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Which foods have the largest impact on climate change?

Meat and dairy, particularly from cows, have an outsize impact, with livestock accounting for around 14.5 percent of the world's greenhouse gases each year. That's roughly the same amount as the emissions from all the cars, trucks, airplanes and ships combined in the world today.

In general, beef and lamb have the biggest climate footprint per gram of protein, while plant-based foods tend to have the smallest impact. Pork and chicken are somewhere in the middle.

Holy Cow!

The average greenhouse gas impact (in kilograms of CO ₂) of getting 50 grams of protein from:

Now, these are only averages. Beef raised in the United States generally produces fewer emissions than beef raised in Brazil or Argentina. Certain cheeses can have a larger greenhouse gas impact than a lamb chop. And some experts think these numbers may actually underestimate the impact of deforestation associated with farming and ranching.

But most studies agree that plant-based foods usually have a lower impact than meat, and beef and lamb tend to be the worst offenders by a considerable margin.

Is there a simple dietary change I can make to reduce my climate footprint?

Consuming less red meat and dairy will typically have the biggest impact for most people in wealthy countries. That doesn't necessarily mean going vegan. You might just eat less of the foods with the biggest climate footprints, like beef, lamb and cheese.

How much would changing my diet actually help?

It varies from person to person. A number of studies have concluded that people who eat a meat-heavy diet - including much of the population of the United States and Europe - could shrink their food-related footprint by one-third or more by moving to a vegetarian diet. Giving up dairy would further reduce those emissions. But even eating more plants, and less dairy and meat, particularly red meat, can help: According to a World Resources Institute analysis, if the average American replaced a third of the beef he or she eats with pork, poultry or legumes, his or her food-related emissions would still fall by around 13 percent.

Still, food consumption is often only a small fraction of a person's total carbon footprint. And, ultimately, the most important thing we can all do is vote, as policy changes have an enormous impact. But dietary changes are often one of the quickest ways for many people to lighten their climate impact, and if many people collectively made these changes, it could start to add up.

Why does meat have such a big climate impact?

Think about it this way: It's often more efficient to grow crops for humans to eat than it is to grow crops for animals to eat and then turn those animals into food for humans.

In their defense, cows, chickens and pigs often eat a lot of things that humans wouldn't otherwise eat, like grasses or crop residues, and meat can be rich in key nutrients like protein and iron. But, in general, it takes more land, energy and water to produce a pound of animal protein than it does to produce a pound of plant protein.

What about grass-fed beef?

It's hard to say with confidence that grass-fed beef is consistently more climate-friendly than conventional beef.

Some scientists have suggested that grass-fed beef, if managed properly, can be a more sustainable option: As the cattle graze, they stimulate grass to grow deep roots and pull more carbon into the soil, helping to offset their climate impact. But, on the flip side, grass-fed cattle also take longer to reach slaughter weight, which means they spend more time burping up methane into the atmosphere. Because of this, some studies have suggested that grass-fed beef can actually be worse for the climate over all, though the debate about this continues.

What about chicken?

A number of studies have found that chicken and other poultry have less of a climate impact than other livestock. That's not to say chicken is perfect: Industrial-scale poultry operations still create water pollution and have prompted major concerns about animal welfare. But if you're solely focused on climate change, chicken usually produces far fewer emissions than beef and a bit fewer than pork.

Should humans stop eating meat altogether?

Not necessarily. A number of experts have argued that a sustainable food system can and should still include plenty of animals. Cows and other livestock, after all, can often be raised on pasture that would otherwise be unsuitable for growing crops, and they eat crop residues that would otherwise go to waste. They also produce manure that we can use as fertilizer. And animal agriculture provides livelihoods for some 1.3 billion people worldwide. In many countries, meat, eggs and milk offer a vital source of nutrition when there aren't good alternatives available.

That said, there are also millions of people around the world - in places like the United States, Europe and Australia - who eat far more meat than they need to for a healthy diet, according to a 2019 report in the medical journal The Lancet. And if we want to feed a growing population without adding to global warming or putting increased pressure on the world's forests, it would make a difference if the heaviest meat eaters cut back.

What about 'fake meat'?

Plant-based meat substitutes are increasingly showing up in supermarkets and even fast-food chains. Made from vegetables, starches, oils and synthesized proteins, these products attempt to mimic the taste and texture of meat more closely than traditional substitutes like tofu and seitan.

While the jury is still out on whether these products are any healthier, they do appear to have a smaller environmental footprint: One 2018 study estimated that a Beyond Burger had just one-tenth the climate impact of a beef burger.

In the future, researchers may be able to "grow" real meat from animal cell cultures - work is continuing on this front. But it's too early to say how helpful this will be from a climate perspective, not least because it could take a lot of energy to produce cell-cultured meat.

Are there other ways meat could become more climate-friendly?

Yes. If meat production around the world were to become more efficient, farmers and ranchers would be able to feed more people while reducing their emissions.

This is already happening in many places: The United States, for example, produces more beef today than it did in 1975 even though the total number of cattle has declined by about one-third. Advances in animal breeding, veterinary care, feed quality and grazing systems are already helping to shrink the climate footprint of livestock operations around the world, and there's a lot of room for further improvement. Some scientists are even trying to figure out how to get cows to emit less methane by introducing seaweed or other feed additives to their diet.

Since it's unlikely that the whole world is going to go vegetarian anytime soon, these efforts will be critical for putting meat production on a more sustainable footing.

What kinds of seafood should I eat?

Wild fish often have a relatively small climate footprint, with the main source of emissions being the fuel burned by fishing boats. A 2018 analysis found that a number of popular wild fish - anchovies, sardines, herring, tuna, pollock, cod, haddock - have, on average, a lower carbon footprint than chicken or pork. Mollusks like clams, oysters and scallops are also great low-carbon choices. ( We have dozens of good recipe options for you here.)

On the other hand, wild shrimp and lobster can have a larger impact than chicken or pork, because pulling them in demands extra fuel for the fishing boats.

There is a huge caveat to all wild seafood, though: At this point, the world is already catching about as much as it possibly can - most fisheries are being fished at their maximum sustainable level, while others are being overexploited. So there's not a ton of room for everyone in the world to increase their wild fish consumption. (If we are going to eat more seafood in the coming decades, most of that increase will probably come from fish farms, also known as aquaculture.) For now, you can check with science-based sources like Seafood Watch to see if the fish you buy is being harvested sustainably.

YOU RANK IT Rank these seafood options in order from highest climate impact to lowest.

Is farmed seafood a good long-term plan?

Fish farming can sometimes be a climate-friendly option, particularly for mollusks, but it isn't always. It often depends on farming practices and geography.

In places like Norway that have tight environmental regulations, farmed fish can have relatively low impact. But in parts of Southeast Asia, producers are clearing away mangrove forests to make way for shrimp farms, which leads to a big increase in emissions. And some fish farms in China have produced enormous quantities of methane. There are plenty of promising efforts underway to clean up fish farming and make it more climate-friendly, but there's still a long way to go in many parts of the world.

How do I know whether a farmed fish is good or bad?

A number of groups, like the Aquaculture Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea, are starting to certify fish farms that adhere to environmental standards and can be a good starting point. But a note: Critics have warned that these labels often don't account for the full climate impacts of farmed seafood.

Still, a recent study found some general trends: Farmed mollusks (oysters, mussels, scallops) tend to be protein options with some of the lowest emissions around, and farmed salmon has, on average, a lower impact than chicken or pork.

On the other hand, farms for catfish and shrimp often require a large amount of energy to recirculate water and can sometimes have a larger climate footprint than even beef. But there's a lot of variation from farm to farm.

What's the single best choice I can make about seafood?

You could incorporate more mollusks into your diet. Most Americans don't often eat them at home, but mussels, clams and scallops are familiar, succulent and easier to cook than you might think. We have recipes for you right here.

As for farmed or wild fish, they can often be a good low-carbon option, but it's a good idea to check first whether a product is certified as sustainable.

How much impact do milk and cheese have on climate change?

A number of studies have found that milk typically has a smaller climate footprint than chicken, eggs or pork per pound. Yogurt, cottage cheese and cream cheese are similar to milk.

But many other types of cheese, such as Cheddar or mozzarella, can have a significantly bigger footprint than chicken or pork, since it typically takes about 10 pounds of milk to make one pound of cheese.

Wait - cheese might be worse than chicken?

It depends on the cheese. But broadly speaking, yes, if you decide to go vegetarian by, say, eating cheese instead of chicken, your carbon footprint might not fall as much as you expect.

Are some kinds of milk better than others? I pay a lot more for organic milk.

The short answer is that you can't count on organic milk being better for the climate.

To date, studies have disagreed on whether organic dairy farms produce more, less or about the same amount of greenhouse gas emissions as conventional farms do, per gallon of milk. Most likely, it varies a lot from farm to farm. The trouble is that there's nothing about the organic label that tells you anything specific about the climate impact of the carton of milk you're holding.

Which nondairy milk is best?

Almond, oat and soy milk all have a smaller greenhouse gas footprint than cow's milk does. But, as always, there are caveats and trade-offs to consider. Almonds require a lot of water to grow, and this has been a problem in places like California. Soy milk tends to be fairly low-impact, as long as the soy is sustainably farmed.

Milk vs. 'Milk'

Environmental impacts of different types of milk, per liter.

So are you saying I should become a vegan?

