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Anti-Colonial nationalism as a cause of the Congo conflict

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Anti-Colonial nationalism as a cause of the Congo conflict

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Fierce nationalistic sentiments arising from centuries of colonial exploitation.

Led to expedited process of independence --> with Congolese leaders pressuring Belgians to agree to indep by June 1960, instead of 30 year timeline at the round table talks. Congolese unprepared for independence/ self governance

Nationalistic sentiments --> also contributing to a divided social order that led to the beginning of the crisis. Competing visions for an independent Congo, especially within the military between White officers and the Black enlisted ranks led to the Force Publique Mutiny. ie. "Before indep = After indep." writing on blackboard by Janssens. Led to the intiial instability that brought down Lumumba govt.

Nationalistic sentiments --> held by the central govt, ie MNC-L also gave rise to later tensions with Katanganese over the status of mineral resources. In essence, it become an equal contributing factor to the conflicting visions between federalism and nationalism that gave rise to the secessionists movements in the later time period of the Congo crisis

Hence --> anti-colonial sentiments a cause of the Congo crisis by inflaming existing divisions in multiple ways presented above

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Lumumba wanted centralised rule; Kasavubu and Tshombe preferred federalism.

long term political fragmentation saw congo’s internal power struggle that resulted in the prolonging of conflict

Fragmented politics

1. Radicals

Wanted to create nationally oriented and mass-based political parties, seeing independence as a means to benefit ordinary people economically and socially

Espoused pan-African ideal of African unity, and Bandung principle of non-alignment (decolonisation context)

Preferred strong central government

2. Moderates

Including Joseph Kasavubu, MT and Joseph Mobutu → more willing to accept Western Tutelage, and enjoyed high levels of support from Belgians and other Western governments

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Initially, decolonisation was a root cause that kickstarted the conflict.

Belgium granted independence abruptly and had almost no trained administrators (for example there were less than 20 uni graduates in Congo) this led to instability in the country, so there was a need for foreign colonials to continue interfering to guide locals.

Forced Publique Mutiny: guise for Belgium to intervene militarily although initially meant to guide the locals to eventually take over their role

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Ethnic nationalism: Bakongo vs Upper River (Kasavubu and ABAKO)

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Ethnic nationalism: Bakongo vs Upper River (Kasavubu and ABAKO)

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ABAKO grew from an ethnic association of the Bakongo, which initially sought to promote the use of the Kikongo language in the Leopoldville province, against the dominance of the Lingala language of the Upper River people.

1. The Lingala language was predominantly used in colonial communications with the Congolese and subsequently amongst the Congolese themselves. As members of the Bakongo moved into Leopoldville, the use of Lingala persisted despite the growing population of the Bakongo in the capital.

2. The ABAKO movement became politicised in 1954 under Kasavubu. Kasavubu associated Lingala and the Upper River people with colonial rule, which allowed him to develop his movement's opposition to colonial rule along ethno-linguistic lines. Specifically, Kasavubu denounced the colonial administration for favouring the Upper River people and claimed that colonial conquest had fractured the unity of the ancient Kongo kingdom. This had to be corrected by a struggle against them and the colonisers.

3. ﻿﻿The leaders of the Upper River people (Comite des
Federations des Gens du Haut) responded by denouncing ABAKO.

Hence, ethnic differences (exacerbated by colonial rule divide and rule strategy) —> led to the rise of nationalist sentiments and fuelled the rise of Kasavubu’s political credibility (as he drew support from the Bakongo people)

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Antagonism between Lumumba and Kasavubu led to poltiical instability and further aggravetd the conflcit

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Antagonism between Lumumba and Kasavubu led to poltiical instability and further aggravetd the conflcit

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The secession of Katanga and South Kasai worsened divisions between President Kasavubu and Prime Minister Lumumba, undermining national unity, leading to political instability which further protracted the Congo war

On 5 September 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba, but Parliament rejected the move. Lumumba retaliated by attempting to dismiss Kasavubu, creating a constitutional deadlock.

