on children's brain development and respiratory health.

Methods to reduce pesticide exposures.

Interaction of stress and early life adversity on health in people exposed to chemicals like pesticides.

Research shows young children who are exposed to glyphosate, an herbicide that controls weeds and grasses, may suffer from liver inflammation and metabolic disorder later in life. Study participants lived in Salinas Valley, California. The research suggests that a child's lifetime exposure to the popular weed killer may increase the risks in young adulthood of conditions that could lead to liver cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Infants' Environmental Health Study (Infantes y Salud Ambiental - ISA)
ISA is a community-based cohort of nearly 300 mothers and their children (5-7 years old) living in rural underserved areas of Costa Rica. It is funded in part by NIEHS and coordinated by the Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances at Universidad Nacional in Costa Rica. It is one of the first comprehensive examinations conducted in Central America on the health effects of pesticide exposure. Researchers have found that pesticide exposure during pregnancy can lead to thyroid hormonal imbalance, which can result in a number of health problems.

A different study, the Puerto Rico Testsite for Exploring Contamination Threats () is an ongoing investigation of environmental factors that contribute to preterm birth. This study found that glyphosate was associated with preterm birth in the first study of a glyphosate byproduct and birth outcomes.

NTP Developmental Neurotoxicity Health Effects Innovation Program
Recognizing the need for a new framework to evaluate chemicals with potential to affect brain development, NTP created the Developmental Neurotoxicity Health Effects Innovation program. It expedites research on industrial and commercial chemicals, such as pesticides, that might play a role in conditions such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder. One pesticide being examined is chlorpyrifos, a common pesticide, early exposure to which may cause long-term damage to the function of a key brain signaling pathway.

Further Reading

Stories from the Environmental Factor (NIEHS newsletter)

Additional Resources

Glyphosate & Glyphosate Formulations: National Toxicology Program - Due to the multiple interpretations of evidence on the potential health risks of glyphosate exposure, major public concern about exposure risks, and reported differences in the toxicity of different glyphosate products, NTP is conducting more research on glyphosate and its formulations. NTP is testing the potential genetic and mechanistic toxicity, and will also examine the published scientific literature for data on the effects of glyphosate on non-cancer outcomes.

PestiBytes: A Podcast Series on Common Pesticide Questions - PestiBytes are brought to you by the National Pesticide Information Center, a cooperative agreement between Oregon State University and the Environmental Protection Agency and produced by OSU's Environmental Health Sciences Center, funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Pesticide Exposure - The National Library of Medicine's (NLM) Enviro-health links website provides an excellent set of resources that address the relationship between pesticides and human health. The webpage provides links to selected websites on pesticide exposure, as well as on the treatment and prevention of pesticide poisoning.

Related Health Topics

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Pesticides kill, repel, or control forms of animal and plant life considered to damage or be a nuisance in agriculture and domestic life. Used broadly, the term includes these types of chemicals:

Herbicides destroy or control weeds and other unwanted vegetation. They are commonly used on lawns.

Insecticides kill or control insects. They are used in agriculture, industry, businesses, and households.

Fungicides control fungi and can be used on plants or other surfaces where mold or mildew grow. They may also have a role in protecting crops.

Over 800 pesticides are registered for use in the United States, some of which are used in large quantities and may pose risks for a variety of health problems.

Because of widespread use, people are exposed to low levels of pesticide residue through a variety of ways in their homes, schools, workplaces, and other facilities. Pesticides can get inside a body from eating, drinking, breathing them in, and through skin contact.

Atopy - In one study, early-life farm exposures were strongly associated with reduced risk in adults of atopy, which is a genetic tendency to develop allergic diseases. These results suggest that protective effects on atopy of early-life farming exposures, particularly in people born to mothers who performed farming activities, endure across a life course.

Autoimmunity - An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks normal healthy cells in the body. Certain types of organochlorine insecticides may increase risk of developing autoimmunity in male farmers. Another AHS study looked at male farmers who are also licensed pesticide applicators and found an link to rheumatoid arthritis, a type of autoimmune inflammatory disease.

Kidney Disease - A comprehensive study of pesticide use found links to renal cell carcinoma, the most common form of kidney cancer. Four herbicides (2,4,5-T, atrazine, cyanazine, and paraquat) and two insecticides (chlorpyrifos and chlordane) were implicated. A related study suggests that two widely used herbicides, pendimethalin and atrazine, may also be associated with impaired kidney function among male pesticide applicators.

Shingles - Several specific pesticides were associated with increased risk of shingles in farmers, especially with recurrent use. Shingles is a painful rash caused by the chickenpox virus (varicella-zoster).

Thyroid Disease - Many pesticides have long been suspected as being disruptive to thyroid functioning. An AHS study linked exposure to several pesticides and increased hypothyroidism risk. Another study observed increased risk of thyroid cancer associated with use of metalaxyl, a fungicide, and lindane, an insecticide. More work is needed to understand the potential role of these chemicals in thyroid carcinogenesis. Lindane is designated as carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.

CHAMACOS research covers:

Effects of pesticides on children's brain development and respiratory health.

Methods to reduce pesticide exposures.

Interaction of stress and early life adversity on health in people exposed to chemicals like pesticides.

Glyphosate & Glyphosate Formulations: National Toxicology Program - Due to the multiple interpretations of evidence on the potential health risks of glyphosate exposure, major public concern about exposure risks, and reported differences in the toxicity of different glyphosate products, NTP is conducting more research on glyphosate and its formulations. NTP is testing the potential genetic and mechanistic toxicity, and will also examine the published scientific literature for data on the effects of glyphosate on non-cancer outcomes.

PestiBytes: A Podcast Series on Common Pesticide Questions - PestiBytes are brought to you by the National Pesticide Information Center, a cooperative agreement between Oregon State University and the Environmental Protection Agency and produced by OSU's Environmental Health Sciences Center, funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Pesticide Exposure - The National Library of Medicine's (NLM) Enviro-health links website provides an excellent set of resources that address the relationship between pesticides and human health. The webpage provides links to selected websites on pesticide exposure, as well as on the treatment and prevention of pesticide poisoning.

