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428–348 BC: Plato saw education as a lifelong process beginning in early childhood. 

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428–348 BC: Plato saw education as a lifelong process beginning in early childhood. 

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Plato, one of the most influential Greek philosophers, argued that children are born with innate knowledge, and education’s purpose is to help them recall this understanding and apply it in daily life. He regarded play as a way of preparing for future social roles. For instance, if a child was destined to be a builder, they should engage in play that involved constructing houses. According to Plato, teachers should guide children’s natural interests and enjoyment in play toward their ultimate purpose in life.

Source: NDFAuthors. (2018, February 5). The journey of early childhood education through time. Novak Djokovic Foundation. Retrieved from https://novakdjokovicfoundation.org/the-journey-of-early-childhood-education-through-time/

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Storykate: Early Childhood Teacher Australia

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Pedagogy of Plato, the ancient Greek Philosopher

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16th Century: Universal Education Advocacy

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16th Century: Universal Education Advocacy

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Comenius introduced various educational concepts such as the first publications of educational texts in native languages rather than just in Latin. This opened the door for conversations about universal access to education. He prioritized the idea of lifelong learning and believed in teaching with gradual development. This meant that young children would start learning a basic concept that would build upon itself as the child grew older and was able to comprehend more advanced vocabulary and abstract concepts.

He was also an early advocate for hands-on learning in the early stages of learning. He theorized that children should learn through objects and tactile movements rather than just words.

Source: Moravian University. (n.d.). John Amos Comenius, Father of Modern Education | Moravian College. Www.moravian.edu. https://www.moravian.edu/about/college-history/john-amos-comenius

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1658: First Illustrated Children's Textbook

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1658: First Illustrated Children's Textbook

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In the mid 17th-century John Comenius published what many consider to be the first picture book dedicated to the education of young children.

John Amos Comenius was a leading educator and theologian from the Czech Republic. He travelled and worked throughout Europe, advocated critical and logical thinking over rote memorization, and advocated for funding education for the poor and for the tutoring of women.

Source: McNamara, C. (2014, May 14). In the image of God: John Comenius and the first children’s picture book. The Public Domain Review. Retrieved from http://publicdomainreview.org/essay/in-the-image-of-god-john-comenius-and-the-first-children-s-picture-book

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John Comenius' Orbis Sensualium Pictus (or The World of Things Obvious to the Senses drawn in Pictures) is, according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, "the first children's picture book." Originally published in 1658 in Latin and German, the Orbis -- with its 150 pictures showing everyday activities like brewing beer, tending gardens, and slaughtering animals -- is immediately familiar as an ancestor of today's children's literature. This approach centered on the visual was a breakthrough in education for the young, as was the decision to teach the vernacular in addition to Latin. Unlike treatises on education and grammatical handbooks, it is aimed directly at the young and attempts to engage on their level.

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In the Image of God: John Comenius and the First Children's Picture Book

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In the mid 17th-century John Comenius published what many consider to be the first picture book dedicated to the education of young children, Orbis Sensualium Pictus - or The World of Things Obvious to the Senses drawn in Pictures, as it was rendered in English.

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John Locke is generally remembered for his work in Enlightenment and philosophy, but he also wrote a book called "Some Thoughts Concerning Education."

John Locke is also well-known for his ideology that children are born as "blank slates," tabula rasa. In this sense, children would be imprinted upon during their education. John Locke stated that children were naturally curious and that they need to be busy. He believed that their innate curiosity should be cherished.

For instructors, he believed that instruction should vary (introducing the idea of differentiated instruction). He also states that individual differences should be praised rather than restricted. Those differences are what make our classes unique and purposeful.

Source: Gibbon, P. (2020). Discovering Childhood. The National Endowment for the Humanities. https://www.neh.gov/article/discovering-childhood

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1762: Rousseau's Natural Education Philosophy

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1762: Rousseau's Natural Education Philosophy

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau published 'Émile, or On Education,' which rejected traditional educational methods and proposed that children should learn through natural consequences and exploration rather than rigid instruction. Rousseau argued that childhood was a distinct and valuable period of life, not merely preparation for adulthood, fundamentally changing how society viewed children.

Resource: Sarkar, Madhurima & Ray, Suvendu. (2024). Rousseau's 'Emile': Unveiling Revolutionary Pedagogical Insights For Modern Education. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CREATIVE RESEARCH THOUGHTS. 12. c355-c367.