This power vacuum enabled army chief Mobutu to stage a coup on 14 September, claiming neutrality but effectively aligning with U.S. and Belgian interests.

With both leaders sidelined, the central government collapsed into paralysis, deepening instability and prolonging the conflict.

Mobutu expelled Soviet and Czech advisors, stripping Lumumba of foreign support. Both Kasavubu and Lumumba sent rival delegations to the UN, blocking diplomatic resolution.

Lumumba’s eventual arrest, transfer to Katanga, and assassination in January 1961—reportedly with U.S. and Belgian involvement—sparked outrage and further fragmentation.

His death radicalised supporters and removed hopes of national reconciliation, entrenching factionalism and dragging out the Congo Crisis into a prolonged civil conflict.

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SUPERPOWERS: initially somewhat to blame but not entirely, contributing to instability but not to blame

USSR: The Soviets viewed Lumumba’s election as a diplomatic opportunity, believing he favored their interests. They supported his demands for full independence, national unity, and Belgian troop withdrawal, offering economic and technical aid, and warning on 25 June that Belgium aimed to remove him. Lumumba’s acceptance of Soviet diplomatic representation signaled alignment with Moscow’s strategic goals in Africa.

USA: The Eisenhower administration felt unprepared, fearing Lumumba’s openness to communism. The US embassy in Brussels advised keeping Force Publique under Belgian command to avoid Soviet takeover. Amid Cold War anxieties, especially after Cuba’s 1959 revolution, the US saw Congo as a key Cold War battleground, despite discomfort over Belgium’s mishandling of decolonisation.

,increased responsibility later on, to blame bc of direct involvement + lumumba pushed towards soviets

On 14 September 1960, Army Chief Joseph Mobutu staged a coup with CIA and Belgian backing, claiming “neutralisation” of both leaders but aligning with Kasavubu’s pro-Western stance.

After the UN refused to support Lumumba’s plan to end secession, he appealed directly to the USA in mid-1960, requesting economic aid, transport planes, and political pressure on Belgium to withdraw.

The US rebuffed all requests, insisting any assistance would be channelled only through the UN, a move that frustrated Lumumba and reinforced perceptions of US alignment with colonial interests.

Facing diplomatic isolation, Lumumba turned to the USSR on 15 August 1960, asking for help to crush the Katanga and South Kasai secessions—thus fulfilling US fears of his Soviet leanings.

The USSR responded with limited logistical aid: trucks, planes, and technicians—avoiding overt military involvement but seizing the opportunity to back anti-colonial leaders in the Cold War contest.

For the USSR, this was not about friendship but about positioning itself as the voice of the Third World, exploiting the decolonisation wave to expand its ideological sphere of influence.

After Lumumba’s assassination, the Kennedy administration shifted policy to promote anti-colonial self-determination and distance itself from Belgian influence.

The US feared Congo would drift toward the Soviet bloc, especially after Lumumba’s death boosted Soviet standing as anti-imperialist champions.

The US backed Cyrille Adoula as Prime Minister in 1961, covertly funding his CIA-linked candidacy; he formed a coalition with Antoine Gizenga, Lumumba’s ally.

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The hasty manner in which decolonisation was carried out by colonial powers triggered hostilities which fuelled the outbreak and sustaining of the Congo Crisis 

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The hasty manner in which decolonisation was carried out by colonial powers triggered hostilities which fuelled the outbreak and sustaining of the Congo Crisis 

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Historical roots of ethnocentric division extend to the slave raids in 19th century, where Baluba fled SE Kasai to Central and West Kasai, inhabited by the Lulua -> perceived as an imposition on their territory.