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A pesticide is any substance used to kill, repel, or control certain forms of plant or animal life that are considered to be pests. Pesticides include herbicides for destroying weeds and other unwanted vegetation, insecticides for controlling a wide variety of insects, fungicides used to prevent the growth of molds and mildew, disinfectants for preventing the spread of bacteria, and compounds used to control mice and rats.

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/food-desert

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Food desert, an impoverished area where residents lack access to healthy foods. Food deserts may exist in rural or urban areas and are associated with complex geographic and socioeconomic factors, as well as with poor diet and health disorders such as obesity. Most knowledge of food deserts has come from studies of the United Kingdom and the United States. In fact, the term food desert was introduced in the early 1990s in western Scotland, where it was used to describe the poor access to nutritious foods experienced by residents of a public housing development.

Defining food deserts

Food deserts are likened to physical desert regions because the search for and acquisition of nutritious foods is not easily accomplished in either environment. Indeed, food deserts often are not readily traversed, particularly by people without cars who rely on public transportation. Furthermore, if nutritious foods are available, they often are unaffordable. However, despite numerous investigations, conducted in not only the United Kingdom and the United States but also Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, the criteria that define food deserts and their boundaries and the reasons for their existence are not fully understood.

Socioeconomic factors and food deserts

Despite the uncertainties concerning the origins of food deserts, research has suggested that economic factors, such as supply and demand, as well as urban planning, which serves to connect consumers to food retailers and transportation services, are at play. These factors interact in ways that are complex. For example, while the interaction of supply and demand generally determines which food products are available and the price of those products, consumer demand is heavily influenced by personal preference, which itself is influenced by individual behaviour and socioeconomic factors. Hence, in a low-income area where there exists not only a lack of nutritious foods but also a general lack of education about healthy food choices, residents may unknowingly choose unhealthy foods, thereby maintaining the demand for those food products and perpetuating their availability.

Food deserts and health disparities

The study of food deserts has drawn attention to disparities in food availability, diet, and health that are associated with income level, ethnicity, and local food environment. For example, in several U.S. states, including Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, and North Carolina, wealthy neighbourhoods were found to have more supermarkets than poor neighbourhoods, and the same was true for predominantly white versus predominantly black neighbourhoods. Other studies have revealed that some urban and rural food deserts have local food environments characterized by a relatively high number of convenience stores and few or no supermarkets. While convenience stores sell food products, they generally offer high-calorie foods that are low in vital nutrients at relatively high prices and do not offer the wide selection of healthy foods, such as vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, that can be found in supermarkets. As a result, overweight and obesity, as well as cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and kidney failure, tend to be more prevalent in areas with a greater number of convenience stores relative to supermarkets.

Improving access to healthy foods

Some countries where food deserts have been determined to exist have introduced measures to improve access to healthy foods. These measures include finding ways to promote the establishment of healthy food retailers in food deserts and to connect consumers to outlets where fresh vegetables and fruits and other healthy foods are available at reasonable cost. The latter may be accomplished through farmers' markets, exposure to healthy foods in schools, urban garden and agriculture projects, or even online supermarkets that offer healthy foods for order over the Internet and delivery to accessible locations.

One of the first countries to attempt to make inroads into the problem of food deserts was the United Kingdom; however, its Food Poverty (Eradication) Bill of 2001 failed passage. The United States also took steps to improve access to healthy foods, introducing the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, which was followed by an evaluation of the prevalence of food deserts in the country. In 2010 U.S. Pres. Barack Obama proposed the Healthy Food Financing Initiative (HFFI), which encouraged retailers to bring healthy foods to impoverished urban and rural communities. A large share of subsequent funding for HFFI went to community-development financial institutions for lending to food retailers in food deserts.
Kara Rogers

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Food desert, an impoverished area where residents lack access to healthy foods. Food deserts may exist in rural or urban areas and are associated with complex geographic and socioeconomic factors, as well as with poor diet and health disorders such as obesity. Most knowledge of food deserts has

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organic farming, agricultural system that uses ecologically based pest controls and biological fertilizers derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-fixing cover crops. Modern organic farming was developed as a response to the environmental harm caused by the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in conventional agriculture, and it has numerous ecological benefits.

Compared with conventional agriculture, organic farming uses fewer pesticides, reduces soil erosion, decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface water, and recycles animal wastes back into the farm. These benefits are counterbalanced by higher food costs for consumers and generally lower yields. Indeed, yields of organic crops have been found to be about 25 percent lower overall than conventionally grown crops, although this can vary considerably depending upon the type of crop. The challenge for future organic agriculture will be to maintain its environmental benefits, increase yields, and reduce prices while meeting the challenges of climate change and an increasing world population.

History

The concepts of organic agriculture were developed in the early 1900s by Sir Albert Howard, F.H. King, Rudolf Steiner, and others who believed that the use of animal manures (often made into compost), cover crops, crop rotation, and biologically based pest controls resulted in a better farming system. Howard, having worked in India as an agricultural researcher, gained much inspiration from the traditional and sustainable farming practices he encountered there and advocated for their adoption in the West. Such practices were further promoted by various advocates-such as J.I. Rodale and his son Robert, in the 1940s and onward, who published Organic Gardening and Farming magazine and a number of texts on organic farming. The demand for organic food was stimulated in the 1960s by the publication of Silent Spring, by Rachel Carson, which documented the extent of environmental damage caused by insecticides.

Organic food sales increased steadily from the late 20th century. Greater environmental awareness, coupled with concerns over the health impacts of pesticide residues and consumption of genetically modified (GMO) crops, fostered the growth of the organic sector. In the United States retail sales increased from $20.39 billion in 2008 to $47.9 billion in 2019, while sales in Europe reached more than $52 billion (€45 billion) in 2019.

