# data[].attributes.location_name
Valdivia, Валдивија, Чиле

# data[].attributes.headline
Valdivia, Валдивија, Чиле

# data[].attributes.subject
Valdivia, Валдивија, Чиле

# data[].attributes.body
Valdivia, Čile (22. svibnja 1960.)

Najjači potres zabilježen u povijesti (9,5 po Rihterovoj skali). Uništeno je više od 40% zgrada u Valdiviji, uzrokujući smrt nekoliko tisuća ljudi i raseljavanje milijuna.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

File history

Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time.

Date/Time

Thumbnail

Dimensions

User

Comment

current
20:59, 19 May 2010
1,483 × 789 (626 KB)

Saibo

reworked using GIMP: grayscale, corrected color curve

20:57, 19 May 2010
1,483 × 789 (671 KB)

Saibo

converted tiff from http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/img/200_res/45/45_904.tif to jpeg using max quality setting

21:07, 12 March 2006
1,483 × 789 (172 KB)

B1mbo

{{es|Daño producido por un terremoto a casas de madera de buena calidad en Valdivia, Chile, 1960. Fotógrafo: Pierre St. Amand}} {{en|Earthquake damage to good quality, wood-frame houses in Valdivia, Chile, 1960. Photo credit: Pierre St. Amand}}

Global file usage

The following other wikis use this file:

Usage on ast.wikipedia.org

Usage on ca.wikipedia.org

Usage on da.wikipedia.org

Usage on de.wikipedia.org

Usage on es.wikipedia.org

Usage on fr.wikipedia.org

View more global usage of this file.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Sumatra, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.headline
Sumatra, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.subject
Sumatra, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.body
Sumatra, Indonezija (26. prosinca 2004.)

Potres magnitude 9,1 izazvao je tsunami koji je pogodio 14 zemalja, uzrokujući više od 227.000 smrtnih slučajeva i raseljavanje milijuna ljudi.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
On 26 December 2004, at 07:58:53 local time ( UTC+7), a major earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1-9.3 struck with an epicentre off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The undersea megathrust earthquake, known by the scientific community as the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, was caused by a rupture along the fault between the Burma Plate and the Indian Plate, and reached a Mercalli intensity up to IX in some areas.

A massive tsunami with waves up to 30 m (100 ft) high, known in some countries as the Boxing Day Tsunami after the Boxing Day holiday, devastated communities along the surrounding coasts of the Indian Ocean, killing an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries in one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. The direct results caused major disruptions to living conditions and commerce in coastal provinces of surrounded countries, including Aceh (Indonesia), Sri Lanka, Tamil Nadu ( India) and Khao Lak (Thailand). Banda Aceh reported the largest number of deaths. It remains the deadliest natural disaster of the 21st century.

It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Asia, the most powerful earthquake in the 21st century, and at least the third most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the world since modern seismography began in 1900. It had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between eight and ten minutes. It caused the planet to vibrate as much as 10 mm (0.4 in), and also remotely triggered earthquakes as far away as Alaska. Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Sumatra. The plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response, with donations totalling more than US$14 billion (equivalent to US$22 billion in 2022 currency).

Earthquake

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was initially documented as having a moment magnitude of 8.8. In February 2005, scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0. Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has, as of 2022, so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. A 2006 study estimated a magnitude of 9.1-9.3; Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology estimates that M w  9.2 is representative of the earthquake's size.

The hypocentre of the main earthquake was approximately 160 km (100 mi) off the western coast of northern Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean just north of Simeulue island at a depth of 30 km (19 mi) below mean sea level (initially reported as 10 km or 6.2 mi). The northern section of the Sunda megathrust ruptured over a length of 1,300 km (810 mi). The earthquake (followed by the tsunami) was felt in Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Splay faults, or secondary "pop up faults", caused long, narrow parts of the seafloor to pop up in seconds. This quickly elevated the height and increased the speed of waves, destroying the nearby Indonesian town of Lhoknga.

Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to New Guinea, and the Alpide belt that runs along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores to Timor. The 2002 Sumatra earthquake is believed to have been a foreshock, preceding the main event by over two years.

Historical comparisons

Great earthquakes, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, are associated with megathrust events in subduction zones. Their seismic moments can account for a significant fraction of the global seismic moment across century-scale periods. Of all the moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one eighth was due to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. This quake, together with the Great Alaskan earthquake (1964) and the Great Chilean earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment.

Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Valdivia earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Alaska earthquake in Prince William Sound (magnitude 9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 5 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0) and Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.1) in March 2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. In comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes and tsunamis was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas.

Comparisons with earlier earthquakes are difficult, as earthquake strength were not measured systematically until the 1930s. However, historical earthquake strength can sometimes be estimated by examining historical descriptions of the damage caused, and the geological records of the areas where they occurred. Some examples of significant historical megathrust earthquakes are the 1868 Arica earthquake in Peru and the 1700 Cascadia earthquake in western North America.

Tectonic plates

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of fault surface slipped (or ruptured) about 15 m (50 ft) along the subduction zone where the Indian Plate slides under (or subducts) the overriding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over several minutes: Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400 km (250 mi) long and 100 km (60 mi) wide, 30 km (19 mi) beneath the sea bed-the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at about 2.8 km/s (1.74 mi/s; 10,100 km/h; 6,260 mph), beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over about 100 seconds. After a pause of about another 100 seconds, the rupture continued northwards towards the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about 2.1 km/s (1.3 mi/s; 7,600 km/h; 4,700 mph), continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to strike-slip (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions).

The Indian Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is moving north-east at an average of 60 mm/a (0.075 in/Ms). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point, the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate, causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc.

As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake resulted in a rise of the seafloor by several metres, displacing an estimated 30 km ³ (7.2 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves radiated outwards along the entire 1,600 km (1,000 mi) length of the rupture (acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the seafloor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated 0.1 mm (0.004 in).

Aftershocks and other earthquakes

Initial earthquake and aftershocks measuring greater than 4.0 Mw  from 26 December 2004 to 10 January 2005

Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.7 2005 Nias-Simeulue earthquake, which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias, is not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicentre, and was most likely triggered by stress changes associated with the 2004 event. The earthquake produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as high as 6.1) and presently ranks as the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude or Richter magnitude scale.

Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for three or four months. As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior.

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in the sub-antarctic Auckland Islands, an uninhabited region west of New Zealand, and Macquarie Island to Australia's north. This is unusual since earthquakes of magnitude eight or more occur only about once per year on average. The U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events.

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have triggered activity in both Leuser Mountain and Mount Talang, volcanoes in Aceh along the same range of peaks, while the 2005 Nias-Simeulue earthquake had sparked activity in Lake Toba, an ancient crater in Sumatra.