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Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi believed that everyone has the ability to learn and the right of everyone to do so. His beliefs led to education being available to everyone in Europe. He focused on "useful education." This meant teaching concepts that could be used in the betterment of one's life rather than mindless learning.

His philosophy and approach to education put an importance on the needs of a child, including a student-centered classroom environment. He advocated for active learning and direct experiences with the world.

Interestingly, he also put emphasis on the importance of the relationship between school leadership and parents. He believed in a well-rounded education that exposed children to arts, languages, science, math, and history.

He preached classroom authority based on love rather than fear.

Source: Pestalozzi Society. (2021). jhpestalozzi. Jhpestalozzi.org. https://jhpestalozzi.org/

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Friedrich Froebel opened the first kindergarten in Blankenburg, Germany. Froebel coined the term 'kindergarten' (children's garden) and developed specific materials called 'gifts' to stimulate learning through play and self-activity. His approach emphasized the importance of play in children's development and learning, a concept that remains central to early childhood education today.

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1860: First Kindergarten in the United States

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1860: First Kindergarten in the United States

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Elizabeth Peabody established the first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States in Boston, Massachusetts. Inspired by Froebel's philosophy, Peabody helped spread kindergarten education throughout America and trained teachers in Froebelian methods, laying the groundwork for early childhood education in the US.

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1896: John Dewey and the Foundations of Modern Education

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1896: John Dewey and the Foundations of Modern Education

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John Dewey's work on early childhood education began in 1896 when he founded the experimental University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, where he applied his progressive educational theories to children.

John Dewey introduced the idea that teachers must act as facilitators, helping learners connect prior knowledge to new contexts. This framework forms the basis of how we think, both in education and in everyday life. Dewey didn't want passive learners; he wanted problem-solvers, collaborators, and citizens.

Dewey’s educational philosophy emphasises:

Learning by doing: Children learn best through direct, hands-on experiences.

Democratic education: Classrooms should mirror democratic societies, encouraging participation and collaboration.

Reflective thinking: Children should be encouraged to reflect on their experiences to deepen understanding.

Source: Brodie, K. (2024, July 28). John Dewey: Pioneering theories on early years education. Early Years TV. Retrieved from https://www.earlyyears.tv/john-dewey-pioneering-theories-on-early-years-education

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John Dewey: Pioneering Theories on Early Years Education

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Discover John Dewey’s enduring impact on early education. Explore practical applications of his theories for nurturing young minds in modern classrooms.

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1907: Montessori Method through Casa dei Bambini

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1907: Montessori Method through Casa dei Bambini

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Maria Montessori transformed early childhood education by promoting self-directed, hands-on learning within a carefully prepared environment, where children progress at their own pace while the teacher serves as a guide rather than a traditional authority figure. Her approach emphasizes nurturing independence, focus, and intrinsic motivation, enabling children to develop their potential during key developmental “sensitive periods.” First introduced in the early 1900s through her school Casa dei Bambini, the Montessori method continues to influence education worldwide, fostering holistic growth in young learners.

Today, Montessori approaches can be seen in:

1. Montessori schools worldwide – both private and public institutions that fully adopt the method.

2. Early childhood classrooms – where learning centers, hands-on materials, and individualized pacing are integrated.

3. Special education programs – which use Montessori strategies to support diverse learners and encourage independence.

4. Homeschooling practices – families applying Montessori principles through prepared home environments and self-directed activities.

5. Teacher training centers – where educators study Montessori philosophy and practices to bring into their own classrooms.

Sources:

American Montessori Society. (n.d.). History of Montessori. Retrieved [Month Day, Year], from https://amshq.org/about-montessori/history-of-montessori/

Howley-Rouse, A. (2020, June 29). The Montessori approach. The Education Hub. Retrieved from https://theeducationhub.org.nz/the-montessori-approach/

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The Montessori approach - THE EDUCATION HUB

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An introduction to the key components of the Montessori approach to early childhood education.

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1918: U.S. Compulsory School Attendance Laws

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1918: U.S. Compulsory School Attendance Laws

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In 1852, the General Court of Massachusetts enacted the first compulsory attendance law in the US. Mississippi was the last state to enact such laws in 1918, when it became a national baseline.