Baluba more receptive to colonial tutelage having fled from original homeland, attending church and schools of Belgian missionaries. Belgians perpetuated stereotypes of Baluba being “hardworking and progressive”, creating a Baluba elite

Lulua leaders formulate plan to evict Baluba back to South Kasai -> colonial divide and conquer crystallised tensions, resulting in the Lulua-Baluba war in October 1959

Anti-Baluba violence set context for MNC-K to advocate for homeland for Baluba in South Kasai and secession attempts -> desire for a distinct Baluba nation state

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Generally, Congo is naturally rich in resources and minerals, especially for the land of Katanga, where it is accounted for 75% of Congo’s mineral output and approximately 50% of total national resources. As such many Western Powers, primarily Belgium and later on like the USA, wanted to exploit on these resources and maintained financial and military ties to protect their mining interests. Hence, even when Congo gained their independence 30th June 1960, Western states support Katanga leaders like Tshombe, who has political presence and would allow continued economic and mining access. Although Lumumba did not want any foreign influence in Congo, however, there were other leaders, such as Tshombe, who wanted the support of Western powers so as to uplift the illiterate Congo population into independence. This led to the seccession of Katanga, which was fuelled by the conflict of interest between Lumumba, the radicals (who wanted Western powers out of Congo) versus the moderate (who wanted Western support for independence). This conflict of interest domestically, paired with the financial incentives that Congo brings to the economies of Western powers, resulted in the intensification of the conflict, seen initially during the Katanga Secession in 11 Jul 1960. Thereby showing that economic interests were intertwined with the outbreak othe Congo Crisis, serving as motivation for

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Clash between Secessionist Leaders and Central Government

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Clash between Secessionist Leaders and Central Government

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secessionist leaders like kalonji and tshombe wanted independence for their respective territories

clashed with central government (lumumba and kasavubu) as they wanted katanga and south kasai to come under their administration

the conflict between the aims of these respective leaders aggravated tensions in the Congo as those in power were unable to come to a compromise regarding the administration of their territories and only exacerbated the inefficiency of the government which made it even more susceptible to foreign interference

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Kwilu rebellion-- Pierre Mulele started resistance and rebellion after stint in China learning guerilla warfare tactics, inspired by Maoist Communism that he experienced in China. Kwilu rebellion also enjoyed support of China in the form of arms, ammunition and training

Sino-Soviet tensions -- difference in attitude regarding both Simba and Kwilu rebellions (China sent support as did Soviets, but Soviets were more unoptimistic and reluctant to support movements) C&C (continuity): Even after Brezhnev took over, the USSR kept its distance from directly supporting the rebellions, East Germany supplied military logistics worth 3 million deutsche marks

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1. At the start of the conflict, Katanga secession —> Tshombe’s thirst for power was the trigger for Lumumba to bring in Cold War rivalry which escalated the conflict (#C&E)

2. Power struggle between local leaders (Lumumba vs Kasavubu) —> chose each other as opps —> unstable internal political environment, that created the opportunity for Mobutu to successfully launch a coup, contributed to prolonging of the conflict

3. Simba and Kwilu Rebellion led by Lumumbists —> escalated the conflict as US and Belgian became directly involved through initiatives like Operation Dragon Rogue thus they contributed to escalation and prolonging of the conflict

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Belgian economic interests, especially in Katanga and their rich pool of resources, led to economic exploitation which agitated the Congolese resulting in protraction of the Congo Conflict.

The importance of Katanga was how it was an integral part of the multinational corporate empire established in Southern Africa before WWI under the British. The integration of this mineral rich province laid the foundations for the Katanga secession on 11 July 1960. Most of the skilled workers in the early years of mining exploitation in Katanga were white settlers from the south. They brought with them values and behaviour that reinforced the racism of the Belgian colonial authorities. With white South Africans and Rhodesians as their reference groups, Belgians settlers sought to create a colonial settler system and to subordinate the political economy of the province for their own interests. In order to retain their interests, the settlers needed black allies to be their frontal disguise for them in an

international climate that advocated for independence in the African continent. Tshombe was one of these Africans and the political party Conakat. Conakat was founded on the premise that the wealth of the mineral rich Katanga province should benefit mainly the authentic Katangese or those native to the province. A pro-secessionist party, Conakat was basically the voice of white settlers through African mouths. As such, economic motivations largely characterised the decisions of white settlers of Katanga to break away from Congo. July 11th, one day after Belgian troops deployed, Moise Tshombe declared the secession of Katanga. Considered "pro-Western" by many Western politicians, Tshombe appointed Belgian citizens to lead Katanga's civil administration and later appointed seconded Belgian officers to lead his provincial army, or gendarmerie. Many eastern-bloc and nonaligned countries viewed the Belgian military intervention and Tshombe’s declaration, in a province dominated by Belgian mining interests, as a joint effort to circumvent Congolese independence and to preserve European control of its principal sources of wealth.