The price of organic food is generally higher than that of conventionally grown food. Depending on the product, the season, and the vagaries of supply and demand, the price of organic food can be anywhere from less than 10 percent below to more than 100 percent above that of conventionally grown produce.

Regulation

Organic agriculture is defined formally by governments. Farmers must be certified for their produce and products to be labeled "organic," and there are specific organic standards for crops, animals, and wild-crafted products and for the processing of agricultural products. Organic standards in the European Union (EU) and the United States, for example, prohibit the use of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, ionizing radiation, sewage sludge, and genetically engineered plants or products. In the EU, organic certification and inspection is carried out by approved organic control bodies according to EU standards. Organic farming has been defined by the National Organic Standards of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) since 2000, and there are many accredited organic certifiers across the country.

Although most countries have their own programs for organic certification, certifiers in the EU or the United States can inspect and certify growers and processors for other countries. This is especially useful when products grown organically in Mexico, for example, are exported to the United States.

Organic farming methods

Since synthetic fertilizers are not used, building and maintaining a rich, living soil through the addition of organic matter is a priority for organic farmers. Organic matter can be applied through the application of manure, compost, and animal by-products, such as feather meal or blood meal. Due to the potential for harbouring human pathogens, the USDA National Organic Standards mandate that raw manure must be applied no later than 90 or 120 days before harvest, depending on whether the harvested part of the crop is in contact with the ground. Composted manure that has been turned 5 times in 15 days and reached temperatures between 55 and 77.2 °C (131 and 171 °F) has no restrictions on application times. Compost adds organic matter, providing a wide range of nutrients for plants, and adds beneficial microbes to the soil. Given that these nutrients are mostly in an unmineralized form that cannot be taken up by plants, soil microbes are needed to break down organic matter and transform nutrients into a bioavailable "mineralized" state. In comparison, synthetic fertilizers are already in mineralized form and can be taken up by plants directly.

Soil is maintained by planting and then tilling in cover crops, which help protect the soil from erosion off-season and provide additional organic matter. The tilling in of nitrogen-fixing cover crops, such as clover or alfalfa, also adds nitrogen to the soil. Cover crops are commonly planted before or after the cash crop season or in conjunction with crop rotation and can also be planted between the rows of some crops, such as tree fruits. Researchers and growers are working to develop organic farming " no-till " and reduced-tillage practices in order to further reduce erosion.

Organic pesticides are derived from naturally occurring sources. These include living organisms such as the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, which is used to control caterpillar pests, or plant derivatives such as pyrethrins (from the dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) or neem oil (from the seeds of Azadirachta indica). Mineral-based inorganic pesticides such as sulfur and copper are also allowed.

In addition to pesticides, organic pest control integrates biological, cultural, and genetic controls to minimize pest damage. Biological control utilizes the natural enemies of pests, such as predatory insects (e.g., ladybugs) or parasitoids (e.g., certain wasps) to attack insect pests. Pest cycles can be disrupted with cultural controls, of which crop rotation is the most widely used. Finally, traditional plant breeding has produced numerous crop varieties that are resistant to specific pests. The use of such varieties and the planting of genetically diverse crops provide genetic control against pests and many plant diseases.

Raoul Adamchak

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Organic farming | Definition, History, Methods, Practices, & Benefits

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organic farming, agricultural system that uses ecologically based pest controls and biological fertilizers derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-fixing cover crops. Modern organic farming was developed as a response to the environmental harm caused by the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in conventional agriculture, and it has numerous ecological benefits.

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Bernier, Eric, and Deirdre Rose. “Why Is Corn Syrup in Literally Everything in the US?” Quora, 2021, www.quora.com/Why-is-corn-syrup-in-literally-everything-in-the-US.

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https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2016/12/01/americans-views-about-and-consumption-of-organic-foods/

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https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-are-food-deserts

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Food deserts: Definition, effects, and solutions

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Food deserts are areas where people have limited access to healthful and nourishing foods. Poverty and other socioeconomic factors can cause food deserts.

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https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/food-deserts#locations-stats

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Food deserts are communities that have poor access to healthy, affordable foods (, 2).

Also known as healthy food priority areas, food deserts are concentrated in low-income and historically marginalized areas throughout the United States (, 2, 3, ).

In food deserts, healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, peas, beans, meat, and fish are often expensive or unobtainable. The lack of access to healthy foods in these communities translates to health disparities and high rates of chronic disease (, 5, ).

This article examines the causes, health effects, and potential solutions for food deserts.

The causes of food deserts are multifaceted. Public policy and economic practices that are embedded in systemic racism often play a role. Social, economic, and political conditions have been shown to reduce people's access to healthy foods.

Contributing factors include food insecurity, social determinants of health, racial residential segregation, and poor access to transportation among low-income and historically marginalized populations (, , 8, 9).

Food apartheid

Apartheid is an enforced form of racial segregation.

"Food apartheid," however, is an emerging term meant to address the root causes of poor access to healthy, nutrient-dense foods by communities of color and low-income white people.

Food activists like Karen Washington, Malik Yakini, and Dara Cooper believe that this term more accurately represents the systemic racism and health inequities of a corporate-controlled food system.

The term "food desert" is sometimes scrutinized for its misrepresentation of the core issues within these communities.

For instance, the term "desert" suggests a natural, barren landscape and proposes that increasing the number of grocery stores is a quick solution. Furthermore, this term neither resonates with nor is a part of the identities of the individuals who live within these areas.

Instead, "food apartheid" addresses the root causes of poor food environments and health disparities among predominantly low-income communities of color.

Food insecurity

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) estimates that 17.4 million American households were food insecure in 2014 ( 9).

Food security is the physical and economic access to sufficient nutritious foods by all people at all times. When this access is disrupted or limited, food insecurity occurs ( 10).

