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Dissertation topic

Teachers perspectives on support for children with autism in mainstream primary schools.

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More than 70% of autistic children and young people are educated in mainstream schools, with autism being the most common type of special educational need (SEN) for children with an education health and care plan (EHCP).

But many autistic children and young people find school a challenging place: crowds, noise and other factors in the school environment can lead to heightened anxiety, and autistic pupils are more vulnerable to social exclusion. This can lead to long term negative outcomes, damaged self-esteem and mental health difficulties.

In a survey carried out by the National Autistic Society in 2021, only 26% of autistic children surveyed felt happy at school, with only 24% feeling included. ² Additionally, many teachers have little confidence in their capacity to support autistic pupils: 60% of teachers surveyed by the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Autism stated that they didn’t have the training they need to teach pupils on the autism spectrum.

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Nikki Kennedy, Specialist Resource Base Development Lead at the National Autistic Society, discusses the National Autistic Society's Cullum Centres. Nikki shares how and why the Centres were developed and the impact they have had on autistic students in mainstream education.
Autistic young people and mainstream schools

More than 70% of autistic children and young people are educated in mainstream schools, with autism being the most common type of special educational need (SEN) for children with an education health and care plan (EHCP).¹ But many autistic children and young people find school a challenging place: crowds, noise and other factors in the school environment can lead to heightened anxiety, and autistic pupils are more vulnerable to social exclusion. This can lead to long term negative outcomes, damaged self-esteem and mental health difficulties.

In a survey carried out by the National Autistic Society in 2021, only 26% of autistic children surveyed felt happy at school, with only 24% feeling included. ² Additionally, many teachers have little confidence in their capacity to support autistic pupils: 60% of teachers surveyed by the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Autism stated that they didn't have the training they need to teach pupils on the autism spectrum. ³

Cullum Centres

The National Autistic Society, in partnership with local authorities and schools, has opened five resource-based provisions called Cullum Centres, which are largely funded by the Cullum Family Trust. Cullum Centre pupils are autistic young people aged 11-16 who have good academic potential, but find it difficult to learn in busy school environments. These young people are able to learn alongside their mainstream peers and spend the majority of their time in lessons supported by specialist trained staff. The Cullum Centres are a calm setting for students to retreat to if they become overwhelmed, with physical benefits such as quiet spaces and areas for students to take lessons outside of the classroom.

Cullum Centre pupils will spend up to four years accessing the specialist support that is provided to them by Cullum Centre staff, alongside attending their mainstream lessons. Provision includes opportunities for pupils to check in with staff to share any anxieties or concerns, and to develop skills in preparation for adulthood. These activities are scheduled into students' timetables and can be carried out in small groups or individually.

The Cullum Centre is a safe place for pupils to interact with one another and their non-autistic peers, and practice their social skills whilst being supported by staff. Each Centre provides the permanent availability of a familiar quiet and calm space, which has been highly valued by pupils.

Cullum Centre staff have the ability and willingness to provide highly tailored support that meets the needs and wishes of each pupil. The Cullum Centres have resulted in high levels of participation by autistic students in mainstream classes, a strong sense of belonging, improved peer attitudes and no noticeable differences between Cullum Centre pupils and their peers' attendance, bullying or wellbeing. In a recent survey, 100% of parents of young people attending a Cullum Centre said that they would recommend a Cullum Centre to help autistic pupils access mainstream education.5

Sharing of good practice

In order to ensure a consistent approach to supporting autistic young people across each school, Cullum Centre staff need to spread their specialist autism knowledge to their mainstream school colleagues. For example, in many schools, greater understanding and support is required for pupils with co-occurring conditions.
Specialist resource bases within local authority schools often work in isolation. However, one Cullum Centre headteacher said: "With the Cullum Centres, there's a lot of sharing of knowledge, and I think that all of us would say we've only made it this far by working as a team and sharing experiences and problem solving."

Social outcomes

Some non-autistic pupils found the increase in autistic pupils attending their school initially unsettling. But over time, they developed more positive attitudes towards autistic peers, with Cullum Centre staff focusing on autism acceptance during assemblies and tutor time. Cullum Centre pupils are building friendships with peers within the Cullum Centre.