I don't like vegan food. What would I eat?

If you like pasta with tomato sauce, hummus, avocado toast or peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, you actually do like some vegan food. Eating a fully vegan diet is hard for many Americans to imagine. Some assume that a vegan diet has to include meat "substitutes" like tofu, but that's not true: There's ample protein in beans, grains and nuts. And as more people become vegan, plant versions of ice cream, butter and even burgers are getting better all the time. For home cooks, the challenge is often producing a vegan dinner that everyone at the table will eat. We've got recipes that can help.

I don't think I can go completely vegan. What else can I try?

Another approach would be to simply eat less meat and dairy, and more protein-rich plants like beans, legumes, nuts and grains. (Here are recipes that go heavy on beans and grains.)

You could go vegetarian: no meat, poultry and fish, but dairy and eggs are allowed. The advantage here is that the rules are simple, and food manufacturers and restaurants are used to accommodating vegetarians. (We have vegetarian recipes for you that you can cook on a weeknight.)

Eating as a pescatarian, adding seafood to a vegetarian diet, can be a good compromise, and makes it easier to get protein into your meals.

To keep some meat in your diet, try cutting back to one serving of red meat per week, replacing the rest with chicken, pork, fish or plant proteins. This approach is more flexible, but it means more planning ahead and keeping track of what you eat.

Climate-Friendlier Diets

The average drop in food-related emissions when people switch from a typical Western diet to lower-impact ones:

Is organic produce really better than conventionally grown produce?

Organic produce is grown without synthetic fertilizers or pesticides, which is important to a lot of people. But that doesn't mean it's necessarily better from a climate perspective. In some cases, it can be a bit worse: Organic farms often require more land than conventional farms. That said, organic farms' climate impact can vary widely from place to place, and the organic label, on its own, doesn't give you great information on the food's carbon footprint.

What about local and seasonal produce?

In general, what you eat matters a lot more than where it comes from, since transportation accounts for only about 6 percent of food's total climate footprint. That said, there are a few things to consider.

Anything that's in season where you live, whether you buy it at a local farmers' market or at a supermarket, is usually a good choice.

Things get trickier when it comes to out-of-season produce. Some fruits and vegetables that are shipped by plane can have a surprisingly hefty carbon footprint. During the winter, that may include asparagus or blackberries - produce that's perishable and needs to move quickly between distant places. By contrast, apples, oranges and bananas are often shipped by sea, which is more fuel-efficient. Plenty of cold-climate vegetables, like carrots, potatoes and squash, can be stored after the fall harvest and last through the winter.

In some cases, though, there can be an advantage to food that's shipped in from elsewhere. If you live in the northern United States during the winter, it can be better to buy a tomato trucked in from California or Florida than to buy a local variety that was grown in an energy-intensive heated greenhouse.

Food waste is a major part of the problem. How can I waste less?

By some estimates, Americans end up throwing out roughly 20 percent of the food they buy. That means that all the energy it took to produce that food was wasted. If you're buying more food than you actually eat, your climate footprint will be bigger than it needs to be.

But there are many ways to reduce waste. Start with meal planning: Take 20 minutes to lay out three weeknight dinners, so you buy only the food you plan to cook. (And don't order more than you need, if eating out.) Trim and wash produce before putting it away, to make it easier to use. And be vigilant about eating or freezing the food in your refrigerator, instead of letting it spoil. Certain items also don't go bad as quickly as you might think: "Sell by" labels are usually manufacturer suggestions for peak quality. Many foods (with the exception of baby formula) can still be safely consumed after that date.

YOU PICK IT Which type of food do Americans throw out the most?

Percentage of food wasted or lost at the consumer level, by category.

1

Beef, lamb and cheese tend to do the most climate damage. Pork, chicken and eggs are in the middle. Plants of all kinds typically have the lowest impact.

2

What you eat matters a lot more than whether it's local or organic, or what kind of bag you use to carry it home from the store.

3

You don't have to give up meat altogether to make a difference. Even small shifts, like eating less meat and more plants, or switching from beef to chicken, can reduce your climate footprint.

4

Waste less. Buying what you need and actually eating it - instead of tossing it out - means that the energy used to produce your food has been spent efficiently.

Correction: May 1, 2019

An earlier version of this article included an incorrect citation for a scientific publication by Aleksandrowicz et al about climate-friendlier diets. The study appeared in the journal PLoS One, not PNAS, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Correction: May 8, 2019

An earlier version of a graphic accompanying this article about the average greenhouse gas impact of various foods included a value for milk that was based on a different measurement than the other foods. The 1.6 kilograms of CO2 impact for milk is per half-liter, not per 50 grams of protein, which is the measure used for the other foods in the chart.

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Your Questions About Food and Climate Change, Answered

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Meat and dairy, particularly from cows, have an outsize impact, with livestock accounting for around 14.5 percent of the world's greenhouse gases each year. That's roughly the same amount as the emissions from all the cars, trucks, airplanes and ships combined in the world today.

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The ponderosa pine had taken root decades before the Revolutionary War, making a stately stand on this western Sierra Nevada slope for some 300 years, Nate Stephenson figures.

Then came the beetle blitzkrieg. Now the tree is a dab in the gray and rusty death stain smeared across the mountain range.

At the base of its massive trunk, a piece of bark has been cut off, revealing an etched swirl of insect trails. Higher up, naked branches reach out, as if from a many-armed scarecrow.

"This was alive until the drought killed it," Stephenson says mournfully.

The U.S. Forest Service estimates that since 2010, more than 102 million drought-stressed and beetle-ravaged trees have died across 7.7 million acres of California forest. More than half of those died last year alone.

Exacerbated by anti-wildfire policies that produced a crowded forest more vulnerable to drought, the massive dieback is unprecedented in the recorded history of the Sierra.

The beetle epidemic is transforming the 4,500-foot to 6,000-foot elevation band of the central and southern range for decades to come, if not permanently. The sheer scale of mortality means that outside of developed areas, it's likely that most of the tree corpses will be left to topple over.

It will takes centuries to replace the legions of majestic old pines that have succumbed - if that is even possible in a warmer future that promises to alter the forest in ways ecologists can only guess.

"We don't know under the new conditions what things will do well," says Christy Brigham, the top scientist and acting superintendent of Sequoia and Kings Canyon national parks.

But she's pretty sure of one thing: The western Sierra pine forest as it was 100 years ago is not coming back.

(Genaro Molina / Los Angeles Times)

"The world has changed..." Brigham says. "We're never going to be able to get back to where we were before."

::

When the first big patches of forest turned a fatal orange in 2015, "We were agog," says Stephenson, a federal research ecologist who has worked in Sequoia National Park for nearly four decades. "It was hard to get over."

Now he's used to it.

And he finds comfort in a simple observation: "Most of the forest is still there."

Higher elevations have largely escaped the beetle damage. Even in heavily infested areas, there is a mosaic of the living and the dead - patches of green and burnt sienna that from a distance suggest autumn in New England.

If a tree dies, we do an autopsy.

(Genaro Molina / Los Angeles Times)

The big ponderosa is in a research plot known as "BBB," which scientists have monitored since 1992. Oak leaves crunch underfoot as Stephenson and his colleague, ecologist Adrian Das, walk through the stand of pines, fir, oaks and incense cedars marked with metal identity tags.

"If a tree dies, we do an autopsy. We look for bugs, we look for fungus," says Das, who like Stephenson, works for the U.S. Geological Survey.

The pine's killers left plenty of clues. Western pine beetles' squiggles mar the tan inner bark, or phloem, where the dark brown females had tunneled and laid their eggs.

After hatching, the white, legless larvae ate their way into the middle bark, carving up the tree's circulation system and cutting off the vital flow of water and nutrients.

The western pine beetle is just one of a number of native bark beetle species whose populations can explode when there is a bounty of easy pickings, such as during California's protracted drought.

Thirsty trees are too stressed to kick out the rice-sized killers with secretions of pitch. When beetles find a good target, they send out chemical signals that act like a dinner bell, calling their kin for mass attacks. As many as 25,000 western pine beetles can infest a single large ponderosa.

(Genaro Molina / Los Angeles Times)

Some people think some of these trees are coming back to life. They're not.

Within a few weeks of the onslaught, the tree is dead. But it can take months for the needles to fade.

"Some people think some of these trees are coming back to life. They're not," said Chris Fettig, a Forest Service research entomologist.

Overall, about a fifth of the trees have died in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer belt of the park, according to Stephenson and Das. Even after this winter's parade of Sierra storms, the deaths will continue, since it takes about a year for trees to recover from prolonged water deprivation and regain their defenses.

None of the species that grow in that zone - typically ponderosa and sugar pines, incense cedar, white fir and black oak - have been immune to the dieback. Although mature giant sequoias have showed signs of stress, they appear to be pulling through the drought, perhaps because they grow in moister forest areas.

It's the fine old pines that have suffered the most.

Stephenson's sampling indicates that in the park areas of greatest mortality, about 50% to 70% of big ponderosa and sugar pines have died, compared with 20% to 25% of large white firs and less than 10% of incense cedars. (The cedars don't have a major beetle predator.)

Stephenson, 59, has wandered the Sierra since he was a child backpacking with his parents. The landscape is like a beloved friend.

"What is heartbreaking is what's really died off in droves are the big pines, a couple feet in diameter or more," he says. "Pines that are hundreds of years old."