Food insecurity may be temporary - for example, if you run out of food for a day or two - or long-term, as exemplified by persistent poverty and poor access to food ( 10).

Food insecurity among low-income communities in food deserts is 2.5 times greater than the national average ( 9).

Social determinants of health

Social determinants of health are factors beyond your control, such as access to healthcare or transportation, that affect your quality of life. These factors play a major role in food deserts ( 11).

Barriers like income, community infrastructure, and access to supermarkets all influence the availability of healthy foods. Other social determinants of health that may contribute to food deserts include (, 8, 11, ):

education

employment and job training

socioeconomic status and concentrated poverty

access to healthcare

access to local food markets and fresh produce

access to transportation

racial segregation

public safety

These factors may lead to health disparities characteristic of food deserts, such as high rates of chronic diseases among historically marginalized and low-income communities (, 2, , 11).

Racial segregation

Low-income communities have a high proportion of Black and Latino populations who are disproportionately affected by poor food access (, , 9).

Robust evidence shows that racial segregation places historically marginalized populations, particularly Black people, in impoverished neighborhoods (, 9).

In 2016, compared with the national average, Black households were two times likelier to be food insecure, while Hispanic households had a greater prevalence of food insecurity ( 9).

Notably, 76% of neighborhoods with a high proportion of Black people were among the most impoverished ().

Transportation and proximity to supermarkets

In food deserts, the distance you have to travel to supermarkets is further than in wealthier areas (, ).

Plus, predominantly Black and Hispanic communities have fewer supermarkets and local food markets - which often offer affordable and nutritious produce - than white neighborhoods (, 6, , 9, , 13).

Thus, households in food deserts don't have equal access to the healthy foods available to white and affluent communities ( 6).

Furthermore, public transit and vehicle ownership play a role in food access ( 8, 13).

Summary
Food deserts are attributed to food apartheid and have root causes in food insecurity, racial segregation, proximity to supermarkets, access to a vehicle, and various other social factors.

Because there isn't an exact definition of food deserts, U.S. government agencies instead characterize communities, states, and populations based on food insecurity, income status, and access to stores and vehicles ( 14).

In 2014, an estimated 71.4 million American households were food insecure, while in 2016 31.6% of low-income households experienced food insecurity ( 9).

The Food Environment Atlas, which was developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), shows an interactive map that displays information on food insecurity, socioeconomic conditions, and proximity to supermarkets ( 14).

According to this map, food insecurity rose in 16 states between 2015 and 2017, although only Nevada, New York, and Rhode Island saw a significant increase in the percentage of households with very low food insecurity ( 14).

"Very low food insecurity" is defined as disrupted eating and reduced food intake due to poor access or economic hardship ( 9).

In the United States, populations with low access to stores are concentrated in the Southwest, Midwest, Northwest, and Florida, while households without access to a car and low food access are more common in the Northeast and Southeast ( 14).

As such, food insecurity, poor food access, and potential food deserts exist across the continental United States.

Summary
Food deserts are likely widespread throughout the United States. National statistics characterize geographic areas based on income status, food insecurity, and access to stores and vehicles.

Diet and nutrition play a major role in chronic disease ( 15, ).

Chronic illnesses are the leading cause of death and disability in the United States, with heart disease, diabetes, and cancer being the most common ().

Among low-income and food-insecure communities, disproportionate access to affordable, healthy foods contributes to poor nutrition and perpetuates health disparities, leading to higher rates of obesity and other chronic ailments (, , 9, 13, 15, , 17, ).

Notably, Black people - who are likelier to be food insecure - have the highest rates of disease and mortality, largely related to diabetes and high blood pressure (, ).

A vicious cycle may develop in which people with chronic diseases in food deserts rely on convenience stores and corner stores, which often sell expensive foods with low nutritional value - further limiting people's capacity to buy healthy foods ().

Summary
Food insecurity in low-income, historically marginalized communities is associated with higher rates of chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer.

Understanding food deserts as food apartheid not only addresses their root causes but also challenges the quality of solutions that are often presented.

Temporary fixes that continue to perpetuate wealth inequities and health disparities include the placement of more fast-food chains and corner stores within food deserts (, 13, 19).

Simply increasing access to cheap food doesn't lead to equitable access to affordable and healthy foods ( 13).

At the community level, food distribution, locally run markets, and gardening make great tools for communities to increase food access, reduce food insecurity, and promote healthy diets and lifestyles.

Keep in mind that comprehensive structural and policy changes are necessary to achieve equitable food access. Still, you can get started today on community-run solutions to improve access to affordable healthy foods in food deserts (, ).

Community gardens

In addition to creating green spaces and beautifying the neighborhood, community gardens provide fresh, nutritious produce and encourage healthy diets.

They also teach skills and foundational knowledge about environmental concerns, planting know-how, and where foods come from.

Finally, community gardens may help communities invest in their own health.

Farmers markets, arabbers, and roadside carts

Community markets promote local food production, as well as cultural foods that both appeal to the population and support a healthy diet.

At farmers markets, you buy directly from growers and support a local, thriving economy.

Arabbers - street vendors who sell fruits and vegetables from horse-drawn carts - and roadside produce carts may also create economic opportunities and improve food access in food deserts.

The USDA's Community Food Projects (CFP) Competitive Grant program is a potential source of funding to kick-start and nurture such programs ( 13, 22).

Surplus food sharing

To balance out food waste from wealthy communities with poor food access in food deserts, food sharing collaborations and alliances may support more efficient food economies.

Food rescue organizations even take produce that would be thrown out at grocery stores due to blemishes or physical deformities - but that's still perfectly good to eat - and resell it at affordable prices.

Federal resources for low-income people to get healthy foods

SNAP gives financial assistance to families in need and provides nutrition benefits.

The WIC program provides monthly nutrition packages, incentives for people who are nursing, and benefits for children up to age 5.