Energy released

The energy released on the Earth's surface ( M E, which is the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was estimated at 1.1×10 ¹⁷ joules (110 PJ; 26 Mt). This energy is equivalent to over 1,500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated.

Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic waves that exceeded 10 mm (0.4 in) in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicentre in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200-minute mark. The aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances but is dwarfed by the mainshock.

The shift of mass and the massive release of energy slightly altered the Earth's rotation. Weeks after the earthquake, theoretical models suggested the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth. It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 25 mm (1 in) in the direction of 145° east longitude, or perhaps by up to 50 or 60 mm (2.0 or 2.4 in). Because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases at an average of 15 microseconds per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m (50 ft), eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.

There was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 4-5 m (13-16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to 36 m (120 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 0.2 m (8 in). Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) and to have sunk by 1 m (3 ft 3 in).

In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between 1,000 and 5,000 m (550 and 2,730 fathoms; 3,300 and 16,400 ft). The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a considerable impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500-metre-high (5,000 ft) thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometres wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m (330 ft) high and 2 km (1.2 mi) long. The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tonnes, as far as 10 km (6 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.

The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean. These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies in the order of 500 mm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami. Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.

The tsunami, like all others, behaved differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a low, broad hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at high speed of 500 to 1,000 km/h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 m (80 ft) when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to 30 m (100 ft) in some areas when travelling inland. Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: maximum height was at 600 mm (2 ft) two hours after the earthquake, the first such observations ever made.

Because the 1,600 km (1,000 mi) fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicentre. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.

Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of safety, as Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.

Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines. The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast.

Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around 200 to 400 mm (7.9 to 15.7 in). At Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8.5 ft) crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver, which puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates.

Early signs and warnings

Tsunamis are more frequent in the Pacific Ocean than in other oceans because of earthquakes in the " Ring of Fire". Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where the earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Not every earthquake produces large tsunamis: on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami.

Tsunami wave field in the Bay of Bengal an hour after the earthquake

One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Simeulue, close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami struck. These tales and oral folklore from previous generations may have helped the survival of the inhabitants. On Maikhao Beach in north Phuket City, Thailand, a 10-year-old British tourist named Tilly Smith had studied tsunamis in geography at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely. John Chroston, a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground.

Anthropologists had initially expected the aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands to be badly affected by the tsunami and even feared the already depopulated Onge tribe could have been wiped out. Many of the aboriginal tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties, however. Oral traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of "huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water". Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived the tsunami.

Apung 1, a 2,600-ton vessel, was flung some 2 km (1.2 mi) to 3 km (1.9 mi) inland. In the years following the disaster, it became a local tourist attraction and has remained where it came to rest.

The level of destruction was extreme on the northwestern areas of the city, immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds, and directly facing the Indian Ocean. The tsunami height was reduced from 12 m (39 ft) at Ulee Lheue to 6 m (20 ft) a further 8 km (5.0 mi) to the north-east. The inundation was observed to extend 3-4 km (1.9-2.5 mi) inland throughout the city. Within 2-3 km (1.2-1.9 mi) of the shoreline, houses, except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were swept away or destroyed by the tsunami. The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river, dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth at the city was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground-floor storefronts. In the seaside section of Ulee Lheue, the flow depths were over 9 m (30 ft). Footage showed evidence of back-flowing of the Aceh River, carrying debris and people from destroyed villages at the coast and transporting them up to 40 km (25 mi) inland.

Lhoknga is a small coastal community about 13 km (8.1 mi) south-west of Banda Aceh, located on a flat coastal plain in between two rainforest-covered hills, overlooking a large bay and famous for its large swathe of white sandy beach and surfing activities. The locals reported 10 to 12 waves, with the second and third being the highest and most destructive. Interviews with the locals revealed that the sea temporarily receded and exposed coral reefs. In the distant horizon, gigantic black waves about 30 m (98 ft) high made explosion-like sounds as it broke and approached the shore. The first wave came rapidly landward from the south-west as a turbulent bore about 0.5-2.5 m (1.6-8.2 ft) high. The second and third waves were 15-30 m (49-98 ft) high at the coast and appeared like gigantic surfing waves but "taller than the coconut trees and was like a mountain". The second wave was the largest; it came from the west-southwest within five minutes of the first wave. The tsunami stranded cargo ships, barges and destroyed a cement mining facility near the Lampuuk coast, where it reached the fourth level of the building.

Baiturrahim Mosque survived the tsunami in Ulee Lheue, Banda Aceh

The greatest run-up height of the tsunami was measured at a hill between Lhoknga and Leupung, on the western coast of the northern tip of Sumatra, near Banda Aceh, and reached 51 m (167 ft).

The tsunami heights in Sumatra:

15-30 m (49-98 ft) on the west coast of Aceh

6-12 m (20-39 ft) on the Banda Aceh coast

6 m (20 ft) on the Krueng Raya coast

5 m (16 ft) on the Sigli coast

3-6 m (9.8-19.7 ft) on the north coast of Weh Island directly facing the tsunami source

3 m (9.8 ft) on the opposite side of the coast of Weh Island facing the tsunami

The island country of Sri Lanka, located about 1,700 km (1,100 mi) from Sumatra, was ravaged by the tsunami around 2 hours after the earthquake. The tsunami first struck the eastern coastline and subsequently refracted around the southern point of Sri Lanka (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves then inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy was reflected from impact with the Maldives. In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only to those in Indonesia, with approximately 35,000 killed. The eastern shores of Sri Lanka were the hardest hit since it faced the epicentre of the earthquake, while the southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists and fishing. The degradation of the natural environment in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. Approximately 90,000 buildings and many wooden houses were destroyed.

The tsunami arrived on the island as a small brown-orange-coloured flood. Moments later, the ocean floor was exposed as much as 1 km (0.62 mi) in places, which was followed by massive second and third waves. Amateur video recorded at the city of Galle showed a large deluge flooding the city, carrying debris and sweeping away people while in the coastal resort town of Beruwala, the tsunami appeared as a huge brown-orange-coloured bore which reached the first level of a hotel, causing destruction and taking people unaware. Other videos recorded showed that the tsunami appeared like a flood raging inland. The construction of seawalls and breakwaters reduced the power of waves at some locations.

The largest run-up measured was at 12.5 m (41 ft) with inundation distance of 390-1,500 m (1,280-4,920 ft) in Yala. In Hambantota, run-ups measured 11 m (36 ft) with the greatest inundation distance of 2 km (1.2 mi). Run-up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at 2.4-4.11 m (7 ft 10 in - 13 ft 6 in). Waves measured on the east coast ranged from 4.5-9 m (15-30 ft) at Pottuvill to Batticaloa at 2.6-5 m (8 ft 6 in - 16 ft 5 in) in the north-east around Trincomalee and 4-5 m (13-16 ft) in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda.