Western pine beetles - which, along with mountain pine beetles, attack ponderosas - favor large-diameter trees. A big tree also needs more water and has to work harder to distribute it, making it more vulnerable to severe drought.

The world has changed.... We're never going to be able to get back to where we were before.

(Genaro Molina / Los Angeles Times)

::

Nature is not the only culprit. Humans helped set the destruction in motion.

"We've produced a forest which basically has too many straws in the ground trying to draw a very limited amount of water," says Malcolm North, a Forest Service research ecologist.

The federal government's 20th century policy of putting out forest fires broke the cycle of frequent, low-intensity burns that had naturally maintained relatively open pine stands on the Sierra's western slopes. Heavy logging and replanting in national forests after World War II led to crowded regrowth that never burned.

If wildfire had not been banished, North says, "we would not be seeing nearly so much mortality.... The thing that is really driving [it] is the high density, and the high density really results from fire suppression."

If there is a silver lining in the staggering tree death, it's that the survivors will have less competition. "If we go back to nondrought conditions, the remaining trees will be better off," Stephenson says.

The bounty of bugs and ghostly trees is also a boon to cavity nesting birds and woodpeckers.

But from an ecosystem standpoint, many of the wrong trees have died - giant pines that are fire-resistant and provide a kitchen and bedroom for rare wildlife such as the Pacific fisher and spotted owl.

::

In the Sierra National Forest northwest of the park, Forest Service ecologist Marc Meyer scans the fresh stumps of pines scattered across a picnic area at Bass Lake. The remaining live trees are mostly incense cedar and black oak.

"I have to wonder if we're going to see a shift to a forest more dominated by oaks or a combination of oaks and conifers," he says.

Downed logs, mounds of chipped trees and raw stumps - some of them huge - dot the lake's misty rim on a winter day. Across the water, the forest is mostly a mortal reddish-brown, promising a depressing lake view for years, if not decades, to come.

"As ecologists, we're struggling," Meyer says. What restoration steps to recommend when future conditions are so uncertain? What kind of forest to aim for when the past is no longer a valid guide?

For much of the blighted zone, the question may be purely academic. The Forest Service is felling hundreds of thousands of dead trees next to roads and around developed areas for public safety reasons. So far the agency says it has treated 18,000 acres and is working on another 50,000 acres.

But there is a limited market for the salvage wood and a limited Forest Service budget for tree removal.

"There are massive areas in the landscape that you will just never get to because the economics don't work out and the mill capacity isn't there and the wood doesn't have much value," North says. "Most of those trees are just going to be there and fall over."

Just how great a wildfire hazard that presents is complicated - and debated. A 2015 University of Colorado study of western pine forests with extensive beetle-related mortality concluded those regions have not burned more than healthy forests. And a study of the 2003 wildfires that tore through beetle-ravaged parts of the San Bernardino Mountains found those patches did not burn more severely than stands of live trees.

But generally speaking, fire scientists say the threat of a wildfire racing through treetops increases when dead needles remain on trees. Once they drop, that risk goes way down.

Skip forward 15 or 20 years, and fallen limbs and trunks pile up. That, warns UC Berkeley fire scientist Scott Stephens, turns the forest floor into a tangled mass of fuel. "Then we get lightning ... and bang," he says.

To lessen the fuel build-up, Stephens says federal land managers should conduct prescribed burns in hard-hit areas.

"In two, maybe four years, when all those needles are on the ground and before the big stuff hits the ground, I think you have to start burning in earnest," he says. "I just don't know what else to do."

At this point, Forest Service managers say they are too occupied with developed areas to know what they will - or can - do on the broader landscape.

Options include prescribed burning and harvesting dead trees to feed biomass energy plants, says Scott Tangenberg, acting supervisor of the Stanislaus National Forest. But traditional logging, he adds, "is certainly an unlikely tool for us."

Stephenson and Das spread out their lunches on Beetle Rock, a large granite outcropping that offers an expansive view from the Sierra slopes across the San Joaquin Valley to the coastal range. Below them is a rippling landscape that the past two years have radically altered.

"I'm not happy these trees are dead, but it's fascinating," Das says. "And when this mortality is done, there's going to be a process where new things come in, and we don't know what. It's the beginning of something."
bettina.boxall@latimes.com Twitter: @boxall ALSO Brutal winter in Western U.S. has been terrible for animals The 102 million dead trees in California's forests are turning tree cutters into millionaires January storms erase part of California's snowpack deficit 257 drought maps show California's deep drought and current recovery

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What all those dead trees mean for the Sierra Nevada

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The ponderosa pine had taken root decades before the Revolutionary War, making a stately stand on this western Sierra Nevada slope for some 300 years, Nate Stephenson figures.

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On September 20, millions of students-and the adults who support them-will walk out of classrooms, from Washington, D.C., to Delhi, for the highly anticipated Global Climate Strike. Could this be a turning point in history? These five young climate activists say it must be.

What started as a one-person protest by Greta Thunberg, the Swedish youth who began a weekly vigil outside her country's parliament in 2018, has grown into #FridaysForFuture-an international movement supported by more than a million students in 160 countries. Now, these young people are calling on adults to march alongside them for a global day of mass action on September 20-three days ahead of the UN Climate Summit in New York City. This historic mobilization will kick off a whole week of environmental protests in different parts of the world, culminating in a second global strike on September 27. The Rainforest Alliance stands in solidarity with these inspiring young activists, joining their call to world leaders to take bold and immediate action on the climate crisis. On the eve of this historic moment, we asked five young climate leaders to tell us why they'll be hitting the streets.

Isra Hirsi, 16 Minneapolis, USA

Isra Hirsi

As a co-founder of the US Youth Climate Strike, 16-year-old Isra Hirsi is not only leading the charge for climate action, she's breaking barriers in the environmental movement. "I'm striking on September 20 because it's important to represent not only myself but a community of people who are being impacted by this issue but don't have a seat at the table," said Hirsi. Although marginalized communities across the US-especially people of color and low-income families-are disproportionately affected by climate change, Hirsi has frequently pointed out that they don't always have the opportunity to make their voices heard. She is quick to point out that not everyone can skip school every Friday or travel to a state capitol to protest. This is why Hirsi feels it is so important to dedicate efforts to diversify the climate justice movement-ensuring that it is a welcoming space where all voices are heard.

The teenage activist-whose mother, Congresswoman Ilhan Omar, immigrated to the US as a 12-year-old refugee-said she is also striking for her family back in Somalia, where people are already suffering the impacts of climate change. Rising temperatures have wrought havoc on the East African nation's seasons, and long periods of drought threaten the food security and livelihoods of millions.

Alexandria Villasenor, 14, New York, USA

Alexandria Villasenor

Sitting on a cold, hard bench outside the UN Headquarters for hours every Friday was not part of Alexandria Villasenor's plan when she moved to New York City as a 13-year-old in 2018. But while she was visiting family in northern California that year, the Paradise fires broke out, quickly becoming the worst wildfire in the state's history. The air quality was so poor that Villasenor, who has asthma, had to fly back to New York immediately.

That was Villasenor's first brush with the climate crisis, and it left her determined to take action. Inspired by Thunberg, Villasenor left school every Friday to sit outside the UN Headquarters in New York with colorful signs demanding climate action from world leaders. Through social media she came to know other young climate activists, and together they planned the US student climate strike in March 2019. "Climate change will affect (my generation) for the rest of our lives," she said. But she vows to do everything she can to combat it. Villasenor, now 14, said, "My hope for the future is that we can have a healthy planet to grow up in and to pass on to those who come after us."

Hilda Flavia Nakabuye, 22, Kampala, Uganda

Hilda Flavia Nakabuye

Growing up in Wakiso, 12 miles northwest of Kampala, Hilda Flavia Nakabuye saw the effects of extreme weather changes all around her: droughts have caused food shortages, and torrential rains have triggered deadly landslides. But it was not until Nakabuye attended a climate talk at university that it hit her: the disasters ravaging her country were brought on by climate change.

That was two years ago. Today, she is one of the leading voices of the environmental movement in Uganda-rallying fellow students to join her campaign against plastic pollution with the chant, "Keep Mama Africa Green!'' Although Uganda boasts the world's youngest population- Nakabuye's generation will suffer the more frequent and severe droughts, storms, and floods-she found that her peers were largely unaware of climate change. That's why Nakabuye brought the #Fridays4Future movement to the streets of her city. "Climate change has no borders. It affects each and every one of us," said the young activist, "I am committed to missing classes every Friday to strike for a safe future."

John Paul Jose, 22, Delhi, India

John Paul Jose

"We are the last generation that can do something," said John Paul Jose, one of the youth leaders of #FridaysForFuture in India. "We can no longer pretend nothing is happening." For the Kerala-born activist, the wake-up call came last year, when UN climate change experts announced that we had a 12-year window left to save the planet. When he set about learning what actions India's leaders were taking to tackle the crisis, he found the answer depressing-all talk and no action.

India is the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, after China and the US. At the same time, it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change-from deadly heatwaves to rising sea levels, which could displace millions from major coastal cities like Mumbai and Chennai. Jose hears a lot of political talk about embracing renewable energy and planting trees, but the government continues to push for coal production. He feels today's politicians are pawning off the job of protecting India, and the planet, to their successors. This, he fears, will be too late. "If we don't act now, we will be passing on a dying planet to the next generation."