Hence, Belgian desire for a strong economic control over Katanga, even after the declaration of Congolese independence, led to exacerbation of the conflict as they kickstarted the Katanga secession, a 2 year conflict characterised by Central Congo Leaders against Tshombe, backed by the Belgians.

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Power struggles and infighting caused immense instability and unrest, sometimes even culminating in violence, that continually worsened the Congo Crisis.

Conflict with Lumumba

Inability of bringing secessions under control

5 Sept 1960, Kasavubu removes Lumumba as PM, rejected by both houses of parliament → Lumumba declares Kasavubu as no longer President, but parliament refuses to remove him either

Allowed Army commander-in-chief Joseph Mobutu to launch coup on 14 September, with the support of Belgium and CIA (who wanted Lumumba dead) which caused societal unrest and laid grounds for the conflict to continue.

(Mobutu) vs federalists (Kasavubu, Tshombe) — their desire to achieve power over the other led to them prioritising maintaining their patronages and linkages over the economic needs of Congo— resulting economic and societal discontent drove the beginning of the kwilu and simba rebellions which caused violence and societal unrest that protracted the conflict, thus power struggle is to blame for the conflict.

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Decolonisation was to blame for triggering the outbreak of the Congo Crisis as the Belgians reluctance to let go of their colonial legacy in Congo, caused them to provide inadequate preparations for Congolese leaders. While there was a ten year plan to drive Congo towards to a prosperous economy form 1950 to 1959, the plan only benefitted the Belgians business owners due to their desire to retain their economic interests. Hence, Congolese infrastructure remained inadequate with little investments. By 1960, only 15 to 18 Congolese became university graduates, resulting in a distinct lack of Congolese participation in self-governance pre-independence. As a result, political parties were inexperienced and weakly organised, resulting in an inconsistent political climate that only fuelled tensions between Congolese factions, leading to the Congo Crisis.

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Cold War was to blame for providing ammunition for Mobuto's army which escalated the civil strife within Congo

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Cold War was to blame for providing ammunition for Mobuto's army which escalated the civil strife within Congo

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The CIA conducted major paramilitary

campaigns to combat the Kwilu and Simba

rebellions. They supplemented Mobutu’s

ANC forces with bombers and transport

planes, and anti-Castro Cuban volunteers to pilot those planes and provide air support to government troops and mercenaries fighting on the ground. It was in this climate of political deadlock that, backed by the American-funded and trained Congolese army,

Mobutu launched his second coup on 24 November 1965. He removed Kasavubu and Tshombe from power and

dismissed mercenaries from the Congo to break up Tshombe’s support base. This led to civil strife and political instability

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There was a division over the involvement of the superpowers

Lumumba was willing to seek support from the USSR and (lowkey..) abused the division between him and Kasavubu over the management of the Katangan secession. Lumumba was dismissed as the PM for communist leanings

When Lumumba attempted to dismiss Kasavubu, it provoked a constitutional crisis and created a leadership vacuum that created opportunities for other military and regional leaders to challenge the central government’s power. The new republic was disrupted by political strife and the central government was paralysed by the conflict between the conservative Kasavubu and leftist PM Lumumba

American interest vs Soviet interest

The US supported pro-Western factions and alienated the pro-Lumumba and leftist factions, such as those led by Kasavubu and later Mobutu, to ensure that Congo did not fall under Soviet Influence

The Soviet Union viewed Lumumba and his supporters as legitimate leaders fighting against Western Imperialism and bolstered his faction, creating a direct opposition to US-backed factions

The US and Soviet military and financial support for rival factions exacerbated political instability and power struggles. The provision of military aid perpetuated a cycle of violence and instability

American assassination of Lumumba (kind of...)