Sri Lanka tsunami height survey:

9 m (30 ft) at Koggala

6 m (20 ft) at Galle port

4.8 m (16 ft) around the Galle coast

8.7 m (29 ft) at Nonagama

4.9 m (16 ft) at Weligama

4 m (13 ft) at Dodundawa

4.7 m (15 ft) at Ambalangoda

4.7 m (15 ft) at Hikkaduwa Fishery Harbour

10 m (33 ft) at Kahawa

4.8 m (16 ft) at North Beach of Beruwala

6 m (20 ft) at Paiyagala

The tsunami travelled eastward through the Andaman Sea and hit the south-western coasts of Thailand, about 2 hours after the earthquake. Located about 500 km (310 mi) from the epicentre, at the time, the region was popular with tourists because of Christmas. Many of these tourists were caught off-guard by the tsunami, as they had no prior warning. The tsunami hit during high tide. Major locations damaged included the western shores of Phuket island, the resort town of Khao Lak in Phang Nga Province, the coastal provinces of Krabi, Satun, Ranong and Trang and small offshore islands like Ko Racha Yai, the Phi Phi islands, the Surin Islands and the Similan archipelago. Approximately 8,000 people were killed.

Thailand experienced the second largest tsunami run-up. The tsunami heights recorded:

6-10 m (20-33 ft) in Khao Lak

3-6 m (9.8-19.7 ft) along the west coast of Phuket island

3 m (9.8 ft) along the south coast of Phuket island

2 m (6 ft 7 in) along the east coast of Phuket island

4-6 m (13-20 ft) on the Phi Phi Islands

19.6 m (64 ft) at Ban Thung Dap

5 m (16 ft) at Ramson

6.8 m (22 ft) at Ban Thale Nok

5 m (16 ft) at Hat Praphat (Ranong Coastal Resources Research Station)

6.3 m (21 ft) at Thai Mueang District

6.8 m (22 ft) at Rai Dan

The province of Phang Nga was the most affected area in Thailand. The quiet resort town of Khao Lak is located on a stretch of golden sandy beach, famed for its hotels overlooking the Andaman Sea and hilly rainforests. A video, taken by a local restaurant manager from a hill adjacent to the beach, showed that the tsunami's arrival was preceded by a sudden retreat of the sea exposing the seafloor. Many tourists and locals can be seen trying to gather fish. Moments later, the tsunami arrives as a wall of foaming water that slams into the coast, washing away numerous people who had no time to escape. Another amateur video, captured by a German family at beach level, showed the tsunami appearing as a white horizontal line in the distant horizon, gradually becoming bigger (bore-like), engulfing a jet skier and lifting two police boats. A maximum inundation of approximately 2 km (1.2 mi) was measured, the inundated depths were 4-7 m (13-23 ft) and there was evidence that the tsunami reached the third floor of a resort hotel. The tsunami in Khao Lak was bigger due to offshore coral reefs and shallow seafloor which caused the tsunami to pile-up. This was similar to eyewitness accounts of the tsunami at Banda Aceh.

Khao Lak also experienced the largest tsunami run-up height outside of Sumatra.. The highest-recorded tsunami run-up was measured 19.6 m (64 ft) at Ban Thung Dap, on the south-west tip of Ko Phra Thong Island and the second-highest at 15.8 m (52 ft) at Ban Nam Kim. Moreover, the largest death toll occurred at Khao Lak, with about 5,000 people killed.

In addition, the tsunami inflicted damage to the popular resort town of Ao Nang in Krabi Province. Video footage showed that the tsunami appeared as multiple white surfs violently lifting up yachts, boats and crashing onto beaches. Footage captured at Koh Lanta showed a wall of water swamping the beach, while another video taken at another location showed a large surfing wave like tsunami approaching the shore, lifting up a yacht and flooding the beach. At Koh Sriboya, the tsunami advanced inland as a turbulent medium bore, while at Koh Phayam, Ranong Province, the tsunami appeared as a wall of water.

At Phuket Province, the island province's western beaches were struck by the tsunami. At Patong Beach, a popular tourist destination, the tsunami first arrived as a small flood, which swept away cars and surprised people. About 10 minutes later, the sea receded for a while before the tsunami arrived again as a large wall of water looming over the skyline and flooding the coast. Another video from Kamala Beach showed the tsunami flooding the ground floor of a restaurant sweeping away an elderly couple. On Karon Beach, Kamala Beach and Kata Beach, the tsunami came in like a surging flood inland carrying people and cars. On some locations, a coastal road was built which was higher than the shore, protecting a hotel which was behind it. On the east coast of Phuket Island, the tsunami height was about 2 m. In one river mouth, many boats were damaged. The tsunami moved counter-clockwise around Phuket Island, as was the case at Okushiri Island in the 1993 Hokkaido earthquake. According to interviews, the second wave was the largest. The tsunami heights were 5-6 m (16-20 ft) and the inundated depth was about 2 m (6.6 ft). The tsunami surprised many tourists at Koh Racha Yai, where it flooded the resorts. About 250 people perished directly in the tsunami.

Moreover, the tsunami was detected by scuba divers around offshore islands like the Similan Islands and the Surin Islands. The divers reported being caught in a violent, swirling current suddenly while underwater. Local camcorder footage showed the tsunami surging inland and flooding camping equipment at the Similan Islands while the tsunami caught tourists unaware at the Surin Islands, and dragging them out towards the sea.

The tsunami reached the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu along the southeastern coastline of the Indian mainland about 2 hours after the earthquake. At the same time, it arrived in the state of Kerala, on the southwestern coast. There were two to five tsunamis that coincided with the local high tide in some areas.