The first version of these laws stated that children between ages 8-14 were required to attend some sort of public school in the area where the student lives. By 1918, these laws also applied to students aged 5 and above.

The purpose of compulsory attendance laws was to increase literacy rates AND to reduce the number of people that were unable to attend school based on proximity to school or financial hardships. This was also a way to assimilate the immigrant population to American culture.

In the grand scheme, compulsory attendance is still a new concept and will likely to continue to see growth and changes in coming decades.

Source: Education Blog | Barton Gilman. (2018, May 7). Bglaw.com. https://bglaw.com/the-education-reform-primer-the-origin-of-school-attendance-laws-in-the-united-states/

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1920s: The Project Method by William Kilpatrick

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1920s: The Project Method by William Kilpatrick

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William Heard Kilpatrick, a student of John Dewey, developed and popularized the Project Method in early education. This approach organized learning around projects that reflected children's interests and real-world problems. Kilpatrick's method emphasized purposeful activity in a social environment, influencing how educators thought about curriculum development for young children.

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1926: Introduction of the Reggio Emilia Approach

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1926: Introduction of the Reggio Emilia Approach

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Loris Malaguzzi began developing what would become the Reggio Emilia approach after World War II in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy. This approach views children as capable, strong, and full of potential, with the capacity to build their own learning. The Reggio philosophy emphasizes documentation of children's work, parental involvement, and the environment as a 'third teacher.'

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A brief overview of the different stages of personality development as expanded upon by Erik Erikson.

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Erikson's beliefs were similar to those of influential figures that came before him. However, unlike many of those people, Erikson believed that a child's personality will continue to grow and develop well past the age of 5.

The basis of Erikson's beliefs were rooted in the changes that occur in personality at different ages. Depending on the age of the individual, different personality attributes can be acquired. However, according to Erikson at the final stage, not everyone will adapt to this stage.

He also believed that the development of personality was directly dependent upon trust, autonomy, individuality, integrity, and identity. He expanded upon the 5 original stages of development (developed by Freud) to create 8 stages. The stages he added helped to describe life after early childhood and how the interactions at that age affect those that follow.

Source: Harvard University. (2019). Erik Erikson. Harvard.edu. https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/erik-erikson

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Lawrence Kohlberg developed his stages of moral development based on his 1958 doctoral dissertation at the University of Chicago, inspired by Jean Piaget's work on cognitive development. While his theory provides a framework for understanding moral reasoning across ages, it is most relevant to Early Childhood Education (ECE) because children in these years typically reach only the "good boy/good girl" stage (Stage 3), making it crucial for educators to understand their developmental level for effective character education.

Source:

Sanders, C. E. (2025, June 18). Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/Lawrence-Kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development

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Key Takeaways

Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood.

He grouped these stages into three broad categories of moral reasoning, pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.

Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed order and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive development.

Heinz Dilemma

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.

He used Piaget's storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual unfairly treated.

After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg categorized their responses into different stages of moral reasoning.

Using children's responses to a series of moral dilemmas, Kohlberg established that the reasoning behind the decision was a greater indication of moral development than the actual answer.

One of the best-known of Kohlberg's (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.

Heinz's wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.

The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist's and stole the drug.

Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?

3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?

4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman dies?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions, Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older.

The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10-16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).

Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. Kohlberg was interested not in whether the boys judged the action right or wrong but in the reasons for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level has two sub-stages.

People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.

Preconventional
1. Avoiding Punishment

Moral reasoning is based on direct consequences.

Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal, and he could be punished.

2. Self-Interest

Actions are seen in terms of rewards rather than moral value.

Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal, and he could be punished.

Conventional
3. Good boy attitude

Good behavior is about living up to social expectations and roles.

Heinz should steal the drug because, as a good husband, he is expected to do whatever he can to save his wife.

4. Law & Order Morality

Moral reasoning considers societal laws.

Heinz should not steal the drug because he must uphold the law and maintain societal order.

Postconventional
5. Social Contract

Rules are seen as social agreements that can be changed when necessary.

Heinz should steal the drug because preserving human life is a more fundamental value than property rights.

6. Universal Principles

Moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and justice.

Heinz should consider non-violent civil disobedience or negotiation with the pharmacist. The decision reflects a conflict between property rights and the sanctity of human life.