An evaluation of the Cullum Centres found that Cullum Centre placements rarely break down, but that without the Cullum Centres, it would be more likely that an autistic young person's placement at a mainstream school would break down. 4

"In Year 7, I had no-one to talk to and spent all of my time in the Cullum Centre, but now I have friends in the mainstream [school] and don't stay in the Centre so much." Young person attending a Cullum Centre.5

Expansion

Due to the success of the Cullum Centres, our goal is to expand this model of inclusive practice to other regions in the UK to provide more autistic children with the chance to flourish. Pupils who have now completed their journey through Cullum Centres have accessed successful opportunities for further education and training. Many of these former pupils have reported that this would not have been possible without their Cullum Centre.

"Cullum Centre outcomes for all of our young people are fantastic with an appropriate curriculum." Head of a Cullum Centre school. 5

1. Department for Education (June 2022). Academic year 2021/22: Special educational needs in England. Available . (Accessed: 18 May 2023).
2. National Autistic Society (2021). School report. Available . (Accessed: 18 May 2023).
3. All Party Parliamentary Group on Autism (2017). Autism and education in England 2017. Available . (Accessed: 23 May 2023).
4. National Autistic Society (2022). Evaluation of the National Autistic Society's Cullum Centres: Summary report
5. London South Bank University (June 2020). Rapid Review of Cullum Centres

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Supporting autistic children to stay in mainstream education

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Nikki Kennedy, Specialist Resource Base Development Lead at the National Autistic Society, discusses the National Autistic Society's Cullum Centres. Nikki shares how and why the Centres were developed and the impact they have had on autistic students in mainstream education.

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Inclusion embodies 'how' the education system can accomodate children with diverse learning needs (pantic & florian,2015), constituting the promotion, where feasible, the processes of achievement , acceptance and participation in mainstream school classrooms of children with diverse learning needs ( florian and spratt, 2013).

whereas inclusion fosters wellbeing, social, cognative and language skills in children with disabilities, it develops in typically developing childrens awareness of their own abilities, assisting others, empathy, tolerance and compassion (Chandler-Olcott & Kluth,2009)

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Over the past twenty years there has been a continuous and significant rise in the number of teaching assistants (TAs) working within English schools and they are increasingly taking on a more pedagogical role, often working with pupils with special educational needs(SEN).

Key stakeholders’ views about the impacts of TA support were found to be largely positive, as were evaluations of TA-led targeted academic interventions. A number of quantitative investigations of regular TA support for specific pupils indicated a negative relationship between TA support and pupils’ academic progress.

Ten Year Six pupils with SEN took part in individual semi-structured interviews, discussing their one-to-one TA support. Props(such as a ‘Judge’ figurine)helped to set expectations and reassure participants, whilst a creative, visual activity supported their communication and engagement. Participants’ discussions highlighted that they were almost constantly accompanied by a TA and saw the TA as their ‘teacher’. There was a significant degree of separation from the class teacher and a perception that the TA knew participants better than the teacher did

Pupils had rarely been consulted about their TA support in school. However, great admiration was shown for TAs,who were often considered to epitomise their ideal TA. Participants’ discussions suggested that TAs advocated for pupils and possibly looked beyond theirlabels of SEN. They talked passionately about the emotional support provided by TAs (including building their sense of belonging with in school) and suggested that TAs support more positive interactions with peers.

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The perspectives and experiences of children with special educational needs in mainstream primary schools regarding their individual teaching assistant support - ePrints Soton

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Over the past twenty years there has been a continuous and significant rise in the number of teaching assistants (TAs) working within English schools and they are increasingly taking on a more pedagogical role, often working with pupils with special educational needs(SEN). A systematic review of the international literature was conducted, exploring the impacts of TA support on pupils’ academic, social and emotional/behavioural outcomes(including 24 papers published between the years 2000 and 2015). Key stakeholders’ views about the impacts of TA support were found to be largely positive, as were evaluations of TA-led targeted academic interventions. A number of quantitative investigations of regular TA support for specific pupils indicated a negative relationship between TA support and pupils’ academic progress. Pupil perspectives regarding their TA support were rarely documented within the literature. A qualitative empirical study was conducted to contribute more of a pupil voice. Ten Year Six pupils with SEN took part in individual semi-structured interviews, discussing their one-to-one TA support. Props(such as a ‘Judge’ figurine)helped to set expectations and reassure participants, whilst a creative, visual activity supported their communication and engagement. Participants’ discussions highlighted that they were almost constantly accompanied by a TA and saw the TA as their ‘teacher’. There was a significant degree of separation from the class teacher and a perception that the TA knew participants better than the teacher did. Pupils had rarely been consulted about their TA support in school. However, great admiration was shown for TAs,who were often considered to epitomise their ideal TA. Participants’ discussions suggested that TAs advocated for pupils and possibly looked beyond theirlabels of SEN. They talked passionately about the emotional support provided by TAs (including building their sense of belonging with in school) and suggested that TAs support more positive interactions with peers.