The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs includes:

3.4 m (11 ft) at Kerala, inundation distance of 0.5-1.5 km (0.31-0.93 mi) with 250 km (160 mi) of coastline affected

4.5 m (15 ft) at the southern coastline of Tamil Nadu, inundation distance of 0.2-2 km (0.12-1.24 mi) with 100 km (62 mi) of coastline affected

5 m (16 ft) at the eastern coastline of Tamil Nadu facing tsunami source, inundation distance of 0.4-1.5 km (0.25-0.93 mi) with 800 km (500 mi) of coastline affected

4 m (13 ft) at Pondicherry, inundation distance of 0.2-2 km (0.12-1.24 mi) with 25 km (16 mi) of coastline affected

2.2 m (7.2 ft) at Andhra Pradesh, inundation distance of 0.2-1 km (0.12-0.62 mi) with 985 km (612 mi) of coastline affected

Along the coast of Tamil Nadu, the 13 km (8.1 mi) Marina Beach in Chennai was battered by the tsunami which swept across the beach taking morning walkers unaware. Amateur video recorded taken at a resort beach showed the tsunami arriving as a large wall of water as it approached the coast and flooding it as it advanced inland. Besides that, a 10 m (33 ft) black muddy tsunami ravaged the city of Karaikal, where 492 people died. The city of Pondicherry, protected by seawalls was relatively unscathed. Local video recorded that before the arrival of the tsunami, people can be seen swarming the beach to check on stranded fish from the exposed beach. Furthermore, at the coastal town of Kanyakumari, the seabed was exposed briefly before a large wall of water can be seen on the horizon and subsequently flooding the town. Other footage showed the tsunami dramatically crashed into the Vivekananda Rock Memorial. The worst affected area in Tamil Nadu was Nagapattinam district, with 6,051 fatalities caused by a 5 m (16 ft) tsunami, followed by Cuddalore district, with many villages destroyed. Most of the people killed were members of the fishing community. Velankanni a sea shore town with a Catholic Basilica and a popular pilgrimage destination was also one of the worst hit by this tsunami that struck at around 9.30 am on that Sunday, when pilgrims who were mostly from Kerala among others were inside the church attending the Malayalam Mass. The rising sea water did not enter the shrine, but the receding waters swept away hundreds of pilgrims who were on the beach. The shrine's compound, nearby villages, hundreds of shops, homes and pilgrims were washed away into the sea. About 600 pilgrims died. Rescue teams extricated more than 400 bodies from the sand and rocks in the vicinity and large number of unidentified bodies were buried in mass graves.

The state of Kerala experienced tsunami-related damage in three southern densely populated districts, Ernakulam, Alappuzha, and Kollam, due to diffraction of the waves around Sri Lanka. The southernmost district of Thiruvananthapuram, however, escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the diffracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage occurred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west by the Arabian Sea and on the east by the Kerala backwaters. The waves receded before the first tsunami with the highest fatality reported from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam district, caused by a 4 m (13 ft) tsunami. A video recorded by locals showed the tsunami flooding the beach and villages, causing despair amongst the villagers.

Many villages in the state of Andhra Pradesh were destroyed. In the Krishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi and on Machalipattanam Beach. The most affected was Prakasham District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at Singraikonda. Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands.

The tsunami run-up was only 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in areas in the state of Tamil Nadu shielded by the island of Sri Lanka but was 4-5 m (13-16 ft) in coastal districts such as Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu directly across from Sumatra. On the western coast, the runup elevations were 4.5 m (15 ft) at Kanyakumari District in Tamil Nadu and 3.4 m (11 ft) each at Kollam and Ernakulam districts in Kerala. The time between the waves ranged from about 15 minutes to 90 minutes. The tsunami varied in height from 2 m (6.6 ft) to 10 m (33 ft) based on survivors' accounts. The tsunami travelled 2.5 km (1.6 mi) at its maximum inland at Karaikal, Puducherry. The inundation distance varied between 1,006-500 m (3,301-1,640 ft) in most areas, except at river mouths, where it was more than 1 km (0.62 mi). Areas with dense coconut groves or mangroves had much smaller inundation distances, and those with river mouths or backwaters saw larger inundation distances. Presence of seawalls at the Kerala and Tamil Nadu coasts reduced the impact of the waves. However, when the seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were displaced and carried a few metres inland.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Due to close proximity to the earthquake, the tsunami took just minutes to devastate the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Islands were moderately affected while the island of Little Andaman and the Nicobar Islands were severely affected by the tsunami.

In South Andaman island, based on local eyewitnesses, there were three tsunami waves, with the third being the most destructive. Flooding occurred at the coast and low-lying areas inland, which were connected to open sea through creeks. Inundation was observed, along the east coast of South Andaman Island, restricted to Chidiyatapu, Burmanallah, Kodiaghat, Beadnabad, Corbyn's cove and Marina Park/Aberdeen Jetty areas. Along the west coast, the inundation was observed around Guptapara, Manjeri, Wandoor, Collinpur and Tirur regions. Several near-shore establishments and numerous infrastructures such as seawalls and a 20 MW diesel-generated power plant at Bamboo Flat were destroyed. At Port Blair, the water receded before the first wave, and the third wave was the tallest and caused the most damage.

Results of the tsunami survey in South Andaman along Chiriyatapu, Corbyn's Cove and Wandoor beaches:

5 m (16 ft) in maximum tsunami height with a run-up of 4.24 m (13.9 ft) at Chiriyatapu Beach

5.5 m (18 ft) in maximum tsunami height and run-up at Corbyn's Cove Beach

6.6 m (22 ft) in maximum tsunami height and run-up of 4.63 m (15.2 ft) at Wandoor Beach

Meanwhile, in the Little Andaman, tsunami waves impinged on the eastern shore about 25 to 30 minutes after the earthquake in a four-wave cycle of which the fourth tsunami was the most devastating with a wave height of about 10 m (33 ft). The tsunami destroyed settlements at Hut Bay within a range of 1 km (0.62 mi) from the seashore. Run up level up to 3.8 m (12 ft) have been measured.

In Malacca, located on the island of Car Nicobar, there were three tsunami waves. The sea was observed to rise suddenly before the onset of the first wave. The first wave came 5 minutes after the earthquake, preceded by a recession of the sea up to 600-700 m (2,000-2,300 ft).. The second and third waves came in 10 minutes intervals after the first wave. The third wave was the strongest, with a maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft). Waves nearly three stories high devastated the Indian Air Force base, located just south of Malacca. The maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft). Inundation limit was found to be up to 1.25 km (0.78 mi) inland. The impact of the waves was so severe that four oil tankers were thrown almost 800 m (2,600 ft) from the seashore near Malacca to the Air force colony main gate. In Chuckchucha and Lapati, the tsunami arrived in a three-wave cycle with a maximum tsunami wave height of 12 m (39 ft).

In Campbell Bay of Great Nicobar Island, the tsunami waves hit the area three times with an inundation limit of 250-500 m (820-1,640 ft). A rise in sea level was observed before the first wave came within 5 minutes of the earthquake. The second and third waves came in 10-minute intervals after the first. The second wave was the strongest. The tsunami waves wreaked havoc in the densely populated Jogindar Nagar area, situated 13 km (8.1 mi) south of Campbell Bay. According to local accounts, tsunami waves attacked the area three times. The first wave came five minutes after the mainshock (0629 hrs.) with a marginal drop in sea level. The second wave came 10 minutes after the first one with a maximum height of 4.8 m (16 ft) to 8 m (26 ft) and caused the major destruction. The third wave came within 15 minutes after the second with lower wave height. The maximum inundation limit due to tsunami water was about 500 m (1,600 ft).