The National Council on Aging (NCOA) offers assistance to low-income older adults facing hunger.

Nongovernmental food assistance programs

Meals on Wheels and other organizations like Moveable Feast provide medically tailored food delivery and nutrition education to establish racial, social, and health equity.

Food Not Bombs provides free vegetarian and vegan meals in numerous locations around the globe.

Wholesome Wave works with community organizations to eliminate food insecurity and provide nutritious food to people in need.

Local food pantries, soup kitchens, and food banks run by religious or community organizations offer food to low-income communities to reduce food insecurity and hunger.

Summary
Community-based solutions to improve access to affordable, healthy foods in food deserts include local markets, community gardens, surplus food sharing programs, federal food assistance programs, and food pantries.

For immediate food assistance, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline at 1-866-3-HUNGRY (1-866-348-6479) or 1-877-8-HAMBRE (1-877-842-6273), Mondays through Fridays from 7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. EST.

How to improve your nutrition on a budget

Even if you're on a tight budget and don't have high quality, fresh produce available, there are numerous ways that you can enjoy nutritious foods, including ( 23):

Buy canned or frozen goods. Canned or frozen meats, fruits, and vegetables are both nutritious and inexpensive compared with their fresh counterparts - and they last longer. Opt for low salt canned food when possible.

Try nonmeat protein sources. Meat accounts for a large portion of many people's food bills. Dried peas and beans provide just as much protein as meat but are cheaper and longer-lasting.

Shop for foods in season. In-season produce is easier to obtain and less expensive than out-of-season fruits and veggies. If they're available in your area, visit roadside stands or other local markets and buy small amounts of fresh produce to avoid waste.

Freeze leftovers. To cut down on costs and food waste, freeze leftovers for reheating later in the week. You can also repurpose leftovers. For instance, plain rice from Sunday lunch can be made into vegetable rice for Monday or Tuesday.

Summary
If you're on a budget, freezing leftovers, eating more peas and beans, buying canned goods, and looking for in-season produce are a few strategies to save money and eat well. If you're experiencing hunger, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline.

Food deserts - where nutritious food is often expensive or unavailable - usually occur in low-income, historically marginalized communities. They're marked by high rates of food insecurity, racial and health disparities, and high rates of chronic diseases.

Several federal and nonprofit programs are dedicated to improving food access in food deserts.

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Food Deserts: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

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Food deserts are communities that have poor access to healthy, affordable foods (, 2). Also known as healthy food priority areas, food deserts are concentrated in low-income and historically marginalized areas throughout the United States (, 2, 3, ). In food deserts, healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, peas, beans, meat, and fish are often expensive or unobtainable.

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https://onlinemasters.ohio.edu/food-deserts-definition/

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What Is a Food Desert? Causes, Statistics, and Resources

In a semi-rural community in the United States, a person who is working two part-time jobs and struggling to pay bills may want to purchase healthy and nutritious food. But the nearest grocery store can be miles away, and the fresh fruits and vegetables for sale may cost more than what that person can afford. Instead, they may turn to cheaper but unhealthier fast food options that provide calories but not much nutritional value.

This person is living in what is known as a food desert, where there is a lack of access to nutritious and healthy foods due to various factors. Addressing food deserts can be a significant challenge; however, there are strategies, actions, and methods that can help.

Let's take a look at information about food deserts, their causes and effects, and resources that can empower individuals and organizations to make a positive impact.

Food Desert: Definition, Causes, and Statistics

There are several resources that can help individuals who are living in food deserts obtain healthy foods. Before exploring those resources, it is important to first understand the underlying causes of this issue.

Food Desert Definition

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), food deserts are "areas that lack access to affordable fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat milk, and other foods that make up the full range of a healthy diet." The key word in that definition is access, which can be impaired or limited by several factors, such as income, location, time, and the ability to travel to a store.

The specific guidelines for what determines a food desert can vary. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) notes that measurements and definitions of food deserts often take into account common factors.

● Accessibility: How many healthy food sources there are in one area, or how far away the closest healthy food source may be

● Individual barriers: A person's own unique restrictions that may prevent them from accessing healthy food, such as not enough time in their schedule or lack of necessary funds to purchase food

● Neighborhood indicators: Determining factors such as reliable and abundant public transportation, or if average neighborhood incomes are near or below the poverty line

Causes

The USDA provides a helpful atlas that can help visitors identify food deserts in the United States.

For example, in Ohio, there are clusters of what can be considered food deserts around major cities such as Columbus, Cincinnati, and Cleveland, as well as in smaller cities and communities across the state. Even with the abundance of stores and services in major cities, food deserts still may exist due to the lack of income by customers to purchase healthy food. Even in an urban environment where there are several high-end restaurants, there still may be fewer options available for individuals to purchase healthy and nutritious food.

This makes food deserts an issue that isn't necessarily restricted to rural or low-population areas. In Los Angeles, the second-most populous city in the country, there is still an abundance of food deserts within the larger county area. Even though these deserts are surrounded by areas that are not deserts by USDA standards, individuals who reside there may not have the ability to get to areas where food is available.

Statistics

According to the USDA, just over 6% of the U.S. population lives in "low-income and low access tracts and are more than one mile or 10 miles from a supermarket." Additionally, the USDA notes that 9.2% of individuals living in the United States do not have a personal vehicle.

What is important to remember about food deserts is that they can lead to poor nutrition outcomes. Individuals who don't have access to healthy foods for whatever reason may turn to unhealthy alternatives such as fast food restaurants. The CDC notes that poor nutrition puts individuals at a higher risk of becoming overweight and obese. This can be particularly prominent in food deserts. Additionally, individuals with poor nutrition can be at risk of other serious health conditions, such as heart disease and cancer.

Resources for Individuals Living in Food Deserts

Although there is an increasing awareness regarding food deserts and their potential harm, developing long-lasting solutions is not easy. Still, there are actions that can help.