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Barry et al. — “’It’s up to the teacher’”
Quote: “’It’s up to the teacher’.”
What it shows: Mainstream teachers report feeling personal responsibility for delivering autism evidence-based practices but identify training/time constraints that limit implementation.
Citation: Barry, L. (2023/2024). A qualitative study of teachers' use of autism EBPs. (qualitative interviews with mainstream teachers). ResearchGate+1

Bolourian et al. (2021)
Quote: “Teachers… identified terms they associated with autism and strategies they used for inclusion and relationship building.”
What it shows: Teachers describe practical classroom strategies and highlight professional development needs to support inclusion in early elementary classrooms.
Citation: Bolourian, Y. et al. (2021). General Education Teachers' Perceptions of Autism. PMC

Wittwer et al. (2023)
Quote: “Knowledge, self-efficacy, and attitude concerning autism…”
What it shows: Large survey data show teacher knowledge and self-efficacy vary widely — both predict readiness to use inclusive practices.
Citation: Wittwer, J. et al. (2023). Inclusion of autistic students in schools: Knowledge, self-efficacy, and attitude. PMC

McDougal et al. (2020)
Quote: “Factors that are perceived to impact positively (i.e. facilitators) and negatively (i.e. barriers)…”
What it shows: Teachers identify staffing, specialist access, training, classroom adaptations and peer attitudes as key facilitators/barriers to supporting autistic pupils.
Citation: McDougal, E. et al. (2020). Teacher insights into the barriers and facilitators of learning for autistic pupils in mainstream schools. ScienceDirect

Muñoz Martínez (2023)
Quote: “Teachers of learners with ASD in mainstream schools and… attitudes towards inclusion.”
What it shows: National/contextual differences matter — in Spain teachers’ attitudes, resources and training shape inclusion success.
Citation: Muñoz Martínez, Y. (2023). Teachers of learners with ASD in mainstream schools and inclusion attitudes. nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

Cook (2022) — Challenges, strategies and self-efficacy
Quote (title phrase): “Challenges, strategies and self-efficacy of teachers…”
What it shows: Teachers report using classroom-level strategies but frequently lack confidence and specialist support to meet complex needs.
Citation: Cook, A. (2022). Challenges, strategies and self-efficacy of teachers supporting pupils with autism. Taylor & Francis Online

White (2025) — strengths-based approaches
Quote: “We are running a marathon not a sprint.”
What it shows: Educators describe inclusion as a long-term process and discuss implementing strengths-based approaches in mainstream secondary settings.
Citation: White, J. (2025). Educators’ perspectives on strengths-based approaches for autistic students in mainstream high schools. SpringerLink

Keener (2018, thesis)
Quote: “Teachers strove to get students without disabilities to become more accepting of students with disabilities.”
What it shows: Teachers actively work on peer acceptance and social inclusion, not just individual supports.
Citation: Keener, N. (2018). Teacher Perceptions of Inclusion and Students with Autism (master’s thesis).

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Mintz (2021), Evidence informed practice for autism, SEND in schools nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com+2nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com+2

“Both children are now seen as more happy than sad. R is much softer. Things like relationships are developing for him. Having structure, including sensory [activities], in place has really helped him. A big difference …” nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com+1

“S is less prone to dysregulation … anxiety and distress are less frequent and R has started making more eye contact and is beginning to engage with PECs [communication system] exchanges.” nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com+1

“From looking at our evaluation, I would say that sensory timetables for children with high levels of need can enable them to feel calmer, and for those with lower levels, sensory snacks/diet with other strategies definitely make a positive difference.” nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com+1

What this shows: Teachers distinguishing between children with higher levels of need vs lower levels, using structural supports (sensory timetables, sessions, breaks etc) to help with self-regulation, anxiety, communication.

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2. Mills, Chapparo & Hinitt (2018), “Listening to teachers: Views on delivery of a classroom based sensory intervention” Wiley Online Library+1

“Teachers reported that learning new ideas, working with an occupational therapist and seeing an increase in concentration and a reduction in undesired behaviours were positive aspects of utilising the intervention.” PubMed

What this shows: Teachers value collaboration with specialists (OTs), formal interventions (sensory activity schedules), and report concrete changes (better concentration; fewer challenging behaviours).