US was always pro-Western and even coordinated with the Belgian government to orchestrate the removal of Lumumba. His assassination eliminated a potential nationalist leader and INTENSIFIED the power struggle and political fragmentation, and subsequently the proliferation of rebel movements (ie Kwilu, Simba)

His death also prompted FURTHER VIOLENCE, and led to an expansion of the ONUC mandate with reso 161 to include the prevention of civil war as the mission's mandate. The reso didn't cite chapter VII of the Charter, but it authorised ONUC to use force "if necessary, in the last resort" in pursuit of the prevention of the civil war.

USSR also continued to support Lumuba's allies like Gizenga, who established a rival government in Stanleyville. This contributed to the ongoing civil conflict and factionalism within Congo, as pro-Lumunba factions continued to resist the central government. It created ANOTHER FRONT of conflict that ONUC had to manage, stretching its resources and complicating its operations.

IN CONCLUSION (YIPEE!) The Cold War context exacerbated the Congo crisis. The civil/secessionist war within the nation later turned into a pseudo-proxy conflict between the Western and Soviet blocs, for them to pursue their PERSONAL interests in the "bigger" global context.

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Local nationalist leaders' joustling with each other for power created factionalism that protracted the congo crisis. 

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Local nationalist leaders' joustling with each other for power created factionalism that protracted the congo crisis. 

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point: Cold War exacerbated the Congo crisis because of the value (served as a platform for further sovietisation) that the Congo region provided to USSR interests

USSR supported Lumumba through pravda - reflects Lumumba's 3 demands (full independence, preservation of unity and withdrawal of Belgian troops)

Lumumba reciprocated by accepting Soviet representatives

Soviets agreed to send material support in the forms of trucks, planes, technicians and other equipment

On 16th July 1960, USSR pledged 2.5 million rubles in economic aid and 10,000 tonnes of food to Congo

This placed Lumumba under the US's radar as his relations with USSR threatened sphere (To US, Lumumba was a representation of communist influence, which was a threat to US's sphere of influence under the CW pretext) of influence in the region which is a source of concern.

Resulted in US's support for Lumumba's assassination

This worsened political tensions in Congo which aggravated the conflict

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Cold War interests in Congolese resources

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Cold War interests in Congolese resources

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The Cold War was not a factor that kickstarted the Congo Crisis but throughout the course of the crisis, it started to take a main role in driving and intensifying the conflict.

For one, the Congo had vast amounts of natural resources and wealth and because of this, the USA and USSR wanted ideological and pragmatic influence in the Congo so as to control the Congo via resources. As the anti-imperialist Patrice Lumumba was seen as a threat by the US and its interests due to him approaching the Soviets for assistance, he was assassinated by CIA-backed forces in 1960 so as to ensure mainly Western control over resources in the Congo and to reduce communist influence in a rapidly decolonizing Africa, which further destabilised the Congo and led to secessionist rebels in Katanga and foreign companies in the West vying for control over Congolese resources throughout the course of the crisis.

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Force Publique Mutiny (5 July 1960)

General Emile Janssens who kept his post in the new government of independent Congo convened a meeting of the troops at the main army camp in Kinshasa on 4 July

Wrote on the blackboard in front of the troops “before independence=after independence” , telling the soldiers that there would be no changes as a result of independence and white officers will still remain in command

These provocations convinced the soldiers that they were being denied the fruits of independence

Resulted in hostilities-mutineers demanded promotions, salary increase and dismissal of all Belgian officers

Case of panic and flight of European civil servants and settlers-deprived economy and state of most of their professional and technical cadres

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economic interest was a constant anchor for western (especially Belgian) intervention in the congo crisis

congo had vast mineral wealth - 65% of industrial diamonds and 85% cobalt in africa (most of which was concentrated in katanga)

the concentration of mineral wealth in katanga and the usefulness (eg in nuclear weaponry) and monetary value of that mineral wealth to western powers such as the belgians, uk and us laid the foundations for the katanga secession

reason for multiple parties to support the Katanga secession crisis, protracting and complicating the Congo crisis

katanga secession worsened by belgian military intervention (10-11 july 1960)