Nutrition Education Resources

Understanding the benefits of maintaining proper nutrition may help individuals in food deserts. Additionally, those who have lived in food deserts for a significant portion of their lives may not be aware of how to maintain a healthy diet.

Healthline provides a list of health and nutrition tips that can benefit those living in food deserts. For example, not drinking sugary beverages, getting enough sleep, drinking enough water, and getting regular exercise are all tasks that individuals who are living in food deserts can achieve, even though they may not have regular access to healthy food.

Grocery Shopping and Diet Planning

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) provides a range of resources that can help individuals maintain proper nutrition. For example, the FDA published "Tips for Making Health Choices While Food Shopping" that shoppers can keep in mind when purchasing groceries, such as checking serving sizes, balancing calories, and buying canned fruits or frozen vegetables that may be less expensive.

Writing for World Report, Susannah Sneider also discusses various tips that can help individuals save money while grocery shopping. These include purchasing items when they are on sale, stocking up on inexpensive food items like rice and bananas, and prepping and planning meals ahead of time.

Exercise and Fitness

It may be difficult for individuals who are living in food deserts to avoid eating unhealthy items. But there are still ways that people can exercise and work to stay healthy.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services notes that physical activity can help individuals control their weight, reduce fat, relieve stress, and more. Considering that living in a food desert can increase the risk of health issues such as diabetes, exercising can help there as well.

Resources for Communities and Organizations

Communities and organizations have a strong opportunity to help individuals in food deserts who may not have the resources or ability to access healthy and nutritious food.

Helping Those in Poverty Find Food

Depending on the income level of a person living in a food desert, they may currently be enrolled in or eligible for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). This program provides funds to lower-income individuals to be used for purchasing food.

The HealthyPeople.gov website describes how "a study has shown that a small financial incentive increased the use of SNAP benefits in participating farmers markets - resulting in increased access to healthy foods." This type of solution helped address the unique problem that even if lower-income individuals desired to eat more nutritiously, they may not have money to purchase those food items. Food banks and pantries are also helpful organizations that can provide nutritious food to those who are living in food deserts. Feeding America provides a resource that can help individuals discover a local food bank near them. For those who may not be able to travel to locations that sell healthy foods, services such as Meals on Wheels and Food Rescue US donate and deliver healthy food to residents' homes.

Increasing Access to Healthy Foods

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provides several resources that can help individuals in food deserts increase their access to healthy foods. One resource involves healthier food retail (HFR) initiatives, which can include "creating new food retail outlets that sell healthier foods; improving the quality, variety, and amount of healthier foods and beverages at existing stores; or promoting and marketing healthier foods and beverages to the consumer."

Additional initiatives that the CDC mentions include improving healthier food access in smaller stores, developing transportation options to enable people to travel to food locations, and development tips for mobile retailers of healthy foods.

Educating Individuals About the Importance of Nutritious Eating

The USDA's National Institute on Food and Agriculture offers the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP). This program "uses education to support participants' efforts toward self-sufficiency, nutritional health, and well-being." The data shows that the program has helped people "improve their diets, improve their nutrition practices, stretch their food dollars further, handle food more safely, and increase their physical activity levels."

SNAP-Ed is another educational resource that helps individuals understand the benefits of healthy eating, as well as how to help SNAP recipients make the most use of their funds. Locations for state programs can be found on the State SNAP-Ed Programs page.

Stop Food Deserts and Ensure Healthy Eating

Dealing with food deserts across the United States is a complex issue with no easy solutions. It is difficult for communities and cities to simply build more grocery stores, develop more transit options, or find ways to help individuals generate more income to purchase healthy foods.

In spite of this, there are still effective methods that can help individuals who are living in food deserts eat nutritiously. Educational resources, financial incentives, donations and deliveries, and health and fitness training are among the answers that can help people who are living in food deserts lead healthy lives.
Source U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Importance of Physical Activity

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What Is a Food Desert? Causes, Statistics, & Resources | Ohio University

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In a semi-rural community in the United States, a person who is working two part-time jobs and struggling to pay bills may want to purchase healthy and nutritious food. But the nearest grocery store can be miles away, and the fresh fruits and vegetables for sale may cost more than what that person can afford.

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/food-desert

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Food desert, an impoverished area where residents lack access to healthy foods. Food deserts may exist in rural or urban areas and are associated with complex geographic and socioeconomic factors, as well as with poor diet and health disorders such as obesity. Most knowledge of food deserts has come from studies of the United Kingdom and the United States. In fact, the term food desert was introduced in the early 1990s in western Scotland, where it was used to describe the poor access to nutritious foods experienced by residents of a public housing development.

Defining food deserts

Food deserts are likened to physical desert regions because the search for and acquisition of nutritious foods is not easily accomplished in either environment. Indeed, food deserts often are not readily traversed, particularly by people without cars who rely on public transportation. Furthermore, if nutritious foods are available, they often are unaffordable. However, despite numerous investigations, conducted in not only the United Kingdom and the United States but also Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, the criteria that define food deserts and their boundaries and the reasons for their existence are not fully understood.

Socioeconomic factors and food deserts

Despite the uncertainties concerning the origins of food deserts, research has suggested that economic factors, such as supply and demand, as well as urban planning, which serves to connect consumers to food retailers and transportation services, are at play. These factors interact in ways that are complex. For example, while the interaction of supply and demand generally determines which food products are available and the price of those products, consumer demand is heavily influenced by personal preference, which itself is influenced by individual behaviour and socioeconomic factors. Hence, in a low-income area where there exists not only a lack of nutritious foods but also a general lack of education about healthy food choices, residents may unknowingly choose unhealthy foods, thereby maintaining the demand for those food products and perpetuating their availability.