Level 1 - Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the first level of moral development, lasting until approximately age 8. During this level, children accept the authority (and moral code) of others.

Preconventional morality is when people follow rules because they don't want to get in trouble or they want to get a reward. This level of morality is mostly based on what authority figures like parents or teachers tell you to do rather than what you think is right or wrong.

Authority is outside the individual, and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions.

For example, if an action leads to punishment, it must be bad; if it leads to a reward, it must be good.

So, people at this level don't have their own personal sense of right and wrong yet. They think that something is good if they get rewarded for it and bad if they get punished for it.

For example, if you get candy for behaving, you think you were good, but if you get a scolding for misbehaving, you think you were bad.

At the preconventional level, children don't have a personal code of morality. Instead, moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional Morality

Conventional morality is the adolescent phase of moral development focused on societal norms and external expectations to discern right from wrong, often grounded in tradition, cultural practices, or established codes of conduct.

We internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models at the conventional level (most adolescents and adults).

Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the group's norms to which the person belongs.

A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships and social order is seen as desirable and must influence our view of right and wrong.

So, people who follow conventional morality believe that it's important to follow society's rules and expectations to maintain order and prevent problems.

For example, refusing to cheat on a test is a part of conventional morality because cheating can harm the academic system and create societal problems.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

Stage 4. Law and Order Morality. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules to uphold the law and avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Postconventional Morality

Postconventional morality is the third level of moral development and is characterized by an individual's understanding of universal ethical principles.

Postconventional morality is when people decide based on what they think is right rather than just following the rules of society. This means that people at this level of morality have their own ethical principles and values and don't just do what society tells them to do.

At this level, people think about what is fair, what is just, and what values are important.

What is considered morally acceptable in any given situation is determined by what is the response most in keeping with these principles.

They also think about how their choices might affect others and try to make good decisions for everyone, not just themselves.

Values are abstract and ill-defined but might include: the preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.

According to Kohlberg, this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get.

Only 10-15% are capable of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them, and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.

The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality.

The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment.

Kohlberg doubted few people had reached this stage.

Problems with Kohlberg's Methods

1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e., they lack ecological validity)

Most dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people (Rosen, 1980). For example, it is all very well in the Heinz dilemma, asking subjects whether Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife.

However, Kohlberg's subjects were aged between 10 and 16. They have never been married, and never been placed in a situation remotely like the one in the story.

How should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug?

2. The sample is biased

Kohlberg's (1969) theory suggested males more frequently progress beyond stage four in moral development, implying females lacked moral reasoning skills.

His research assistant, Carol Gilligan, disputed this, who argued that women's moral reasoning differed, not deficient.

She criticized Kohlberg's theory for focusing solely on upper-class white males, arguing women value interpersonal connections. For instance, women often oppose theft in the Heinz dilemma due to potential repercussions, such as separation from his wife if Heinz is imprisoned.

Gilligan (1982) conducted new studies interviewing both men and women, finding women more often emphasized care, relationships and context rather than abstract rules. Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's theory overlooked this relational "different voice" in morality.

According to Gilligan (1977), because Kohlberg's theory was based on an all-male sample, the stages reflect a male definition of morality (it's androcentric).

Men's morality is based on abstract principles of law and justice, while women's is based on principles of compassion and care.

Further, the gender bias issue raised by Gilligan is a reminder of the significant gender debate still present in psychology, which, when ignored, can greatly impact the results obtained through psychological research.

3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e., they are not real)

Kohlberg's approach to studying moral reasoning relied heavily on his semi-structured moral judgment interview. Participants were presented with hypothetical moral dilemmas, and their justifications were analyzed to determine their stage of moral reasoning.

Some critiques of Kohlberg's method are that it lacks ecological validity, removes reasoning from real-life contexts, and defines morality narrowly in terms of justice reasoning.

Psychologists concur with Kohlberg's moral development theory, yet emphasize the difference between moral reasoning and behavior.

What we claim we'd do in a hypothetical situation often differs from our actions when faced with the actual circumstance. In essence, our actions might not align with our proclaimed values.

In a real situation, what course of action a person takes will have real consequences - and sometimes very unpleasant ones for themselves. Would subjects reason in the same way if they were placed in a real situation? We don't know.

The fact that Kohlberg's theory is heavily dependent on an individual's response to an artificial dilemma questions the validity of the results obtained through this research.