Jerome Foster II, 17, Washington, DC, USA

Jerome Foster

Writer, website developer, government intern, founder and executive director of OneMillionOfUs-and high school climate activist. If Jerome Foster's busy schedule looks astonishing for a typical 17-year-old, it is because he feels his generation has no choice but to step up. "I strike because world governments don't act," said Foster, who has been leading the student demonstrations in front of the White House in Washington, DC. "I strike because we must. We must show them what real action looks like."

For Foster, real action starts with getting the message out in any way he can. At age 15, dismayed by how poorly informed people are about the climate crisis, he decided to set up an online platform that laid out all the facts. The result was The Climate Reporter, a youth-led international news blog dedicated to environmental truth. Two years on, the site boasts a team of 17 writers. For those who need more than words to be convinced, Foster has also developed a solution. A talented computer programmer, he codes virtual reality experiences that allow users to explore the frontlines of environmental destruction for themselves-from plastic-filled oceans to oil refineries pumping carbon dioxide into the air.

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Global Climate Strike: 5 Youth Activists Who Are Leading the Charge on Climate Action

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On September 20, millions of students-and the adults who support them-will walk out of classrooms, from Washington, D.C., to Delhi, for the highly anticipated Global Climate Strike. Could this be a turning point in history? These five young climate activists say it must be.

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Martin Shiwak is navigating his snowmobile along the frozen shoreline when his eight-year-old son Dane, who is riding on the back, points at a wall of stunted spruce trees.

Shiwak cuts the engine, hops off the machine and quietly pulls out a .12 gauge shotgun. He hands the weapon to Dane, and the pair crouch behind their snowmobile. Dane fires two quick shots. Two white partridges, almost invisible in the tree line, drop dead.

Dane runs to retrieve the birds, warming his hands against their bodies to ward off the chill from the cold wind whipping in from the North Atlantic Ocean.

Shiwak is an Inuit trapper and hunter who grew up relying on the wild bounty of Labrador. He takes his son out for trips like this every week, trying to pass on generations of knowledge around living off the land: how to collect firewood, hunt and fish, and travel safely in a place where the rhythm of life is still built upon ice and snow.

But he's running out of time.

The sea surrounding coastal Labrador is warming at an unprecedented rate, according to data from Canada's Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

Robert Way, a climatologist based in Happy Valley-Goose Bay, said the region is a volatile place climatically, with extreme swings in the weather that can amplify - and sometimes mask - the changes that are happening. Compared to historical terms, winter is about six weeks shorter, while the region's sea ice coverage is about a third smaller than it was a decade ago.

Dane Shiwak, eight, warms his hands on white partridge he shot with his father, Martin Shiwak, outside Rigolet. Photograph: Darren Calabrese

"If you look at the rate of warming from the late 1980s to 2015, this is one of the fastest warming places in the world. It's quite concerning," said Way.

For the people of Rigolet, a former trading post that is the southernmost Inuit community in Canada, the vanishing ice and increasingly unpredictable seasons means they're being forced to adapt in ways they never have before.

Like generations of Inuit before him, Derrick Pottle is a trapper and hunter. His diet of wild game, salmon, berries, trout and seal would have been familiar to his ancestors who were living in Hamilton Inlet around 8,000 years ago.

But Pottle worries all the skills he's learned from older generations may soon become irrelevant. More and more, Inuit are relying on expensive, store-bought processed foods because it's safer and easier than catching or shooting supper.

Pottle's ancestors never experienced a time when their frozen world in northern Labrador was being altered so dramatically because of climate change. Shrinking ice packs and more severe weather has made travel increasingly difficult and dangerous, often cutting people off from other communities and traditional hunting lands.

There are no roads connecting Rigolet to other communities, so people here long ago came to rely on trails over the ice as their lifelines. But those frozen lifelines are increasingly unreliable, prone to sudden thaws, weak ice and dangerous openings.

Q&A
How is climate change affecting the Arctic?

The world may have warmed by about 1C (1.8F) over the past century but the Arctic far outstrips this global average and is warming at about twice the rate of the rest of the world.

In places, the rate of warming has been astonishing. Novembers in the Alaskan town of Utqiaġvik, formerly Barrow, are now 5.5C warmer than they were in 1979. In the summer of 2019, an Arctic heatwave had parts of Greenland reach temperatures 40C hotter than normal.

The Arctic is dominated by sea ice, unlike the Antarctic, which is essentially a huge land-based ice sheet. As the ocean and atmosphere warm, sea ice is shrinking in extent, at about 13% a decade since 1979, according to Nasa. The bright white surface of ice, known as albedo, is giving way to the dark ocean, meaning that sunlight is being absorbed rather than reflected, amplifying the warming effect.

These rapid and unprecedented changes are transforming the Arctic and threatening traditional ways of life, according to US government scientists in a 2019 report card. The sea ice is younger, thinner, more fragile and less extensive, making hunting on the ice harder and more perilous. The marine ecosystem is shifting as warmer water forces fish species to retreat to more northern waters.

What is a significant challenge to communities in the Arctic, is a boon to the shipping industry, which can navigate the area more easily. This task will become even simpler once the Arctic is ice-free in summertimes, forecast as soon as the 2040s.

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"I'm seeing changes that impact the way that we live," Pottle said. "The sea, the ice, the snow, it's all changing. You can't travel safely any more. Up and down the coast, it's the same thing. And it's changing right before our eyes."

Some changes are more subtle. Summers have always been short here, and marked by tormenting swarms of black flies. But Paula McLean-Sheppard, a Nunatsiavut government employee, said she has been startled to see the insects arriving earlier and earlier in the spring.

"I was driving my truck last year and there was this big black cloud that suddenly appeared on the windshield. I had to use my wipers to clear it, I didn't know what it was," she said. "It was the flies. It used to be the end of June before you saw your first fly. Now they're coming in May."

Rigolet's fishermen say new species are arriving in the bay, from cormorants to sharks to sea turtles, chasing warming waters and the food that comes with it. Seals, a key source of food and skin for waterproof clothes, are moving further and further up the bay as the sea ice vanishes. Others blame the decline of the region's caribou herd on the changing climate, too.

Some of the changes are harder to see. McLean-Sheppard worries that as coastal Labrador's sea ice becomes increasingly unreliable, it's causing more anxiety among Inuit who feel stuck and unable to travel to catch their food. This past winter, the ice in the bay didn't freeze up until February, months later than normal.

"It's especially hard on the hunters and providers because they can't get out on the land. They feel stuck," she said. "We're like an island, really. We need the ice to connect us."

Living off the land is still a big part of life in Labrador's coastal communities. Hunters provide meat to community freezers for sharing with seniors and others who can't catch their own food. The freezers are filled with Labrador's wild buffet, from partridge berries and Arctic char to moose, duck and goose meat. Each year the Rigolet community is allowed to kill two polar bears, and the meat is divided up for families up and down the rugged coastline.

Scientists say the impact of climate change on the Inuit psyche is significant, and only just beginning to be understood. Social workers worry it is leading to increased rates of drugs and alcohol abuse, in a place where the suicide rate far outstrips the national.

"The land is not just the land for them. It's family, it's kin, it's part of you. Every aspect of Inuit culture grows from the land," said Ashlee Cunsolo, director of the Labrador Institute in Happy Valley-Goose Bay.

"When you're the first generation that can't do that any more, that can't follow your ancestors on to the land, think about how devastating that can be from a cultural standpoint. It's a disruption to cultural traditions that have endured for hundreds of years."

Cunsolo is one of the leading researchers into the links between climate change and mental health. She says the rapid changes happening in coastal Labrador are causing the Inuit to feel increased feelings of anxiety, depression and grief. They sense something is being lost, she said.

The Inuit community of Rigolet on the northern coast of Labrador as seen in front of Hamilton Inlet. Photograph: Darren Calabrese

"These changes are disrupting hundreds of years of knowledge and wisdom and connection to the land. That's a scary thing for humanity," Cunsolo said.

Many of the Inuit in Rigolet are just a generation removed from the government relocation programs of the 1960s, when families were forced to abandon their nomadic ways and settle in larger communities. They say it's in their blood to travel out into the wilderness. Inez Shiwak, who is working to preserve local Inuit culture in Rigolet, smiles when she says getting away from the village and into the wild is "like taking your first breath when you were a baby".

Her father Jack Shiwak, the village's mayor, said elders have noticed that the wind whipping in from the ocean is getting more severe. It can cause blinding snowstorms, and some people have been lost on snowmobile trails because of it. The unpredictable weather is causing some Inuit to reduce trips to their remote cabins, a tradition that dates backs to the days when fur trapping was a major industry in the region, he said.

"Until five years ago, we'd hardly miss a week of going to the cabin. We haven't been there is two years. It's just the weather," Shiwak said. "It's a strange feeling. We know things are changing, but you realize you can't stop it. The question is how we adapt."

Back out on the frozen shoreline a few miles outside of the village, Martin Shiwak stops his snowmobile again and looks out over the bay. The sun is shining now and the hunter unzips his coat, remarking this is one of the mildest Marches he's ever seen.

He knows this wild land intimately. But lately he's starting to recognize it less and less. This is the first winter Shiwak couldn't cross nearby Lake Melville to go trapping because he couldn't trust the ice. It's also the first winter he's had to cancel an educational program that used to bring youth out on the ice and show them the old practices of their people.