Food deserts and health disparities

The study of food deserts has drawn attention to disparities in food availability, diet, and health that are associated with income level, ethnicity, and local food environment. For example, in several U.S. states, including Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, and North Carolina, wealthy neighbourhoods were found to have more supermarkets than poor neighbourhoods, and the same was true for predominantly white versus predominantly black neighbourhoods. Other studies have revealed that some urban and rural food deserts have local food environments characterized by a relatively high number of convenience stores and few or no supermarkets. While convenience stores sell food products, they generally offer high-calorie foods that are low in vital nutrients at relatively high prices and do not offer the wide selection of healthy foods, such as vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, that can be found in supermarkets. As a result, overweight and obesity, as well as cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and kidney failure, tend to be more prevalent in areas with a greater number of convenience stores relative to supermarkets.

Improving access to healthy foods

Some countries where food deserts have been determined to exist have introduced measures to improve access to healthy foods. These measures include finding ways to promote the establishment of healthy food retailers in food deserts and to connect consumers to outlets where fresh vegetables and fruits and other healthy foods are available at reasonable cost. The latter may be accomplished through farmers' markets, exposure to healthy foods in schools, urban garden and agriculture projects, or even online supermarkets that offer healthy foods for order over the Internet and delivery to accessible locations.

One of the first countries to attempt to make inroads into the problem of food deserts was the United Kingdom; however, its Food Poverty (Eradication) Bill of 2001 failed passage. The United States also took steps to improve access to healthy foods, introducing the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, which was followed by an evaluation of the prevalence of food deserts in the country. In 2010 U.S. Pres. Barack Obama proposed the Healthy Food Financing Initiative (HFFI), which encouraged retailers to bring healthy foods to impoverished urban and rural communities. A large share of subsequent funding for HFFI went to community-development financial institutions for lending to food retailers in food deserts.
Kara Rogers

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Food deserts are communities that have poor access to healthy, affordable foods (, 2).

Also known as healthy food priority areas, food deserts are concentrated in low-income and historically marginalized areas throughout the United States (, 2, 3, ).

In food deserts, healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, peas, beans, meat, and fish are often expensive or unobtainable. The lack of access to healthy foods in these communities translates to health disparities and high rates of chronic disease (, 5, ).

This article examines the causes, health effects, and potential solutions for food deserts.

The causes of food deserts are multifaceted. Public policy and economic practices that are embedded in systemic racism often play a role. Social, economic, and political conditions have been shown to reduce people's access to healthy foods.

Contributing factors include food insecurity, social determinants of health, racial residential segregation, and poor access to transportation among low-income and historically marginalized populations (, , 8, 9).

Food apartheid

Apartheid is an enforced form of racial segregation.

"Food apartheid," however, is an emerging term meant to address the root causes of poor access to healthy, nutrient-dense foods by communities of color and low-income white people.

Food activists like Karen Washington, Malik Yakini, and Dara Cooper believe that this term more accurately represents the systemic racism and health inequities of a corporate-controlled food system.

The term "food desert" is sometimes scrutinized for its misrepresentation of the core issues within these communities.

For instance, the term "desert" suggests a natural, barren landscape and proposes that increasing the number of grocery stores is a quick solution. Furthermore, this term neither resonates with nor is a part of the identities of the individuals who live within these areas.

Instead, "food apartheid" addresses the root causes of poor food environments and health disparities among predominantly low-income communities of color.

Food insecurity

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) estimates that 17.4 million American households were food insecure in 2014 ( 9).

Food security is the physical and economic access to sufficient nutritious foods by all people at all times. When this access is disrupted or limited, food insecurity occurs ( 10).

Food insecurity may be temporary - for example, if you run out of food for a day or two - or long-term, as exemplified by persistent poverty and poor access to food ( 10).

Food insecurity among low-income communities in food deserts is 2.5 times greater than the national average ( 9).

Social determinants of health

Social determinants of health are factors beyond your control, such as access to healthcare or transportation, that affect your quality of life. These factors play a major role in food deserts ( 11).

Barriers like income, community infrastructure, and access to supermarkets all influence the availability of healthy foods. Other social determinants of health that may contribute to food deserts include (, 8, 11, ):

education

employment and job training

socioeconomic status and concentrated poverty

access to healthcare

access to local food markets and fresh produce

access to transportation

racial segregation

public safety

These factors may lead to health disparities characteristic of food deserts, such as high rates of chronic diseases among historically marginalized and low-income communities (, 2, , 11).

Racial segregation

Low-income communities have a high proportion of Black and Latino populations who are disproportionately affected by poor food access (, , 9).

Robust evidence shows that racial segregation places historically marginalized populations, particularly Black people, in impoverished neighborhoods (, 9).

In 2016, compared with the national average, Black households were two times likelier to be food insecure, while Hispanic households had a greater prevalence of food insecurity ( 9).

Notably, 76% of neighborhoods with a high proportion of Black people were among the most impoverished ().

Transportation and proximity to supermarkets

In food deserts, the distance you have to travel to supermarkets is further than in wealthier areas (, ).

Plus, predominantly Black and Hispanic communities have fewer supermarkets and local food markets - which often offer affordable and nutritious produce - than white neighborhoods (, 6, , 9, , 13).

Thus, households in food deserts don't have equal access to the healthy foods available to white and affluent communities ( 6).

Furthermore, public transit and vehicle ownership play a role in food access ( 8, 13).

Summary
Food deserts are attributed to food apartheid and have root causes in food insecurity, racial segregation, proximity to supermarkets, access to a vehicle, and various other social factors.

Because there isn't an exact definition of food deserts, U.S. government agencies instead characterize communities, states, and populations based on food insecurity, income status, and access to stores and vehicles ( 14).

In 2014, an estimated 17.4 million American households were food insecure, while in 2016 31.6% of low-income households experienced food insecurity ( 9).

The Food Environment Atlas, which was developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), shows an interactive map that displays information on food insecurity, socioeconomic conditions, and proximity to supermarkets ( 14).