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General Education Teachers’ Perceptions … (Springer 2021) SpringerLink+1

“The ‘social disconnection.’ I struggle with that as I see them [autistic students] wanting to fit in, 'Will you be my friend? Do you want to play?’ And the other kids are like, ‘No, no I don’t.’ And you know, it’s heartbreaking. So, I see them struggling socially, to socially connect, and I struggle with how to help them.” SpringerLink+1

“The children [on the autism spectrum] that I’ve had the pleasure of teaching have either been wanting to touch everything, which can cause a lot of problems with other students and leads to a lot of misunderstanding from adults. Or, they don’t want to touch anything at all. They want to be away from everyone, which also causes a lot of misunderstandings.” PMC+1

“Across the board, for all of the students who I’ve had in my classroom who are on the autism spectrum, difficulty socializing has been a very big prominent thing with them, and something that I’ve spent a lot of time trying to focus on because I’ve really noticed peer interactions are tough.”

3. What this shows: Teachers describe multiple specific autism-related traits: sensory sensitivities (touch/no touch), social disconnect, difficulty with peer interaction. Supports that follow implicitly include relationship building, social intervention, peer inclusiveness, maybe sensory adjustments.

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The girls are out there’: professional perspectives on potential changes in the diagnostic process for, and recognition of, autistic females in the UK (McLinden & Sedgewick, 2022/2023) nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

“girls can present quite differently from boys” (Sarah, specialist teacher) nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

“they do things to fit in with the other girls even if they don’t quite know why people are doing it.” (Sarah, specialist teacher) nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

“females are very good at camouflaging their symptoms … they tend to hide it well” (Sarah, specialist teacher) nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

“they just haven't been diagnosed because … they have that kind of ability to fit in and hide” (Sarah, specialist teacher) nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

“SENCos and teachers to recognise girls earlier … in primary it's a very protective environment … diagnosing girls in their mid-teens when they present with depression is a disaster” (Pete, consultant psychologist) nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

“they’re underrepresented because they’re better at masking” (Calon, CAMHS nurse) nasenjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

What this tells us: Professionals see that girls often do not match the “classic” male profile of autism, mask camouflaging, present social communication more subtly, leading to later diagnosis / under-recognition. They believe earlier recognition & teacher/SENCo awareness are crucial.

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Autistic girls and school exclusion: Perspectives of students and their parents (Sproston, Sedgewick, Crane, 2017) SAGE Journals+1

“I did like a few of the teachers … there are some teachers that I became quite close with;” SAGE Journals+1

“there are some teachers that try to help” SAGE Journals+1

“I felt stupid for putting my hand up in front of 30 people and asking for help … people look at you in a funny way” SAGE Journals+1

“they always ask me what I’ve done and how I’ve got on” (teacher-student interaction) SAGE Journals+1

What this shows: From girls’ perspectives: the importance of teacher approachability, being seen and checked in on, comfort in asking for help, and the damaging effects of teacher misunderstanding or high-expectations without support.

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The mainstream school experiences of adolescent autistic girls (Tomlinson, Bond & Hebron, 2022) White Rose Research Online+1

“inconsistencies in staff understanding of individual need” White Rose Research Online

“anxiety resulting from sensory issues” White Rose Research Online

Though I don’t have more full direct quote text from that one at hand (because of access restrictions), these phrases are cited in the summary as central.

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camouflaging & exhaustion
“Many girls describe ‘camouflaging’ behaviour through copying, although this is experienced as exhausting which leads to other mental health problems.”
Context: teachers/professionals reporting how girls mask autistic traits and the mental-health consequences.
Source: Girls and Autism: Educational, Family and Personal Perspectives (Carpenter, Happé & Egerton, eds), review/preview.

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classroom & sensory perspective
“Teachers need to consider: 1. The classroom from a sensory perspective. 2. The teacher-child relationship, so the child feels understood. 3. Adapting the subject to individual needs. 4. Watching the child’s friendships.”
Context: practical checklist for teachers supporting girls with autism — emphasises sensory environment, relationships and adapting curriculum.
Source: Girls and Autism: Educational, Family and Personal Perspectives (Carpenter, Happé & Egerton, eds).

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earlier diagnosis & teacher role
“We need SENCos and teachers to recognise girls earlier … diagnosing girls in their mid-teens when they present with depression is a disaster.”
Context: professionals warning that late recognition (often teacher/SENCo responsibility) causes harm.
Source: Girls and Autism: Educational, Family and Personal Perspectives (Carpenter, Happé & Egerton, eds). static1.1.sqspcdn.com

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adapt practice to reduce anxiety & exclusion risk
“By adapting your practice, a child with ASD will feel safer, less anxious and have an increased understanding of what is expected of them.”
Context: national guidance for mainstream primary teachers on why classroom adjustments matter.
Source: Autism: A Guide for Mainstream Primary Schools (Welsh Local Government Association / Learning With Autism programme).