Shiwak worries what life will be like for Dane, as the traditions of the father grow harder and harder for the son to maintain. Labrador's youngest Inuit will have to learn new ways to live with a land that is changing all the time, he said.

"It affects everything," he said. "I just know it'll be a lot different than it is now."

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'Sea, ice, snow ... it's all changing': Inuit struggle with warming world

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Martin Shiwak is navigating his snowmobile along the frozen shoreline when his eight-year-old son Dane, who is riding on the back, points at a wall of stunted spruce trees. Shiwak cuts the engine, hops off the machine and quietly pulls out a .12 gauge shotgun.

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When Passing debuts on Netflix on Nov. 10, the film-starring Oscar nominee Ruth Negga ( Loving) and Tessa Thompson-will draw new attention to Nella Larsen's 1929 novel on which it is based. The story and its title most obviously raise questions about race in American society, with the tale of two light-skinned Black women, childhood friends Irene and Clare, navigating the phenomenon of passing as white. But Passing also shines a light on the often overlooked role of sexuality in the Harlem Renaissance.

"Clare makes Irene uncomfortable in lots of ways...Might she be attracted to Clare herself?" TIME's film critic Stephanie Zacharek wrote after the movie's premiere at Sundance this year. "The dance these two perform with one another is entrancing and heady and a little mysterious-its steps not easily parsed but always captivating."

Questions about attraction between the protagonists in this novel have made it not only one of the milestone works to come out of the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and '30s, but also a milestone work in LGBTQ+ history. Scholars of this period point out that acknowledging the queer culture and nightlife of the Harlem Renaissance is essential in order to paint a full picture of the time-and also to show that there was a thriving LGBTQ+ scene in New York City that long predated the 1969 Stonewall uprising, even though that moment is often credited with ushering in the modern LGBTQ+ movement. For LGBTQ+ History Month and Monday's National Coming Out Day, the above video looks back at the overlooked queer artists and writers of the Harlem Renaissance.
Read more: Co-Founding the ACLU, Fighting for Labor Rights and Other Helen Keller Accomplishments Students Don't Learn in School
Literary scholars consider Nella Larsen, the first Black female Guggenheim fellowship recipient, one of the "queer figures" of the Harlem Renaissance, says Octavio R. González, an Associate Professor of English and Creative Writing at Wellesley College and an expert on the Harlem Renaissance. González describes Passing as a novel that exhibits "same-sex desire between the two female protagonists."
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The rising influence of LGBTQ+ social life in the 1920s came about just as Harlem became the nation's largest Black urban neighborhood. The Great Migration of the early 20th century-the movement of Black people from the Jim Crow South to Northern cities for job opportunities-enabled Harlem to become a center for Black cultural life and fostered "a sense of new possibilities," as González puts it. "Sexuality became a form of freedom...expressing sexuality became a form of emancipation."

In Harlem and beyond, the 1920s saw a period of relaxed social mores as people rebelled against Prohibition-era restrictions. The speakeasy culture paved the way for LGBTQ+ nightlife and drag balls-or what Langston Hughes called "Spectacles in Color," according to James Wilson, author of Bulldaggers, Pansies, and Chocolate Babies: Performance, Race and Sexuality in the Harlem Renaissance and a professor of English at LaGuardia Community College. As he described the queer nightlife scene back then to TIME, "The Harlem balls, or the 'fairy balls,' as they were oftentimes called, attracted people from all over the country to converge on the Renaissance Casino, and they would cross-dress... There were contests. There were awards given for the most lavish gowns and costumes. They became celebrity events. These were in the gossip columns."

The social scene stretched far beyond those parties, to spaces from cabarets to private rent parties, at which a person who needed help covering rent would ask guests to kick in whatever money they could spare to help the cause. Lesbian blues singer Gladys Bentley got her start at rent parties. She appeared at the Apollo Theater and the Cotton Club, but she was also often seen decked out in a white tuxedo singing raunchy songs at gay speakeasies like H arry Hansberry's Clam House, backed up by drag performers. Langston Hughes described Bentley in his 1945 autobiography as "an amazing exhibition of musical energy."

It also stretched into the writing that would give the Harlem Renaissance its fame: Wallace Thurman co-founded a magazine called Fire!! that boasted contributors such as Langston Hughes (whose sexuality has generated a lot of speculation over the years). One of the few openly gay Black writers of the period, Richard Bruce Nugent, published the short story "Smoke, Lilies and Jade," considered a seminal work of gay Harlem for depicting bisexuality and a 19-year-old male artist sexually involved with another man. Many other figures of the Harlem literati have since seen their work adopted as part of a queer canon. Alain Locke edited The New Negro, a 1925 anthology of poetry, fiction and essays credited with ushering in the Harlem Renaissance. Claude McKay wrote Home to Harlem, which has been hailed as "the first commercially successful novel by a Black Writer." And poet Countee Cullen wrote several volumes of poetry and once taught James Baldwin in high school. (The New York Public Library branch named after him in Harlem is the first library in the system to be named after a Black person.)

The Black political leaders of the 1920s and 1930s hoped that the flourishing cultural scene during the Harlem Renaissance could work to counter stereotypes about Black people and "facilitate the Negro's demand for civil rights and for social and economic equality," as Henry Louis Gates, Jr. wrote in TIME in 1994.
Read more: You've Probably Heard of the Red Scare, but the Lesser-Known, Anti-Gay 'Lavender Scare' Is Rarely Taught in Schools
But the Harlem Renaissance ended when the Great Depression dried up the usual channels for patronage. The Roaring Twenties were followed by a conservative political culture characterized by Joseph McCarthy and the Red Scare and the Lavender Scare, during which there was a fear within the Black intelligentsia that talking openly about queerness could jeopardize their civil rights agendas. Writing that depicted Gay Harlem went out of print as well.

The richness of that culture still remained, waiting to be rediscovered-a process that began after the 1960s and '70s gay rights movement was followed by the loss of life during the AIDS crisis of the 1980s and '90s, which raised awareness of the need to preserve gay history. Since LGBTQ+ studies became a discipline at the college level in the 1990s, there have been more scholars looking back to the Harlem Renaissance for roots of drag ball culture and to fill in the gaps of LGBTQ+ history and culture.

"Only now are we looking back to find inspiration in those pages and in those moments in history," says González. "Teaching this history will help us diversify the true rainbow of queerness."

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The Overlooked LGBTQ+ History of the Harlem Renaissance

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Acknowledging the queer culture of the Harlem Renaissance is essential in order to paint a full picture of the period

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Langston Hughes - Life and Times with Alice Walker

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Langston Hughes was never far from jazz. He listened to it at nightclubs, collaborated with musicians from Monk to Mingus, often held readings accompanied by jazz combos, and even wrote a children’s book called The First Book of Jazz. For Hughes, jazz was a way of life.

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As the Great Migration of African Americans made its way north, New York City's Harlem neighborhood became a vibrant hotspot for musicians, writers, entertainers and thinkers. The collection of talent, all within a few city blocks, became known as the Harlem Renaissance. Lasting between the 1910s and the mid-1930s, the influence of the time is still felt today.

Here are nine of the most prominent figures of the cultural movement:

Langston Hughes

One of the leaders of the Renaissance, Langston Hughes made his mark by using his art to show the universal experience of the Black community.

The Missouri-born poet and writer lived all across America before spending a year at Columbia University and later finished his education at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania. His first book of poetry was published in 1926 at the height of the Harlem Renaissance, with his first novel following soon after.

According to critic Donald B. Gibson, Hughes "differed from most of his predecessors among black poets... in that he addressed his poetry to the people, specifically to Black people. During the twenties when most American poets were turning inward, writing obscure and esoteric poetry to an ever decreasing audience of readers, Hughes was turning outward, using language and themes, attitudes and ideas familiar to anyone who had the ability simply to read."

Hughes died in 1967 of complications of prostate cancer at 65. To honor him, his Harlem residence was given landmark status by the New York City Preservation Commission and the street he lived on was renamed " Langston Hughes Place."
READ MORE: 10 of Langston Hughes' Most Popular Poems
Zora Neale Hurston

An author, playwright and filmmaker, Zora Neale Hurston celebrated the culture of the Black rural South like few others. Her love of the South came from her own childhood growing up in the Orlando suburb or Eatonville, the first all-Black town in the country where she was never treated differently or inferior.

Though Hurston's idyllic upbringing came to an end when she turned 13 and her beloved mother died, the writer continued impressing people everywhere she went and eventually made her way north to Harlem, becoming a friend of Hughes.

The two collaborated on a play together, published posthumously, and Hurston gained recognition for her novels and investigations of voodoo culture.

She died in 1960 at 69, with her latest book, written in 1931, finally published in 2018. Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo" tells the story of Cudjo Lewis, who was believed to be the last survivor of the final slave ship that brought Africans to America.
READ MORE: 10 Best-Selling Black Authors Who Shaped Literary History
Louis Armstrong

Known as one of the founding fathers of jazz, Louis Armstrong revolutionized the genre with the work that came out of the Harlem Renaissance.

Growing up in New Orleans, Armstrong was constantly exposed to some of the best jazz musicians in the country. Though his daily life was hard as his single mother struggled to raise him, and he ended up in an orphanage, his love of music and natural talent propelled him to the ranks of some of America's most famous musicians.

After he moved to New York City in 1924 to join the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, Armstrong's unique, soulful and lively solos changed the course of jazz to focus on individual musicians experimenting with sound.