The worst affected island in the Andaman & Nicobar chain is Katchall Island, with 303 people confirmed dead and 4,354 missing out of a total population of 5,312. The significant shielding of Port Blair and Campbell Bay by steep mountainous outcrops contributed to the relatively low wave heights at these locations, whereas the open terrain along the eastern coast at Malacca and Hut Bay contributed to the great height of the tsunami waves.

1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) at Diglipur and Rangat at North Andaman Island

8 m (26 ft) high at Campbell Bay on Great Nicobar Island

10-12 m (33-39 ft) high at Malacca (in Car Nicobar Island) and at Hut Bay on Little Andaman Island

3 m (9.8 ft) high at Port Blair on South Andaman Island

The tsunami severely affected the Maldives at a distance of 2,500 km (1,600 mi) from the epicentre. Similar to Sri Lanka, survivors reported three waves with the second wave being the most powerful. Being rich in coral reefs, the Maldives provides an opportunity for scientists to assess the impact of a tsunami on coral atolls. The significantly lower tsunami impact on the Maldives compared to Sri Lanka is mostly due to the topography and bathymetry of the atoll chain with offshore coral reefs, deep channels separating individual atolls and its arrival within low tide which decreased the power of the tsunami. After the tsunami, there was some concern that the country might be submerged entirely and become uninhabitable. However, this was proven untrue. The highest tsunami wave measured was 4 m (13 ft) at Vilufushi Island. The tsunami arrived approximately 2 hours after the earthquake. The greatest tsunami inundation occurred at North Male Atoll, Male island at 250 m (820 ft) along the streets.

Local footage recorded showed the tsunami flooding the streets up to knee level in town, while another video taken at the beach showed the tsunami slowly flooding and gradually surging inland.

The Maldives tsunami wave analysis:

1.3-2.4 m (4 ft 3 in - 7 ft 10 in) at North Male Atoll, Male Island

2 m (6 ft 7 in) at North Male Atoll, Huhule Island

1.7-2.8 m (5 ft 7 in - 9 ft 2 in) at South Male Atoll, Embudhu Finothu

2.5-3.3 m (8 ft 2 in - 10 ft 10 in) at Laamu Atoll, Fonadhoo Island

2.2-2.9 m (7 ft 3 in - 9 ft 6 in) at Laamu Atoll, Gan Island

2.3-3 m (7 ft 7 in - 9 ft 10 in) at North Male Atoll, Dhiffushi Island

2.2-2.4 m (7 ft 3 in - 7 ft 10 in) at North Male Atoll, Huraa Island

more than 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) at North Male Atoll, Kuda Huraa Island

Tsunami survey heights:

0.6-2.3 m (2 ft 0 in - 7 ft 7 in) around the Ayeyarwady delta

0.9-2.9 m (2 ft 11 in - 9 ft 6 in) at Dawei area

0.7-2.2 m (2 ft 4 in - 7 ft 3 in) around Myeik

0.4-2.6 m (1 ft 4 in - 8 ft 6 in) around Kawthaung

The tsunami travelled 5,000 km (3,100 mi) west across the open ocean before striking the East African country of Somalia. Around 289 fatalities were reported in the Horn of Africa, drowned by four tsunami waves. The hardest-hit was a 650 km (400 mi) stretch of the Somalia coastline between Garacad ( Mudug region) and Xaafuun ( Bari region), which forms part of the Puntland province. Most of the victims were reported along the low-lying Xaafuun Peninsula. The Puntland coast in northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves arrived around noon local time.

Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from 5 m (16 ft) to 9 m (30 ft) with inundation distances varying from 44 m (144 ft) to 704 m (2,310 ft). The maximum runup height of almost 9 m (30 ft) was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on a cliff near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness account.

Other locations

The tsunami was detected in the southern parts of east Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that face the Indian Ocean. A few other African countries also recorded fatalities; one in Kenya, three in Seychelles, ten in Tanzania, and South Africa, where two were killed as a direct result of the tsunami-the furthest from the epicentre.

Countries affected

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, a total of 227,898 people died. Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history, as well as the single worst tsunami in history. Indonesia was the worst affected area, with most death toll estimates at around 170,000. An initial report by Siti Fadilah Supari, the Indonesian Minister of Health at the time, estimated the death total to be as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of 280,000 fatalities. However, the estimated number of dead and missing in Indonesia were later reduced by over 50,000. In their report, the Tsunami Evaluation Coalition stated, "It should be remembered that all such data are subject to error, as data on missing persons especially are not always as good as one might wish". A much higher number of deaths has been suggested for Myanmar based on reports from Thailand.

States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the costliest in human history. Then- UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organizations feared that the final death toll might double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive humanitarian response.

Environmental impact

The Colombo-based International Water Management Institute monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one-and-a-half years after the event. The IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.

Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango, and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover.

In addition to other forms of aid, the Australian government sent ecological experts to help develop strategies for reef-monitoring and rehabilitation of marine environments and coral reefs in the Maldives, Seychelles and other areas. Scientists had developed significant ecological expertise from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia's northeastern waters.

In response to the unprecedented situation, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) worked with governments in the region to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it. UNEP established an emergency fund, set up a Task Force to respond to requests for assistance from countries affected by the tsunami, and was able to mobilize and distribute approximately US$9.3 million for environmental recovery and disaster risk reduction between 2004 and 2007. Funding came from other international agencies and from countries including Finland, Norway, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Economic impact

The level of damage to the economy resulting from the tsunami depends on the scale examined. While the overall impact on the national economies was minor, local economies were devastated. The two main occupations affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism. Some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by saltwater from the ocean.

The impact on coastal fishing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as boats and fishing gear. In Sri Lanka, artisanal fishery, in which the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicated that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions were destroyed by the wave surges.

Even though only coastal regions were directly affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted as a starting point for many other tourist destinations in Thailand.

Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were untouched by the tsunami were hit by cancellations.

Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the Malacca Straits, which separate Malaysia and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths were previously up to 1,200 m (4,000 ft), and are now only 30 m (100 ft) in some areas, making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the delivery of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new navigational charts may take months or years. Officials also hoped that piracy in the region would drop off, since the tsunami had killed pirates and destroyed their boats. Due to multiple factors, there was a 71.6% drop in the number of piracy incidents between 2004 and 2005, from 60 to 17 incidents. Levels remained relatively low for some years. However, between 2013 and 2014, piracy incidents rose dramatically by 73.2% to exceed pre-tsunami levels.