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visual schedules / predictability
“Visual schedules can be used to help students see what’s coming next. … An ideal day for students on the spectrum might be like the movie Groundhog Day — every day the same as the day before.”
Context: teacher-focused practical strategy—use predictable routines and visual supports to reduce anxiety and help engagement.
Source: Barbara Boroson, Autism Spectrum Disorders in the Mainstream Classroom (practical teacher handbook).

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teachers’ emotional response / responsibility
“The prospect of including these students in your mainstream class may fill you with anxiety: You may dread having to exert the extra effort. You may resent what feels like an intrusion on your comfort level and expertise.”
Context: honest description of teachers’ feelings about inclusion — explains why training/support is needed.
Source: Barbara Boroson, Autism Spectrum Disorders in the Mainstream Classroom. Impact of Special Needs

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Autism: A Guide for Mainstream Primary Schools (ASD primary schools guidance, Wales) autismwales.org

“Children with an ASD need support to predict and understand the structure of the school day, and this is even more essential when there are changes to the usual day including school trips, concert practices or special assemblies. The most useful way of providing this additional structure is by using picture timetables. Timetables should be laid out in a vertical line, with the next activity always appearing at the top. When this activity concludes the picture should be removed from the planner so that the child can clearly see what activity is next and what follows after. Changes, noise and distractions from visitors can also be unpleasant. Try to avoid unnecessary visitors, prepare the child in advance and be sure to explain the purpose of the visit. For more information on planning and managing changes please refer to the section in chapter 2. Children with an ASD will need to be prepared for substitute teachers, timetable changes, school trips or any other irregular activity in advance.” autismwales.org

What this shows / highlights:

The importance of predictability and helping the child anticipate the day’s activities.

Practical visual supports (picture timetables) used, in specific format.

Advance preparation for irregular / changed events (visits, trips, changes in staffing).

Attention to sensory/disruption issues (noise; visitors) and mitigation.

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Autism Toolkit (Primary), South Gloucestershire version (Autism toolkit for primary schools) sites.southglos.gov.uk

“How to implement a visual timetable
• Introduce the visual timetable using only three or four visuals.
• Gradually increase the amount of visuals over time, building up to morning or afternoon activities.
• Older children may be able to manage a whole day once the timetable is an established part of their routine.
• Timetables should include all subject lessons or activities, including breaks and lunchtimes and be amended on a daily basis to include specific events, for example, visitors, classroom changes or school trips.
All staff should know • How to use the timetable i.e. that visual cards should be removed and placed in the finished box/envelope at the end each activity. • Some children do not appear to engage with the visual timetable. However, having it in the class gives them the predictability and stability they need. These children may only need to briefly glance at the timetable for it to be effective. • Visual timetables are very effective during times of change. This might be a change of adult within the class or when transitioning.” sites.southglos.gov.uk

Observations:

Step-by-step implementation suggestions: start small (few visuals), build up.

Full day schedules only after routine is established.

All staff need to be consistent (removing cards when done; knowing how it should work).

Even minimal engagement can help (a quick glance).

Especially helpful in transitions / change periods.

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Structured Teaching – InclusionED project summary (Australia) on visual schedules and work systems inclusionED

“Structured teaching is a well-established framework that can support students on the autism spectrum to stay on task and move between tasks. A program for visual schedules and work systems was piloted, trialled, and evaluated with Australian teachers. Key elements: Physical structure of the environment supports students’ sensory and executive functioning needs by adding meaning and context. Structure the physical environment of your classroom by: • clearly defining areas for activities • clearly labelling and positioning materials • minimising auditory and visual distractions • arranging seating according to the individual needs of students, e.g. providing physical space around desks; seating students where they work best – near the teacher, near the classroom door, at the back of the classroom • providing a sanctuary space • using routines. Visual schedules: Using visual cues in schedules helps students to sequence predictable events, and helps teachers to give students notice of anticipated changes and encourage independent transitions.” inclusionED

What this gives us:

Detailed breakdown of premises of structured teaching (TEACCH-inspired) for mainstream contexts.

Specifies environmental modifications (labelling, seating, quiet / low-distraction zones).

Emphasis on routines and visual schedules to support transitions and independence.