His small group recordings from 1925 to 1928, all during the Renaissance, made Armstrong the most influential musician in jazz, and his singing brought his work to world-wide stardom. Armstrong would later be responsible for enduring hits like "What A Wonderful World" and "Hello Dolly."
READ MORE: How Louis Armstrong Revolutionized American Music
Marcus Garvey

Few activists had the impact Marcus Garvey brought to the African American community in a short span of time - and all out of Harlem. The Jamaican-born leader took residence in Harlem and began a series of innovative projects and movements that focused on the Black working class. While Garvey was seen as a radical figure that advocated for the return to Africa of many dark-skinned African Americans, his motives were to install Black pride in a community oppressed by racism.

In 1914, Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), later making Liberty Hall in Harlem its headquarters. By the 1920s, the UNIA had over 700 chapters across America and Garvey commanded influence.

In August 1920, delegates from around the world packed the hall for a convention, and more than 25,000 people later marched from Harlem to Madison Square Garden, where Garvey held a rally.

Like many African American leaders at the time, Garvey became the target of the U.S. government and he was convicted and imprisoned for mail fraud in 1923. He was later pardoned by President Calvin Coolidge and deported back to Jamaica in 1927.

A tribute to his contribution forever stands in Harlem with Marcus Garvey Park, dedicated to nurturing the community he sought to improve.

Aaron Douglas

Aaron Douglas has long been called the "Father of African Art" thanks to his impactful paintings that were shaped by the pillars of the Harlem Renaissance.

Douglas made his way to New York City from his native Kansas in search of the hubbub of talent he had heard about. Once there, Douglas made famous friends in fellow leaders W.E.B. Du Bois, Alain Locke and James Weldon Johnson, all of whom featured his work in famous publications and even their own books.

The artist was known for his dramatic geometric shapes and flat forms that he used to tell the story of the Black experience.

Douglas eventually made his mark on Harlem permanent with a mural on the New York Public Library's 135th location entitled Aspects of Negro Life. The breathtaking piece shows three facets of the Black experience: a figure symbolizing the escape from slavery, one showing the economic hardships of African Americans and the third holding a saxophone, paying tribute to the rich opportunities Black artists had thanks to the Renaissance.

Countee Cullen

Countee Cullen had a vibrant life after becoming the adopted son of Reverend Frederick A. Cullen, the pastor of Harlem's largest congregation when he was 15.

The poet was quickly influenced by the bedrock of talent around him and had already appeared in national magazines before he graduated from New York University in 1925. He published his first book of poems, Color, that same year. His poems explored modern racial injustice at the time using the classical structures associated with white poets.

Tight with a circle of celebrated writers, Cullen became the assistant editor of Opportunity magazine, an academic journal published by the National Urban League.

Cullen later etched his name into Black high society when he married Yolanda Du Bois in 1928, the daughter of civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois.

Bessie Smith

Bessie Smith became known as the "Empress of the Blues" thanks to her captivating and powerful vocals.

Smith was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee, and was working as a blues singer by the time she was 18. She soon joined the Rabbit Foot Minstrels and met the legendary Ma Rainey, who took Smith under her wing.

Smith eventually made her way to New York where her first release, "Down-Hearted Blues," became a huge hit. She went on to record with legendary artists like Armstrong during her time in the Harlem scene.

While Smith's popularity continued for some time, but toward the end of her life, she lost popularity. She died at 43 years old in 1937 from injuries sustained in a car accident.
READ MORE: Bessie Smith and Ma Rainey Forged a Powerful Friendship That Helped Bring Blues to the Mainstream
Sterling A. Brown

Poet Sterling A. Brown was welcomed into the Harlem Renaissance legacy after his first book Southern Road was published to critical acclaim.

Born in 1901 in Washington, D.C., Brown received a high-profile education at places like Williams College and Harvard University, later teaching at Howard University.

His work was influenced by African American music and his writings mused on race and class in America, like that of Hurston, Hughes and Cullen. Though the Great Depression kept him from being published again for decades, Brown eventually released his second book, The Last Ride of Wild Bill, in 1975.

Alice Dunbar Nelson

Alice Dunbar Nelson was born to mixed-race parents in New Orleans, setting the tone for the nuanced take on race, gender and ethnicity she explored through her work.

A poet and activist, Dunbar Nelson's first book, Violets and Other Tales (1985), was published when she was just 20 years old. A writer of many genres, Dunbar Nelson is most remembered for her prose. As one of the only female African American diarists of the era, she wrote about topics such as racism, sexuality and family.

She made her mark on the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance through her many reviews of writers like Hughes while living in the New York City neighborhood. Dunbar Nelson is also credited for helping establish the White Rose Mission in Harlem, a Christian, nonsectarian Home for Colored Girls and Women. The Mission also offered job placement for African Americans coming to the city in the post-Civil War migration.

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As the Great Migration of African Americans made its way north, New York City's Harlem neighborhood became a vibrant hotspot for musicians, writers, entertainers and thinkers. The collection of talent, all within a few city blocks, became known as the Harlem Renaissance. Lasting between the 1910s and the mid-1930s, the influence of the time is still felt today.

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The Three Equations for a Happy Life, Even During a Pandemic

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The Three Equations for a Happy Life, Even During a Pandemic

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"How to Build a Life" is a new column that aims to give you the tools you need to construct a life that feels whole and meaningful.

Jan Buchczik

It seems strange to launch a column on happiness during a pandemic. The timing is, well, awkward, isn't it?

Maybe not. We're stuck at home; our lives on COVID time have slowed to a near halt. This creates all sorts of obvious inconveniences, of course. But in the involuntary quiet, many of us also sense an opportunity to think a little more deeply about life. In our go-go-go world, we rarely get the chance to stop and consider the big drivers of our happiness and our sense of purpose.

On second thought, maybe this is the perfect time to launch a column on happiness.

I teach a class at the Harvard Business School on happiness. It surprises some people when I tell them this-that a subject like happiness is taught alongside accounting, finance, and other, more traditional MBA fare. Nathaniel Hawthorne once famously said, "Happiness is a butterfly, which, when pursued, is always just beyond your grasp, but which, if you will sit down quietly, may alight upon you." This is not exactly the stuff of business administration.

But if you imagine my students sitting outside in a circle (or in a virtual circle on videochat, these days) hoping to have a butterfly land on us, you're wrong. Here are a few of our topics: "Affect and the Limbic System," "The Neurobiology of Body Language," "Homeostasis and the Persistence of Subjective Well-Being," "Oxytocin and Love," "Acquisition Centrality and Negative Affect," and "The Hedonic Treadmill."

The scientific study of happiness has exploded over the past three decades. The Nobel Prize winners Daniel Kahneman and Angus Deaton (both at Princeton University) publish extensively on the subject. The University of Pennsylvania has a whole graduate-degree program in positive psychology, led by Martin Seligman, one of the most distinguished social psychologists in the world. A peer-reviewed academic journal called the Journal of Happiness Studies has been in operation since the year 2000 and enjoys high prestige in scholarly circles.

Religion, philosophy, and the arts have long considered happiness a subject suitable for study. The sciences have only recently caught up. This column, which we're calling "How to Build a Life," will draw on all these sources of wisdom in the hope of helping you identify the building blocks of happiness-family, career, friendships, faith, and so on-and giving you the tools to use them to construct a life that is balanced and full of meaning, and that serves your values.

This column has been in the works for some time, but my hope is that launching it during the pandemic will help you leverage a contemplative mindset while you have the time to think about what matters most to you. I hope this column will enrich your life, and equip you to enrich the lives of the people you love and lead.

To start us off, I want to give you three equations for well-being-equations that, in my opinion, you need to know to start managing your own happiness more proactively.

Equation 1: Subjective Well-being = Genes + Circumstances + Habits

Subjective well-being is a term of art usually used by social scientists. Why not happiness? Many scientists consider happiness as a term to be too vague and too subjective, and to contain too many competing ideas. In everyday language, happiness is used to denote everything from a passing good mood to a deeper sense of meaning in life. The term subjective well-being, on the other hand, refers to an answer to this kind of question: "Taken all together, how would you say things are these days-would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?" (That is the actual wording from one of the most prominent surveys that address the subject, the General Social Survey.)
Read: The Yale happiness class, distilled
Equation 1 summarizes a vast amount of literature on subjective well-being, starting with the question of the heritability of happiness. Personally, I dislike the idea that happiness is genetic; I dislike the idea that anything about my character or personality is genetic, because I want to be fully in charge of building my life. But the research is clear that there is a huge genetic component in determining your "set point" for subjective well-being, the baseline you always seem to return to after events sway your mood. In an article in the journal Psychological Science reporting on an analysis of twins-including identical twins reared apart and then tested for subjective well-being as adults-the psychologists David Lykken and Auke Tellegen estimate that the genetic component of a person's well-being is between 44 percent and 52 percent, that is, about half.

The other two components are your circumstances and your habits. Research is all over the map on what percentage each part represents. Circumstances-the good and the bad that enter all of our lives-could make up as little as 10 percent or as much as 40 percent of your subjective well-being. Even if circumstances play a big role, however, most scholars think it doesn't matter very much, because the effects of circumstance never last very long.