Historical context

The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about A.D. 1400. In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hard-hit west coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent from about 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous tsunamis in Aceh, a province at the northern tip of Sumatra; radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in the soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between A.D. 1300 and 1450.

Before 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and Pacific Ocean waters by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000 to 120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the region. In 1782, about 40,000 people are thought to have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in the South China Sea. The deadliest tsunami before 2004 was Italy's 1908 Messina earthquake on the Mediterranean Sea where the earthquake and tsunami killed about 123,000.

Other effects

Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs.

The hardest-hit area, Aceh, is a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to the insurgency between the Indonesian military and Free Aceh Movement (GAM). Some believe that the tsunami was divine punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that Muslims were killing each other in an ongoing conflict. Saudi cleric Muhammad Al-Munajjid attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine" during Christmas break.

The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led GAM to declare a cease-fire on 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.

In a poll conducted in 27 countries, 15% of respondents named the tsunami the most significant event of the year. Only the Iraq War was named by as many respondents. The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.

The tsunami left both the people and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, Terra Research notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between Sumatra and New Zealand. In response, the Indian Minister of Home Affairs announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tsunami was likely along the southern Indian coast and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, even as there was no sign of turbulence in the region. The announcement generated panic in the Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in jammed roads. The announcement was a false alarm, and the Home Affairs minister withdrew their announcement. On further investigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of a self-described earthquake forecaster who had no telephone listing and maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system.

Smith Dharmasaroja, a meteorologist who had predicted that an earthquake and tsunami "is going to occur for sure" way back in 1994, was assigned the development of the Thai tsunami warning system. The Indian Ocean Tsunami warning system was formed in early 2005 to provide an early warning of tsunamis for inhabitants around the Indian Ocean coasts.

Humanitarian response

A great deal of humanitarian aid was needed because of widespread damage to the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of particular concern due to the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis A and hepatitis B.

There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized.

In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in burying bodies hurriedly due to fear of disease spreading. However, the public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources. The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.

Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in aid for damaged regions, with the governments of Australia pledging US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6 million aid package for Indonesia), Germany offering US$660 million, Japan offering US$500 million, Canada offering US$343 million, Norway and the Netherlands offering both US$183 million, the United States offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million), and the World Bank offering US$250 million. Also, Italy offered US$95 million, increased later to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system. Australia, India, Japan and the United States formed an ad-hoc corroborative group, and it was the origin of Quadrilateral Security Dialogue.

In mid-March, the Asian Development Bank reported that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous. Many charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the United Kingdom, the public donated roughly £330 million sterling (nearly US$600 million). This considerably outweighed the allocation by the government to disaster relief and reconstruction of £75 million and came to an average of about £5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen.

In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in north-east Sri Lanka after heavy fighting between government troops and the Tamil Tiger rebels, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said.

In popular culture

Film and television

Children of Tsunami: No More Tears (2005), a 24-minute documentary

The Wave That Shook The World (2005), educational television-series documentary about the tsunami

Tsunami: The Aftermath (2006), a two-part television miniseries about its aftermath

Dasavathaaram (2008), a Tamil thriller film involving the tsunami

Hereafter (2010), a main character's life is affected after surviving the tsunami while on vacation

Hafalan Shalat Delisa (2011), an Indonesian movie with the tsunami as the initial incident

The Impossible (2012), an English-language Spanish film based on the story of María Belón and her family

Kayal (2014), a Tamil drama film which culminates with the tsunami

Literature

Paint the Sky with Stars: Selected Poetry in Remembrance of the Boxing Day Tsunami 2004 (2005) edited by Stephen Robert Kuta

The Killing Sea (2006), two teenagers struggle to survive in the days after the tsunami

(2013), a memoir by Sonali Deraniyagala

On the Island (2012), two people stranded on a Maldives uninhabited island are rescued because of the tsunami.

"12/26" by Kimya Dawson, about the event and the humanitarian efforts, from the perspective of a victim whose family died in the disaster.

"Where the Wave Broke" by Burst, written in memory of Mieszko Talarczyk, frontman of Swedish grindcore band Nasum (whom Burst bassist Jesper Liveröd also performed with), who died in the disaster, which led to Nasum's subsequent disbandment.

References

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On 26 December 2004, at 07:58:53 local time ( UTC+7), a major earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1-9.3 struck with an epicentre off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The undersea megathrust earthquake, known by the scientific community as the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, was caused by a rupture along the fault between the Burma Plate and the Indian Plate, and reached a Mercalli intensity up to IX in some areas.

# data[].attributes.body
Haiti (12. siječnja 2010.)

Zemljotres jačine 7,0 pogodio je Haiti, uzrokujući smrt više od 222.000 ljudi i uništavanje glavnog grada Port-au-Prince.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
File:Ruins of Haiti National Palace - Port au Prince 2012.jpg - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.location_name
Kamčatka, Камчатска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.headline
Kamčatka, Камчатска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.subject
Kamčatka, Камчатска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.body
Kamčatka, Rusija (4. studenog 1952.)

Potres magnitude 9,0 izazvao je tsunami koji je pogodio Havaje, uzrokujući materijalnu štetu i nekoliko smrtnih slučajeva.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Page contents not supported in other languages.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Sendai, Префектура Мијаги, Јапан

# data[].attributes.headline
Sendai, Префектура Мијаги, Јапан

# data[].attributes.subject
Sendai, Префектура Мијаги, Јапан

# data[].attributes.body
Sendai, Japan (11. ožujka 2011.)

Zemljotres magnitude 9,0 izazvao je tsunami koji je prouzročio smrt nekoliko tisuća ljudi i ozbiljna oštećenja nuklearne elektrane Fukushima.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Original file (2,763 × 1,845 pixels, file size: 3.78 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg)

The following 16 pages use this file:

The following other wikis use this file:

Usage on ca.wikipedia.org

Usage on de.wikipedia.org

Usage on en.wikinews.org

Usage on es.wikipedia.org

View more global usage of this file.

This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it.

If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Original file (2,763 × 1,845 pixels, file size: 3.78 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) The following 16 pages use this file: The following other wikis use this file: Usage on ca.wikipedia.org Usage on de.wikipedia.org Usage on en.wikinews.org Usage on es.wikipedia.org View more global usage of this file.

# data[].attributes.body
Bio-Bio, Čile (27. veljače 2010.)

Potres magnitude 8,8 izazvao je tsunami i razaranja, uzrokujući smrt više od 500 ljudi i raseljavanje više od 800.000 osoba.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
File:2010 Chile earthquake - Building destroyed in Concepción.jpg - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.body
Obala Ekvadora i Kolumbije (31. siječnja 1906.)
Potres magnitude 8,8 izazvao je tsunami koji je prouzročio smrt između 500 i 1.500 ljudi u Ekvadoru i Kolumbiji.