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Regional Nationalism: ‘Katangese’ vs The Rest

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Regional Nationalism: ‘Katangese’ vs The Rest

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Formation of CONAKAT due to native ‘Katangese’’ desire to preserve economic gains of Katanga among the natives; this led to desires for a Katangan secession as well as more exclusionary policies, particularly due to the influx of immigrants from Kasai. This fuelled an opposing party in the form of BALUBAKAT who instead fought for Baluba unity in Katanga

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1. Lack of unified leadership at independence: decolonisation processes in Congo was rapid and the prospective government was fragmented into many parties, with Lumumba's MNC winning the most seats (31/137 of the seats) which in of itself isn't the majority. These cleavages between parties set the fractious tone of Congolese politics. The lack of Congolese involvement in self government during colonial rule also meant that there was a distinct lack of Congolese involvement in self governance to begin with foundational.

2. Direct antagonism between Lumumba and Kasavubu: On Sep 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba, claiming constitutional authority, and Lumumba in return also dismissed Kasavubu, creating a severe political vacuum, in which both factions claimed to be the legitimate central government-- making the political climate ununited and unstable. This also directly "paved the way for the army commander-in-chief Mobutu to launch a coup on 14 September. Mobutu seized power, claiming to be "neutralizing" the rival governments, but in reality, he aligned himself with pro-Western interests, having the support of Belgium and the US. Complicating the imbalance of power even further with external powers involved with the power struggle.

3. Exploitation of Ethnic Divisions for Political Power: Tshombe, Kasavubu, and Kalonji, "would continue to exploit ethnic differences for political support not just in their anti-colonial struggle but in their own personal greed for power. This built upon the Belgian colonial administration's "divide-and-rule strategy" which reinforced and exacerbated existing ethnic differences to maintain control. eg. the Lulua-Baluba conflict was worsened by the advent of political parties and electoral politics, with membership and voting behavior tending to follow the new lines of ethnic divide. worsening discrimination and exacerbating the conflict.

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The power struggle between congolese leaders was to blame for the congo crisis as it caused a fragmented politcal landscape in congo which escalated its ideological divide between radicals and moderates.

ev while the

1. Radicals

Wanted to create nationally oriented and mass-based political parties, seeing independence as a means to benefit ordinary people economically and socially

Espoused pan-African ideal of African unity, and Bandung principle of non-alignment (decolonisation context)

Preferred strong central government,

2. the moderates,

Including Joseph Kasavubu, MT and Joseph Mobutu → more willing to accept Western Tutelage, and enjoyed high levels of support from Belgians and other Western governments

this highlights how the ideological divide between the leaders had created deep internal divisions and intensified competition for political dominance which manifested in secession movements, instigating the congo crisis

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cold war rivalry between the us and the ussr motivated superpower direct intervention in congo domestic politics, particularly during 61-63 (secessionist wars)

diplomatically, they intervened in UN peace-enforcing as well. eg, us supported un resol 169 to end katanga secession to prevent congo frm soviet influence --> demonstrates their usage of un

militarily, the us also intervened in congo crisis heavily after suspecting ussr of intervention --> in the 60s they escalated the conflict. particularly change of leadership frm kennedy to lbj (more hardlined against communism) --> thus more aggressive stance towards communism contributed to the military intervention of the congo + intensified scale of conflict as it brought in military tensions as well

political intervention through establishment of adoula's govt as well --> did not align with local leaders

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Cold War involvement in the Congo Crisis towards the later years became more and more pronounced, with the coming of the Simba rebellion in 1964

This occurred as a result of CCP/Soviet backing of the rebellion itself, as the rebellion occurred with the formation of the CNL, which were made up of Lumumba's original supporters who agreed with his aid call to the USSR in 1960. Although their contributions were little compared to the US/West, it certainly still exacerbated the conflict as it continued.

Meanwhile, the US aided the DRC heavily through Operation Dragon Rouge as well as other forms of military aid to suppress and defeat the Simba Rebellion.