We may think that getting a big promotion will make us permanently happier or that a bad breakup will leave us permanently brokenhearted, but it isn't true, as a casual look back on your own life would surely attest. Indeed, one of the survival traits of human beings is psychological homeostasis, or the tendency to get used to circumstances quickly, both good and bad. This is the main reason money doesn't buy happiness: We get used to what it buys very rapidly and then go back to our happiness set point. And for those of us lucky enough to avoid illness, even the unhappiness from the COVID-19 crisis will be in the rearview mirror before very long.

Genes and circumstances aren't a productive focus in your quest for happiness. But don't worry, there's one variable left that affects long-term well-being and is under our control: habits. To understand habits, we need Equation 2.

Equation 2: Habits = Faith + Family + Friends + Work

This is my summary of thousands of academic studies, and to be fair, many scholars would dispute it as too crude. But I am convinced that it is accurate. Enduring happiness comes from human relationships, productive work, and the transcendental elements of life.

A little bit of clarification is in order here. First, faith doesn't mean any faith in particular. I practice the Catholic faith and am happy to recommend it to anyone, but the research is clear that many different faiths and secular life philosophies can provide this happiness edge. The key is to find a structure through which you can ponder life's deeper questions and transcend a focus on your narrow self-interests to serve others.

Similarly, there is no magic formula for what shape your family and friendships should take. The key is to cultivate and maintain loving, faithful relationships with other people. One extraordinary 75-year study followed Harvard graduates from 1939 to 1944, into their 90s, looking at all aspects of their health and well-being. The principal investigator, the psychologist George Vaillant, summarized the findings as follows: "Happiness is love. Full stop." People who have loving relationships with family and friends thrive; those who don't, don't.

Finally, there's work. Maybe it shocks you that work is part of this equation; it shouldn't. One of the most robust findings in the happiness literature is the centrality of productive human endeavor in creating a sense of purpose in life. Of course, there are better jobs and worse jobs, but most researchers don't think unemployment brings anything but misery.

Read: Meaning is healthier than happiness

What kind of work? White collar or blue collar? Stay-at-home parenting? Work requiring college? A super-high-paying job? My own research as a social scientist has focused on this subject, and I can tell you that these are the wrong questions. What makes work meaningful is not the kind of work it is, but the sense it gives you that you are earning your success and serving others.

Equation 2 is especially worth considering during our pandemic isolation. Ask yourself: Is my happiness portfolio balanced across these four accounts? Do I need to move some things around? Are there habits I can change during this pause?

I asserted above the old claim "Money doesn't buy happiness." It's not quite that simple, of course. I should say, "Money doesn't buy satisfaction." Homeostasis sees to that, in the form of what psychologists call the hedonic treadmill: People never feel they have enough money, because they get used to their circumstances very quickly and need more money to make them happy again. Don't believe it? Think back to your last significant pay increase. When did you get the greatest satisfaction-on the day your boss told you that you were getting a raise? The day it starting hitting your bank account? And how much satisfaction was it giving you six months later?

You might be tempted to conclude that satisfaction is out of reach. But that's not quite right. Equation 3 provides a better way of thinking about satisfaction.

Equation 3: Satisfaction = What you have ÷ What you want

Many great spiritual leaders have made this point, of course. In his book The Art of Happiness (written with the psychiatrist Howard Cutler), the Dalai Lama stated, "We need to learn how to want what we have not to have what we want in order to get steady and stable Happiness." The Spanish Catholic saint Josemaría Escrivá made the same point in a slightly different way: "Don't forget it: he has most who needs least. Don't create needs for yourself."

This is not just a gauzy spiritual nostrum, however-it is an intensely practical formula for living. Many of us go about our lives desperately trying to increase the numerator of Equation 3; we try to achieve higher levels of satisfaction by increasing what we have-by working, spending, working, spending, and on and on. But the hedonic treadmill makes this pure futility. Satisfaction will always escape our grasp.
Read: How happiness changes with age
The secret to satisfaction is to focus on the denominator of Equation 3. Don't obsess about your haves; manage your wants, instead. Don't count your possessions (or your money, power, prestige, romantic partners, or fame) and try to figure out how to increase them; make an inventory of your worldly desires and try to decrease them. Make a bucket list-but not of exotic vacations and expensive stuff. Make a list of the attachments in your life you need to discard. Then, make a plan to do just that. The fewer wants there are screaming inside your brain and dividing your attention, the more peace and satisfaction will be left for what you already have.

Perhaps decreasing the denominator of Equation 3 is a little easier for you than normal during your isolation, because your expectations have diminished along with your physical ability to meet them. Can you find a way to continue this after the material world begins to beckon again in a few weeks or months?

Think of these three equations as the first class in the mechanics of building a life. But there is much, much more where all that comes from. Hence, this new column. In the coming months, I will pull back the curtain on the art and science of happiness to show how the brightest ideas can illuminate new solutions to our ordinary challenges.

Stay tuned. In the meantime, while you are still stuck at home, go study your equations.

We want to hear what you think about this article. Submit a letter to the editor or write to letters@theatlantic.com.

Arthur C. Brooks is a contributing writer at The Atlantic, a professor of the practice of public leadership at the Harvard Kennedy School, a senior fellow at the Harvard Business School, and host of the podcast The Art of Happiness With Arthur Brooks.

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spanish catholic saint josemaría escrivá

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The Three Equations for a Happy Life, Even During a Pandemic

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"How to Build a Life" is a new column that aims to give you the tools you need to construct a life that feels whole and meaningful. It seems strange to launch a column on happiness during a pandemic. The timing is, well, awkward, isn't it? Maybe not.

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Misperceptions abound when it comes to what we think will make us happy. People often believe that happiness will be achieved once they reach a certain milestone, such as finding the perfect partner or landing a particular salary.

Humans, however, are excellent at adapting to new circumstances, which means that people will habituate to their new relationship or wealth, return to a baseline level of happiness, and seek out the next milestone. Fortunately, the same principle applies to setbacks-we are resilient and will most likely find happiness again.

Regarding finances specifically, research shows that the sweet spot for yearly income is between $60,000 and $95,000 a year, not a million-dollar salary. Earnings above $95,000 do not equate to increased well-being; a person earning $150,000 a year will not necessarily be as happy as a person earning a lot less.

The type of thoughts below exemplify these misconceptions about happiness:

"I'll be happy when I'm rich and successful."

"I'll be happy when I'm married to the right person."

"Landing my dream job will make me happy."

"I can't be happy when my relationship has fallen apart."

"I will never recover from this diagnosis."

"The best years of my life are over."

For more, see The Science of Happiness.

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Happiness is an electrifying and elusive state. Philosophers, theologians, psychologists, and even economists have long sought to define it. And since the 1990s, a whole branch of psychology-positive psychology-has been dedicated to pinning it down. More than simply positive mood, happiness is a state of well-being that encompasses living a good life, one with a sense of meaning and deep contentment.

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Mapped: Global Happiness Levels in 2021

"Are you happy?" is a deceptively complex question to both ask and answer.

It's generally understood that having enough money to cover your needs and wants can help you live a relatively happy, comfortable life-and recent research shows this relationship may increase linearly as income levels grow, as well.

However, there's much more to it than that. Happiness levels depend not just on financial security, but also broader perceptions of one's social support, personal freedom, and more.

This series of map pulls data from the World Happiness Report to uncover the average scores of 149 countries between 2018-2020, and which ones emerged the happiest or unhappiest. We also look at the most and least improved countries in every region.

How is Happiness Measured?

First, let's look at the factors used to calculate world happiness levels. Some clear indicators are health and wealth, both metrics that have been steadily on the rise worldwide. The report takes these into account, weighting GDP per capita and life expectancy at birth into the scores.

The report also looks at more intangible aspects, collecting survey responses around:

Social support

Freedom to make life choices

Generosity

Perceptions of government/ business corruption

Positive or negative affects (Recent experience of emotions)

This year, there was a natural focus on the negative affect measure of the COVID-19 pandemic on happiness levels, such as exacerbating mental health risks. In addition, such measurements varied depending on each country's response to the crisis.

Looking Closely at Regional Happiness Levels

Worldwide happiness comes in at an average score of 5.5, a marginal improvement since our previous coverage of this report in 2019. Let's dive into regional outlooks for happiness levels.

North America

Current Mood: Happy (6.1)

Canada retains its spot as the happiest country in North America, although its overall global ranking has dropped over the years. In 2019, it was ranked in ninth place globally, dropping to 11th in the 2020 edition, and declining further to 14th place in this year's report.

Haiti continues to fare poorly as the unhappiest in the region, with an average annual GDP growth of only 1.3% over 20 years. Its weak economy and political instability have been worsened by the pandemic-setting back efforts to reduce poverty and widening inequality.

South America

Current Mood: Content (5.9)

With the largest middle class in the Americas- 60% of its population-and a miniscule 0.1% extreme poverty rate, Uruguay is the happiest South American country. The nation has also achieved equitable access to basic services, from education to electricity.

The trio of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela are experiencing different stages of progress in happiness levels, but their relationship is very much interdependent.

Venezuela and Ecuador face similar economic challenges and sharp declines in oil prices. Venezuela is additionally acutely affected by socio-political unrest, triggering a mass exodus of citizens to Ecuador and Colombia alike. The silver lining is that the influx of highly-educated Venezuelan migrants may provide a 2% boost to Ecuador's GDP.

Colombia, the most improved country, has halved its poverty rate in the last decade. In addition, it has welcomed almost 2 million Venezuelan migrants as of Dec 2020-and plans to provide them up to 10 years of protective status.