According to this map, food insecurity rose in 16 states between 2015 and 2017, although only Nevada, New York, and Rhode Island saw a significant increase in the percentage of households with very low food insecurity ( 14).

"Very low food insecurity" is defined as disrupted eating and reduced food intake due to poor access or economic hardship ( 9).

In the United States, populations with low access to stores are concentrated in the Southwest, Midwest, Northwest, and Florida, while households without access to a car and low food access are more common in the Northeast and Southeast ( 14).

As such, food insecurity, poor food access, and potential food deserts exist across the continental United States.

Summary
Food deserts are likely widespread throughout the United States. National statistics characterize geographic areas based on income status, food insecurity, and access to stores and vehicles.

Diet and nutrition play a major role in chronic disease ( 15, ).

Chronic illnesses are the leading cause of death and disability in the United States, with heart disease, diabetes, and cancer being the most common ().

Among low-income and food-insecure communities, disproportionate access to affordable, healthy foods contributes to poor nutrition and perpetuates health disparities, leading to higher rates of obesity and other chronic ailments (, , 9, 13, 15, , 17, ).

Notably, Black people - who are likelier to be food insecure - have the highest rates of disease and mortality, largely related to diabetes and high blood pressure (, ).

A vicious cycle may develop in which people with chronic diseases in food deserts rely on convenience stores and corner stores, which often sell expensive foods with low nutritional value - further limiting people's capacity to buy healthy foods ().

Summary
Food insecurity in low-income, historically marginalized communities is associated with higher rates of chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer.

Understanding food deserts as food apartheid not only addresses their root causes but also challenges the quality of solutions that are often presented.

Temporary fixes that continue to perpetuate wealth inequities and health disparities include the placement of more fast-food chains and corner stores within food deserts (, 13, 19).

Simply increasing access to cheap food doesn't lead to equitable access to affordable and healthy foods ( 13).

At the community level, food distribution, locally run markets, and gardening make great tools for communities to increase food access, reduce food insecurity, and promote healthy diets and lifestyles.

Keep in mind that comprehensive structural and policy changes are necessary to achieve equitable food access. Still, you can get started today on community-run solutions to improve access to affordable healthy foods in food deserts (, ).

Community gardens

In addition to creating green spaces and beautifying the neighborhood, community gardens provide fresh, nutritious produce and encourage healthy diets.

They also teach skills and foundational knowledge about environmental concerns, planting know-how, and where foods come from.

Finally, community gardens may help communities invest in their own health.

Farmers markets, arabbers, and roadside carts

Community markets promote local food production, as well as cultural foods that both appeal to the population and support a healthy diet.

At farmers markets, you buy directly from growers and support a local, thriving economy.

Arabbers - street vendors who sell fruits and vegetables from horse-drawn carts - and roadside produce carts may also create economic opportunities and improve food access in food deserts.

The USDA's Community Food Projects (CFP) Competitive Grant program is a potential source of funding to kick-start and nurture such programs ( 13, 22).

Surplus food sharing

To balance out food waste from wealthy communities with poor food access in food deserts, food sharing collaborations and alliances may support more efficient food economies.

Food rescue organizations even take produce that would be thrown out at grocery stores due to blemishes or physical deformities - but that's still perfectly good to eat - and resell it at affordable prices.

Federal resources for low-income people to get healthy foods

SNAP gives financial assistance to families in need and provides nutrition benefits.

The WIC program provides monthly nutrition packages, incentives for people who are nursing, and benefits for children up to age 5.

The National Council on Aging (NCOA) offers assistance to low-income older adults facing hunger.

Nongovernmental food assistance programs

Meals on Wheels and other organizations like Moveable Feast provide medically tailored food delivery and nutrition education to establish racial, social, and health equity.

Food Not Bombs provides free vegetarian and vegan meals in numerous locations around the globe.

Wholesome Wave works with community organizations to eliminate food insecurity and provide nutritious food to people in need.

Local food pantries, soup kitchens, and food banks run by religious or community organizations offer food to low-income communities to reduce food insecurity and hunger.

Summary
Community-based solutions to improve access to affordable, healthy foods in food deserts include local markets, community gardens, surplus food sharing programs, federal food assistance programs, and food pantries.

For immediate food assistance, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline at 1-866-3-HUNGRY (1-866-348-6479) or 1-877-8-HAMBRE (1-877-842-6273), Mondays through Fridays from 7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. EST.

How to improve your nutrition on a budget

Even if you're on a tight budget and don't have high quality, fresh produce available, there are numerous ways that you can enjoy nutritious foods, including ( 23):

Buy canned or frozen goods. Canned or frozen meats, fruits, and vegetables are both nutritious and inexpensive compared with their fresh counterparts - and they last longer. Opt for low salt canned food when possible.

Try nonmeat protein sources. Meat accounts for a large portion of many people's food bills. Dried peas and beans provide just as much protein as meat but are cheaper and longer-lasting.

Shop for foods in season. In-season produce is easier to obtain and less expensive than out-of-season fruits and veggies. If they're available in your area, visit roadside stands or other local markets and buy small amounts of fresh produce to avoid waste.

Freeze leftovers. To cut down on costs and food waste, freeze leftovers for reheating later in the week. You can also repurpose leftovers. For instance, plain rice from Sunday lunch can be made into vegetable rice for Monday or Tuesday.

Summary
If you're on a budget, freezing leftovers, eating more peas and beans, buying canned goods, and looking for in-season produce are a few strategies to save money and eat well. If you're experiencing hunger, call the USDA's National Hunger Hotline.

Food deserts - where nutritious food is often expensive or unavailable - usually occur in low-income, historically marginalized communities. They're marked by high rates of food insecurity, racial and health disparities, and high rates of chronic diseases.

Several federal and nonprofit programs are dedicated to improving food access in food deserts.

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Food Deserts: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

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Food deserts are areas in which healthy food is overly expensive or unavailable. This article explains the causes and health effects of food deserts, along with potential solutions.