People may respond very differently to real-life situations that they find themselves in than they do to an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort of a research environment.

4. Poor research design

How Kohlberg carried out his research when constructing this theory may not have been the best way to test whether all children follow the same sequence of stage progression.

His research was cross-sectional, meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to see their moral development level.

A better way to see if all children follow the same order through the stages would be to conduct longitudinal research on the same children.

However, longitudinal research on Kohlberg's theory has since been carried out by Colby et al. (1983), who tested 58 male participants of Kohlberg's original study.

She tested them six times in 27 years and supported Kohlberg's original conclusion, which is that we all pass through the stages of moral development in the same order.

Contemporary research employs more diverse methods beyond Kohlberg's interview approach, such as narrative analysis, to study moral experience. These newer methods aim to understand moral reasoning and development within authentic contexts and experiences.

Tappan and colleagues (1996) promote a narrative approach that examines how individuals construct stories and identities around moral experiences. This draws from the sociocultural tradition of examining identity in context. Tappan argues narrative provides a more contextualized understanding of moral development.

Colby and Damon's (1992) empirical research uses in-depth life story interviews to study moral exemplars - people dedicated to moral causes. Instead of hypothetical dilemmas, they ask participants to describe real moral challenges and commitments. Their goal is to respect exemplars as co-investigators of moral meaning-making.

Walker and Pitts' (1995) studies use open-ended interviews asking people to discuss real-life moral dilemmas and reflect on the moral domain in their own words. This elicits more naturalistic conceptions of morality compared to Kohlberg's abstract decontextualized approach.

Problems with Kohlberg's Theory

1. Are there distinct stages of moral development?

Kohlberg claims there are, but the evidence does not always support this conclusion.

For example, a person who justified a decision based on principled reasoning in one situation (postconventional morality stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on conventional reasoning (stage 3 or 4) with another story.

In practice, it seems that reasoning about right and wrong depends more on the situation than on general rules. Moreover, individuals do not always progress through the stages, and Rest (1979) found that one in fourteen slipped backward.

The evidence for distinct stages of moral development looks very weak. Some would argue that behind the theory is a culturally biased belief in the superiority of American values over those of other cultures and societies.

Gilligan (1982) did not dismiss developmental psychology or morality. She acknowledged that children undergo moral development in stages and even praised Kohlberg's stage logic as "brilliant" (Jorgensen, 2006, p. 186). However, she preferred Erikson's model over the more rigid Piagetian stages.

While Gilligan supported Kohlberg's stage theory as rational, she expressed discomfort with its structural descriptions that lacked context.

She also raised concerns about the theory's universality, pointing out that it primarily reflected Western culture (Jorgensen, 2006, pp. 187-188).

Neo-Kohlbergian Schema Model

Rest and colleagues (199) have developed a theoretical model building on but moving beyond Kohlberg's stage-based approach to moral development. Their model outlines four components of moral behavior: moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character.

For the moral judgment component, Rest et al. propose that individuals use moral schemas rather than progress through discrete stages of moral reasoning.

Schemas are generalized knowledge structures that help us interpret information and situations. An individual can have multiple schemas available to make sense of moral issues, rather than being constrained to a single developmental stage.

Some examples of moral schemas proposed by Rest and colleagues include:

Personal Interest Schema - focused on individual interests and preferences

Maintaining Norms Schema - emphasizes following rules and norms

Postconventional Schema - considers moral ideals and principles

Rather than viewing development as movement to higher reasoning stages, the neo-Kohlbergian approach sees moral growth as acquiring additional, more complex moral schemas. Lower schemas are not replaced, but higher order moral schemas become available to complement existing ones.

The schema concept attempts to address critiques of the stage model, such as its rigidity and lack of context sensitivity. Using schemas allows for greater flexibility and integration of social factors into moral reasoning.

2. Does moral judgment match moral behavior?

Kohlberg never claimed that there would be a one-to-one correspondence between thinking and acting (what we say and what we do), but he does suggest that the two are linked.

However, Bee (1994) suggests that we also need to take into account of:

a) habits that people have developed over time.

b) whether people see situations as demanding their participation.

c) the costs and benefits of behaving in a particular way.

d) competing motive such as peer pressure, self-interest and so on.

Overall, Bee points out that moral behavior is only partly a question of moral reasoning. It also has to do with social factors.

3. Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?

This is Kohlberg's view. However, Gilligan (1977) suggests that the principle of caring for others is equally important. Furthermore, Kohlberg claims that the moral reasoning of males has often been in advance of that of females.

Girls are often found to be at stage 3 in Kohlberg's system (good boy-nice girl orientation), whereas boys are more often found to be at stage 4 (Law and Order orientation). Gilligan (p. 484) replies:

"The very traits that have traditionally defined the goodness of women, their care for and sensitivity to the needs of others, are those that mark them out as deficient in moral development".

In other words, Gilligan claims that there is a sex bias in Kohlberg's theory. He neglects the feminine voice of compassion, love, and non-violence, which is associated with the socialization of girls.

Gilligan concluded that Kohlberg's theory did not account for the fact that women approach moral problems from an 'ethics of care', rather than an 'ethics of justice' perspective, which challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of Kohlberg's theory.

In contrast to Kohlberg's impersonal "ethics of justice", Gilligan proposed an alternative "ethics of care" grounded in compassion and responsiveness to needs within relationships (Gilligan, 1982).

Her care perspective highlights emotion, empathy and understanding over detached logic. Gilligan saw care and justice ethics as complementary moral orientations.

Walker et al. (1995) found everyday moral conflicts often revolve around relationships rather than justice; individuals describe relying more on intuition than moral reasoning in dilemmas. This raises questions about the centrality of reasoning in moral functioning.

4. Do people make rational moral decisions?

Kohlbeg's theory emphasizes rationality and logical decision-making at the expense of emotional and contextual factors in moral decision-making.

One significant criticism is that Kohlberg's emphasis on reason can create an image of the moral person as cold and detached from real-life situations.

Carol Gilligan critiqued Kohlberg's theory as overly rationalistic and not accounting for care-based morality commonly found in women. She argued for a "different voice" grounded in relationships and responsiveness to particular individuals.

The criticism suggests that by portraying moral reasoning as primarily cognitive and detached from emotional and situational factors, Kohlberg's theory oversimplifies real-life moral decision-making, which often involves emotions, social dynamics, cultural nuances, and practical constraints.

Critics contend that his model does not adequately capture the multifaceted nature of morality in the complexities of everyday life.

References

Bee, H. L. (1994). Lifespan development. HarperCollins College Publishers.

Blum, L. A. (1988). Gilligan and Kohlberg: Implications for moral theory. Ethics, 98(3), 472-491.

Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., & Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48 (1-2, Serial No. 200). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Day, J. M., & Tappan, M. B. (1996). The narrative approach to moral development: From the epistemic subject to dialogical selves. Human Development, 39(2), 67-82.

Gilligan, C. (1977). In a different voice: Women's conceptions of self and of morality. Harvard Educational Review, 47(4), 481-517.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Harvard University Press.

Gilligan, C. (1995). Hearing the difference: Theorizing connection. Hypatia, 10(2), 120-127.

Jorgensen, G. (2006). Kohlberg and Gilligan: duet or duel?. Journal of Moral Education, 35(2), 179-196.

Kohlberg, L. (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Chicago.

Kohlberg, L. (1984). The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages (Essays on Moral Development, Volume 2). Harper & Row

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.

Rest, J. R. (1979). Development in judging moral issues. University of Minnesota Press.

Rosen, B. (1980). Moral dilemmas and their treatment. In, Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg. B. Munsey (Ed). (1980), pp. 232-263. Birmingham, Alabama: Religious Education Press.

Walker, L. J., Pitts, R. C., Hennig, K. H., & Matsuba, M. K. (1995). Reasoning about morality and real-life moral problems.

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Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood. According to Kohlberg, these stages are grouped into three separate levels known as preconventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.

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1960s: Head Start Program in the United States

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1960s: Head Start Program in the United States

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The Head Start program was established in 1965 as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty. This federally funded program provided comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. Head Start represented a significant government investment in early childhood education and continues to serve millions of children today.

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1963: Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

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1963: Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

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According to Piaget's theory, children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development. Consequently, education should be stage-specific, with curricula developed to match the age and stage of thinking of the child.

Key Concepts and Their Educational Impact

Active Construction of Knowledge:Piaget believed children actively construct their own understanding of the world through interaction with their environment. Early childhood educators should create environments where children can explore, manipulate objects, and experiment to build their knowledge.