Europe

Current Mood: Happy (6.4)

Finland remains at the top of the leaderboard as the world's happiest country. This year's ranking was also influenced by high levels of trust in the way the COVID-19 pandemic was handled.

Meanwhile, the shock of the COVID-19 crisis is expected to be short-lived in Croatia, which is the most improved country. This is partly due to its steady pre-pandemic economic gains, although risks remain.

In the unhappiest country of Ukraine, conflicts continue to cause stress on its politics, security, and economy. In particular, government corruption remains a big public issue.

Middle East and Central Asia

Current Mood: It's Complicated (5.3)

Saudi Arabia is the most improved country in the region, as it continues to reduce its oil dependence, diversify its economy, and bolster its public services. It has also been making some progress towards gender equality.

The tourism and hospitality industries contribute nearly 20% of Jordan's GDP-and COVID-19 has caused a prolonged economic decline in the country along with the headwinds of these industries.

Although Afghanistan has seen improvements in access to basic services and its agricultural economy, challenges remain with prolonged conflict and violence. A post-pandemic recovery in the world's unhappiest country might take several years.

East Asia and Oceania

Current Mood: Neutral (5.5)

Both New Zealand and Taiwan saw a successful COVID-19 response and recovery boosting their positions in the global happiness rankings. In fact, New Zealand was the only non-European country to make it into the top 10 on the global happiness list.
Note: As the report only covers 149 countries, "Oceania" only refers to Australia and New Zealand in this instance.
Although India remains the unhappiest country in the region, it also showed the most improvement overall, possibly due to its increased access to basic services. Notably though, the pandemic caused a sharp economic contraction in real GDP by 23.9% year-over-year in Q1'2021.

Africa

Current Mood: Unhappy (4.5)

In July 2020, the island nation of Mauritius joined Seychelles to become the second high-income country in Africa, helping cement its status as the happiest in the region.

Zambia, the most improved African country, has one of the world's youngest populations by median age-which presents long-term opportunities for labor force participation.

On the flip side, agriculturally-reliant Benin struggles with high poverty, with close to 40% of the population living below $1.90 per day.

Zimbabwe, the unhappiest country, has been through not just natural disasters but financial disasters too. It experienced hyperinflation of 786% in May 2020, accompanied by an equally sharp rise in food prices.

Although each country has been uniquely impacted by the pandemic, it's clear that on the whole, happiness levels take into account so much more. How will future rankings look like in a post-pandemic world?

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Mapped: Happiness Levels Around the World in 2021

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"Are you happy?" is a deceptively complex question to both ask and answer. It's generally understood that having enough money to cover your needs and wants can help you live a relatively happy, comfortable life-and recent research shows this relationship may increase linearly as income levels grow, as well.

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With more than 16,756 entries from amateur and professional photographers, the 50 finalists of Agora's #Happiness2020 World Best Photo competition, @Agoraimages, are a joyful show of how happiness looks around the world.

The images capturing moments of joy occurring in all corners of the globe, from touching family moments and children playing to friends of all ages laughing together, have been released by Agora, a photography platform that organizes international photo contests , as part of the competition to select the #Happiness2019Hero, #Agora.

The winning photo will be announced on January 2, 2020.

"Agora is a free-to-use photography social platform that gathers a community of more than 3.5 million users from 193 countries," the organizers explain. "Over the past couple of years, Agora has transitioned from being a social photo market to a digital channel where people create, vote and curate the best images made worldwide."

All 50 finalists can be seen here.

Follow me on Twitter or LinkedIn. Check out some of my other work here.

... Read More

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The Happiest Photos Of The Year: 20 Joyful Images Finalists Of Agora's World Competition

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With more than 16,756 entries from amateur and professional photographers, the 50 finalists of Agora's #Happiness2020 World Best Photo competition, @Agoraimages, are a joyful show of how happiness looks around the world.

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Who Was Paul Revere?

Paul Revere was born in the North End neighborhood of Boston at the end of 1734 (the exact date is unknown) to a French Huguenot father who ran a silversmith shop and a mother from a local family.

The young Revere was educated in reading and writing in school before completing his training as an apprentice to his silversmith father. At age 19, Revere inherited the business upon his father's death. But he left the business briefly and enlisted in a provincial army in 1756 during the French and Indian War.

Children

Revere returned to Boston after a failed military expedition and started to build his family life and business. He wed Sarah Orne in 1765, and they had eight children before she died nearly two decades later.

The silversmith was resourceful and dabbled in a range of work, taking on apprentices and workers who created specialty flatware, silver bowls, tea sets and even casting the first bell in Boston in his foundry. He turned to dentistry to augment his income when the colonial economy faltered during a recession.

Revere's network was also expanding to include local activists angered by British rule. In the mid-1760s, as tensions were rising between the colonists and the British, he joined the rebellious Sons of Liberty.

Revere took part in the Stamp Act protests in 1765, which eventually led the Crown to repeal a tax that ignited the colonists' hatred of taxation without representation.

Did you know? Paul Revere did not gain immediate fame for his April 1775 "Midnight Ride." In fact, it wasn't until Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1861 poem, which greatly embellished Revere's role, that he became the folk hero we think of today.

Boston Massacre

With British troops in Boston and a rebellion stewing, Revere became a master propagandist, using his artisan skills to craft engravings that incited the colonists to join in the rebellion.

The growing unrest boiled over on March 5, 1770, when British troops and a crowd of colonists faced off on Boston's King Street near the Customs house. The tense standoff ended in the Boston Massacre, as the British used their bayonet rifles to shoot and kill five unarmed colonists.

One of Reveres' best-known pieces of propaganda depicted the violent night. He reworked a Henry Pelham drawing in an engraving and widely distributed prints of the stark image of armed British troops taking aim at the colonists.

Paul Revere's House

Amid the growing political tensions in Boston, Revere continued to strengthen his roots in the colonial harbor city. In 1770, he bought the now-landmarked Paul Revere House at 19 North Square for his growing family.

Revere lived in his North End home on and off for 30 years as his family continued to evolve. After the death of his wife, Sarah, in 1773, he married Rachel Walker and they had eight additional children.

Revere sold the home in 1800, and it was purchased by his great-grandson roughly a century later to ensure it was preserved. The 1680 structure still stands today as the oldest building in downtown Boston.

The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere

As Revere was settling into his Boston home in the early 1770s, he became active politically. He responded to the new laws about tea imports that bypassed Boston's merchants by attending secret meetings with the inner circle who planned the Boston Tea Party. Revere joined other activists and dumped tea from the British East India Company on December 16, 1773, into Boston's harbor.

His activism extended beyond the confines of Boston when Revere began work as a courier and rode from Boston to New York on horse to spread information about the colonies.

When his associates learned the British were moving troops out of Boston and planned to arrest revolutionary leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock in Lexington, Massachusetts, Revere was tasked with tipping them off to help them avoid arrest.

He first used his signal system and had two lanterns placed on the Old North Church steeple in Boston to alert those on the harbor that the troops had left Boston and were crossing the Charles River.

Then, at about 10 p.m. on April 18, 1775, Revere set out in the dark from his North Boston home by horse with William Dawes to reach Adams and Hancock. The two riders met Adams and Hancock in Lexington and enabled the revolutionaries to avoid arrest.

Revere's next stop that late night was Concord, Massachusetts, a hotbed of the resistance and the suspected location of the British troops' second attack. But Revere, Dawes and a third rider named Samuel Prescott were captured by the British en route, and only Prescott reached Concord.

Revere was soon released, but he had already helped give the colonial militia a key advantage by alerting them to the impending attack by the British. The Battles of Lexington and Concord would spark the Revolutionary War.

Paul Revere's Ride

Revere remained active in the Revolutionary War, building Boston's first gunpowder mill and joining a Massachusetts infantry, but his remaining war record was lackluster, and he was largely unknown in his lifetime.

He became an American folk hero about 100 years later because of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's stirring retelling of his act of patriotism in "Paul Revere's Ride."

It begins with the now-famous lines, "Listen, my children, and you shall hear of the midnight ride of Paul Revere" and depicts a dangerous, midnight ride as Revere warns the colonists about the British attack. The poem recounts his lantern signal system in the lines "one if by land, two if by sea."

The stirring poem made him an American hero, and while it contains historical inaccuracies-such as claiming Revere rode alone-the poem highlights the risks taken by this patriot at the start of the American Revolution.
READ MORE: 7 Events That Led to the American Revolution
Sources

The Paul Revere House. Paul Revere Memorial Association.
"Paul Revere's Ride." Academy of American Poets.
Revolutionary War Battles. American Battlefield Trust.
Paul Revere. Boston Tea Party Ships & Museum.
Voices of the Revolution: The Five Riders. Constitution Facts.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Paul Revere: House, Midnight Ride, Boston Massacre - HISTORY

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Paul Revere was born in the North End neighborhood of Boston at the end of 1734 (the exact date is unknown) to a French Huguenot father who ran a silversmith shop and a mother from a local family. The young Revere was educated in reading and writing in school before completing his training as an apprentice to his silversmith father.

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Tea, Taxes, and The American Revolution: Crash Course World History #28

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What British People in 1776 Really Thought of American Independence

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“None can profit by the continuance of this war,” one trade group noted

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War of Words Erupts into the American Revolution