# data[].attributes.body
Alep, Sirija (11. listopada 1138.)

Zemljotres koji se smatra jednim od najrazornijih u povijesti, s procijenjenim brojem žrtava od 230.000.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Loma Prieta, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Loma Prieta, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Loma Prieta, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Loma Prieta, Kalifornija – 1989.

Potres za vrijeme Svjetske serije bejzbola, značajna šteta u San Franciscu.
Zatvoreni nadvožnjak Cypress pao je poput domina, zatrpavši vozila.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Izmit, Измит/Кочели, Турска

# data[].attributes.headline
Izmit, Измит/Кочели, Турска

# data[].attributes.subject
Izmit, Измит/Кочели, Турска

# data[].attributes.body
Izmit, Turska – 1999.

Razorni potres magnitude 7.6, više od 17,000 mrtvih. Mnogi ljudi spavali su kad je udario potres u ranim jutarnjim satima.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Anchorage, Аљаска, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Anchorage, Аљаска, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Anchorage, Аљаска, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Anchorage, Alaska – 1964.

Magnituda 9.2, najjači potres u povijesti SAD-a. Potres je trajao gotovo 5 minuta i izazvao masivne pomake tla.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Mexico City, Дистрито Федерал, Мексико

# data[].attributes.headline
Mexico City, Дистрито Федерал, Мексико

# data[].attributes.subject
Mexico City, Дистрито Федерал, Мексико

# data[].attributes.body
Mexico City, Meksiko – 1985.

Potres magnitude 8.0 uzrokovao je kolaps zgrada i preko 10,000 smrti. Grad je izgrađen na drevnom jezeru, što je pojačalo efekte podrhtavanja.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Pompei, Напуљ, Италија

# data[].attributes.headline
Pompei, Напуљ, Италија

# data[].attributes.subject
Pompei, Напуљ, Италија

# data[].attributes.body
Pompeji, Italija – 79. g.

Erupcija Vezuva zatrpala grad pepeo i lavom, poginuli tisuće. Ostatci grada ostali su očuvani pod pepelom stoljećima, danas su arheološko čudo.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Krakatoa, Anak Krakatau Island, Округ Южный Лампунг, Лампунг, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.headline
Krakatoa, Anak Krakatau Island, Округ Южный Лампунг, Лампунг, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.subject
Krakatoa, Anak Krakatau Island, Округ Южный Лампунг, Лампунг, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.body
Krakatoa, Indonezija – 1883.

Jedna od najrazornijih erupcija, tsunami ubio 36,000 ljudi. Zvuk erupcije čuo se tisućama kilometara daleko.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Mount St. Helens, Вашингтон, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Mount St. Helens, Вашингтон, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Mount St. Helens, Вашингтон, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Mount St. Helens, SAD – 1980.

Erupcija razorila vrh planine, ubila 57 ljudi.
Znanstvenici su tjednima pratili znakove upozorenja prije same erupcije.

# data[].attributes.body
Eyjafjallajökull, Island – 2010.

Pepelom paraliziran zračni promet u Europi.
Ime vulkana mnogima je bilo jednako zbunjujuće kao i njegova erupcija.

# data[].attributes.body
Pinatubo, Filipini – 1991.

Erupcija smanjila globalnu temperaturu zbog aerosola. Više od 1,2 milijuna ljudi bilo je pogođeno izravno ili neizravno.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Mount Pelée, Сен-Пьер, Мартиник

# data[].attributes.headline
Mount Pelée, Сен-Пьер, Мартиник

# data[].attributes.subject
Mount Pelée, Сен-Пьер, Мартиник

# data[].attributes.body
Mount Pelée, Martinik – 1902.

Erupcija uništila grad Saint-Pierre, 30,000 mrtvih. Jedini preživjeli bio je zatvorenik zaštićen u zatvorskoj ćeliji.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Mauna Loa, Хаваји, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Mauna Loa, Хаваји, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Mauna Loa, Хаваји, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Mauna Loa, Havaji – 2022.

Najveći aktivni vulkan na svijetu koji je eruptirao nakon 38 godina. Iako spektakularna, erupcija nije izazvala veće žrtve zahvaljujući upozorenjima.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Nevado del Ruiz, Villamaría, Калдас, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.headline
Nevado del Ruiz, Villamaría, Калдас, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.subject
Nevado del Ruiz, Villamaría, Калдас, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.body
Nevado del Ruiz, Kolumbija – 1985.

Lahar uništio grad Armero, preko 23,000 mrtvih. Tragedija se mogla izbjeći jer su znanstvenici ranije upozoravali na opasnost.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Mount Tambora, Kawinda Toi, Бима, Нуса Тенгара Барат, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.headline
Mount Tambora, Kawinda Toi, Бима, Нуса Тенгара Барат, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.subject
Mount Tambora, Kawinda Toi, Бима, Нуса Тенгара Барат, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.body
Mount Tambora, Indonezija – 1815.

Najjača erupcija u zabilježenoj povijesti, "godina bez ljeta". Klimatske posljedice osjetile su se diljem svijeta.

# data[].attributes.body
La Palma, Kanari – 2021.

Lava uništila preko 1000 kuća, evakuacija tisuća ljudi. Erupcija je trajala više od 80 dana, promijenivši krajolik otoka.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Vajont, Порденоне, Италија

# data[].attributes.headline
Vajont, Порденоне, Италија

# data[].attributes.subject
Vajont, Порденоне, Италија

# data[].attributes.body
Vajont, Italija – 1963.

Klizište u rezervoar izazvalo ogroman val koji je usmrtio 2000 ljudi. Voda iz brane preskočila je zid i sravnila dolinu ispod.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Oso, Вашингтон, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Oso, Вашингтон, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Oso, Вашингтон, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Oso, SAD – 2014.

Klizište prekrilo selo, 43 mrtvih.
Tlo natopljeno kišom odvojilo se i brzo klizilo niz padinu.

# data[].attributes.body
Gansu, Kina – 2010.

Blatno klizište ubilo više od 1400 ljudi.
Uništeno je preko 300 domova u samo nekoliko minuta.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Mocoa, Путумајо, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.headline
Mocoa, Путумајо, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.subject
Mocoa, Путумајо, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.body
Mocoa, Kolumbija – 2017.

Bujično klizište izazvano kišom odnijelo 300 života. Rijeke koje su se izlile s brda nosile su sa sobom stijene i drveće.