Developmental Stages:Piaget's theory outlines four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational), each with distinct cognitive abilities. Educators use these stages to:

Align instruction: Tailor learning experiences to the child's current developmental level.

Provide appropriate materials: Offer concrete materials for younger children and hands-on activities like baking for older children to learn concepts like volume.

Sources:

Celinska, A. (2023). An introduction to Jean Piaget. The Voice of Early Childhood. Retrieved from https://thevoiceofearlychildhood.com/introduction-jean-piaget/

rienewsite. (2023, April 22). Jean Piaget’s way of seeing and RIE®. Resources for Infant Educarers®. Retrieved from https://rie.org/jean-piagets-way-of-seeing-and-rie/

The Voice of Early Childhood. (n.d.). Jean Piaget. Early childhood pioneers. Retrieved August 30, 2025, from https://thevoiceofearlychildhood.com/early-childhood-pioneers/jean-piaget-2/

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Congress enacted the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, also known as the EHA, in 1975.

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1975: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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1975: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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This law is the foundation of protecting the educational rights of our nation's children. Before the EHA, only 1 in 5 children with disabilities were educated by the state. Many states even had laws that prohibited students with certain kinds of disabilities from being able to enroll in their schools, including students were were deaf, blind, or had an intellectual disability.

The passing of this law has been instrumental in the improvement of early intervention, special education, and other related services.

IDEA can be credited with improvements to high school graduation rates, post-secondary enrollment, and employment for students that benefited from the program. IDEA applies to all students and particularly takes interest in early intervention. This early intervention often takes place in the early childhood states of development.

Source: U.S. Department of Education. (2023, January 11). A History of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/IDEA-History#1980s-90s

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1978: Vygotsky's Social Development Theory

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1978: Vygotsky's Social Development Theory

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Lev Vygotsky's work 'Mind in Society' was published in English, introducing his social development theory to Western education. Though Vygotsky had worked decades earlier, his ideas about the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding became influential in early childhood education during this period. His theory emphasized the critical role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development.

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1983: Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner

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1983: Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner

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Harvard Univerisity Professor, Howard Gardner, introduced the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, which argues against a single measure of IQ and instead identifies various forms of intelligence. The theory suggests that people learn and process information in different ways, with each individual possessing a unique combination of intelligences.

Key Takeaways:

Children learn in different ways, so the more you know the child and which form of intelligence they demonstrate, the easier it is to stimulate and expose them to a variety of ways to learn, to make learning more enjoyable and efficient

Offering a variety of teaching pathways in lessons is important to capture more of the intelligences, and engage children to better understand and learn

Through environments offering a variety of stimulating, hands-on materials that children individually select, and by creating opportunities to move, be active, and fully engage in either solo or small group experiences, educators can better serve and meet the needs of more children.

Source:

CareForKids.com.au. (2020, October 13). The educational angle on Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. CareForKids. Retrieved from https://www.careforkids.com.au/child-care-provider-articles/article/728/the-educational-angle-on-gardners-theory-of-multiple-intelligences/

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The educational angle on Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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This article describes Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences, which challenges the idea of a single IQ and suggests that there are variety of different intelligences, each which requires a different style of teaching.

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1990s: Neuroscience Research Impacts Early Education

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1990s: Neuroscience Research Impacts Early Education

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Advances in brain imaging technology led to new research on early brain development, confirming the critical importance of the first five years of life. Studies demonstrated how early experiences shape brain architecture and emphasized the importance of rich stimulation and nurturing relationships in early childhood. This research provided scientific support for investment in quality early childhood education.

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Ken Robinson delivered a TEDTalk about creativity that sparked conversations in the world of education.

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In 2006, Ken Robinson gave a TEDTalk called, "Do Schools Kill Creativity?" The talk was viewed millions of times and is regarded as one of the most famous TEDTalks ever.

He highlighted that creativity is just as important as literacy. He argues that many school systems only value math and language arts and we see the arts cast aside. The fear of being wrong and making mistakes is keeping our students from trying new things and coming up with their own ideas.

He explored the idea that modern educational systems were constructed to prepare its students for jobs. Because of this focus, education is focused on standards and routines rather than fostering student imagination.

Robinson also stated that intelligence is different among different people. Everyone has their own unique talents, interests, and ways of thinking.

Robinson believes that students are naturally creative and imaginative. Schools in the future should focus on fostering the growth of their creativity alongside their standard math and language arts.

Source: Robinson, K. (2006, February). Do schools kill creativity? Ted.com; TED Talks. https://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_schools_kill_creativity?language=en

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2000s: Rise of Technology in Early Childhood Education

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2000s: Rise of Technology in Early Childhood Education

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The integration of digital technology into early childhood classrooms began to transform teaching and learning experiences. Interactive whiteboards, tablets, and educational software designed specifically for young children became increasingly common tools. This period saw debates about appropriate technology use for young children, leading to guidelines from organizations like the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).

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The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), a major federal education law from 2001–2015, focused on accountability, standards, and did not directly focus on early childhood education, but its principles aimed to ensure all children had access to quality education and support, including disadvantaged students and those with limited English proficiency. While NCLB primarily targeted K-12 education, its goal of ensuring every child could learn and was supported led to increased funding and resources for students who might otherwise be left behind, which could indirectly benefit early learning efforts.

Source:

Understood Team. (n.d.). No Child Left Behind (NCLB): What you need to know. Understood. Retrieved August 30, 2025, from https://www.understood.org/en/articles/no-child-left-behind-nclb-what-you-need-to-know

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No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was an education law in effect from 2002–2015. Learn what NCLB covered, like school accountability, and why NCLB was controversial.

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Students feel a variety of emotions and at the early childhood stage, many of these students are unable to name and identify these emotions.

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Social and emotional learning (SEL) is the practice of allowing students to develop certain social and emotional skills that will enable the child to excel in school and at home.

At this age, a big portion of these skills revolve around identifying, managing, and controlling emotions. As the student grows competent with these skills, they will practice decision-making, developing self-esteem, creating goals, self-control, and ways to live a healthier and happier life.

The emphasis on social/emotional learning in early childhood education has become more profound over the last few years. These lessons help students become better equipped to deal with friends, disappointments, hardships, and difficulties both at school and home.

Current scholars believe that emphasis on SEL in daily classroom routines can help educators create a positive environment that allows academic and personal growth.

Source: Gregory, L. (2024, April 11). Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Activities in Early Childhood. Mybrightwheel.com. https://mybrightwheel.com/blog/social-and-emotional-learning

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2010s: U.S. Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 

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2010s: U.S. Common Core State Standards (CCSS) 

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The U.S. Common Core State Standards (CCSS) set K–12 expectations in English and math but lacked national preschool alignment, leaving states to maintain varied early learning standards. The NAEYC provides resources to help bridge this gap, ensuring developmentally appropriate early childhood education that prepares children for a smooth transition to kindergarten.

Source:

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2012). The Common Core State Standards: Caution and opportunity for early childhood education. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/topics/11_commoncore1_2a_rv2.pdf

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Social-Emotional Learning (SEL): Became a key research and policy priority; programs like CASEL and Second Step promoted SEL as essential alongside academics.

COVID-19 Pandemic (2020): Shifted focus to remote learning, family involvement, and the digital divide; emphasized the importance of childcare as essential infrastructure.

21st Century Skills (creativity, collaboration, communication, critical thinking) – integrated into ECE curricula worldwide.

STEM/STEAM in Early Years: Research supports introducing science, technology, engineering, arts, and math through play and inquiry-based learning.

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy – addressing diverse learner backgrounds in globalized classrooms.

Executive Function Research – focus on self-regulation, attention, and working memory as predictors of lifelong success. Program like Zones of Regulation or Six Bricks focus on these skills.

Sources:

Yildiz, S. (2022). Early childhood education during the COVID-19 outbreak. PMC. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8980793/

Thornhill-Miller, B. (2023). Creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration: Educational challenges posed by the future of work. PMC. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10054602/

Atikah, C. (2024). STEAM-based learning to enhance early childhood creativity. ResearchGate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377996372_STEAM-based_Learning_to_Enhance_Early_Childhood_Creativity

Price, C. L. (2016). Culturally responsive strategies to support young children. NAEYC. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/nov2016/culturally-responsive-strategies

Blair, C. (2016). Executive function and early childhood education. PMC. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6051751/

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In early childhood, we encourage STEAM teaching to integrate these subject areas within a meaningful context.