# data[].attributes.body
Puerto Rico – 1985.

Klizište u Ponceu uništilo domove, više poginulih. Geološke slabosti i kiša pridonijele su urušavanju tla.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Hiroshima, Префектура Хирошима, Јапан

# data[].attributes.headline
Hiroshima, Префектура Хирошима, Јапан

# data[].attributes.subject
Hiroshima, Префектура Хирошима, Јапан

# data[].attributes.body
Hirošima, Japan – 2014.

Serija klizišta ubila najmanje 70 ljudi.
Tlo se urušavalo zbog intenzivnih kiša i labavih stijena.

# data[].attributes.body
Venezuela – 1999.

Katastrofalna klizišta u Vargas regiji odnijela desetke tisuća života. Cijeli dijelovi naselja nestali su pod bujicama.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Québec, Квебек, Канада

# data[].attributes.headline
Québec, Квебек, Канада

# data[].attributes.subject
Québec, Квебек, Канада

# data[].attributes.body
Quebec, Kanada – 1971.

Klizište u Saint-Jean-Vianney sravnilo naselje. Glina tla "eksplodirala" pod pritiskom, izazvavši propadanje.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Chaklata, Џаркханд, Индија

# data[].attributes.headline
Chaklata, Џаркханд, Индија

# data[].attributes.subject
Chaklata, Џаркханд, Индија

# data[].attributes.body
Chaklata, Nepal – 1993.

Klizište prekinulo prometne veze i ubilo desetke ljudi. Spasioci su do žrtava dolazili samo pješice ili zrakom.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Salgar, Сальгар, Антиокија, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.headline
Salgar, Сальгар, Антиокија, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.subject
Salgar, Сальгар, Антиокија, Колумбија

# data[].attributes.body
Salgar, Kolumbija – 2015.

Bujično klizište izbrisalo selo, više od 80 mrtvih. Stanovnici su bili iznenađeni tijekom noći dok su spavali.

# data[].attributes.body
Indonezija – 2004.

Nakon potresa magnituda 9.1, tsunami je ubio preko 230,000 ljudi. Valovi su pogodili više od 14 zemalja na Indijskom oceanu.

# data[].attributes.body
Japan – 2011.

Tsunami je izazvao nuklearnu katastrofu u Fukushimi. Snimke valova koji ulaze u gradove postale su globalno poznate.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Alaska, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Alaska, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Alaska, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Alaska, SAD – 1958.

Najviši zabilježeni tsunami (525 m), izazvan klizištem. Ogromni val "obrijao" čitava brda drveća.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Lisabon, Португалија

# data[].attributes.headline
Lisabon, Португалија

# data[].attributes.subject
Lisabon, Португалија

# data[].attributes.body
Lisabon, Portugal – 1755.

Tsunami nakon potresa opustošio obalu i ubio desetke tisuća ljudi. Događaj je snažno utjecao na filozofiju i religiju tadašnje Europe.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Krakatoa, Anak Krakatau Island, Округ Южный Лампунг, Лампунг, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.headline
Krakatoa, Anak Krakatau Island, Округ Южный Лампунг, Лампунг, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.subject
Krakatoa, Anak Krakatau Island, Округ Южный Лампунг, Лампунг, Индонезија

# data[].attributes.body
Krakatoa, Indonezija – 1883.

Tsunami uzrokovan erupcijom, ogromna razaranja. Mnoge obližnje otoke potpuno je izbrisao s karte.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Соломонска острва

# data[].attributes.headline
Соломонска острва

# data[].attributes.subject
Соломонска острва

# data[].attributes.body
Solomonski Otoci – 2007.

Tsunami nakon potresa odnio više desetaka života. Brze evakuacije spriječile veću katastrofu.

# data[].attributes.body
Čile – 1960.

Nakon najjačeg potresa u povijesti (M 9.5), tsunami je pogodio čak iJapan. Valovi su prešli preko Tihog oceana u roku od 15 sati.

# data[].attributes.body
Indonezija (Anak Krakatau) – 2018.

Tsunami bez potresa ubio više od 400 ljudi.
Došao je bez upozorenja jer nije bio uzrokovan potresom.

# data[].attributes.body
Papua Nova Gvineja – 1998.

Tsunami usmrtio više od 2000 ljudi.
Bio je izazvan podmorskim klizanjem tla.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Havaji, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Havaji, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Havaji, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Havaji – 1946.

Tsunami iz Aljaske pogodio je Hilo i ubio 159 ljudi. Događaj je doveo do stvaranja sustava ranog upozorenja na Pacifiku.

# data[].attributes.body
Winter Park, Florida – 1981.

Ogroman ponor progutao kuće.
Nastao je iznenada i narastao na 100 metara promjera.

# data[].attributes.body
Guatemala City – 2010.

Ponor "progutao" cijelu zgradu, 15 metara širok i 30 dubok. Iako izgleda kao savršeni cilindar, nastao je urušavanjem kanalizacijskog sustava.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Tampa, Флорида, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Tampa, Флорида, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Tampa, Флорида, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Tampa, Florida – 2013.

Muškarac nestao u ponoru ispod svoje sobe.
Tijelo nikad nije pronađeno jer je ponor bio preopasan za spašavanje.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Assumption Parish, Луизијана, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Assumption Parish, Луизијана, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Assumption Parish, Луизијана, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Assumption Parish, Louisiana – 2012.

Industrijski izazvano propadanje tla formiralo gigantsku rupu. Rupa je rasla mjesecima i gutala šumu.

# data[].attributes.body
Berezniki, Rusija – 2007.

Rudarska nesreća stvorila ogroman ponor kod grada. Propadanje tla prijetilo je i željezničkoj pruzi.

# data[].attributes.body
Chongqing, Kina – 2007.

Ponor "progutao" cijelu cestu.
Pojavio se bez upozorenja tijekom prometne špice.

# data[].attributes.body
Qianjiang, Kina – 2013.

Četiri osobe poginule kad je ponor "pojeo" autobusnu stanicu.
Stanovnici su ranije prijavljivali neobične vibracije u tlu.

# data[].attributes.body
Xi’an, Kina – 2010.

Ogroman ponor otvorio se ispod prometnice.
Vozila su propala zajedno s asfaltom.

# data[].attributes.body
Dacheng, Kina – 2008.

Ponor stvoren uslijed kopanja ruda.
Rupa se širila danima i ugrozila nekoliko sela.

# data[].attributes.body
Izrael – 2021.

Automobil pao u ponor na parkiralištu bolnice. Incident je izazvao paniku jer je rupa nastala ispod ljudi.

# data[].attributes.body
Niigata, Japan – 1964.

Potres izazvao likvifakciju koja je uzrokovala naginjanje zgrada. Zgrade su se nagnule bez urušavanja zbog kvalitetne armature.

# data[].attributes.body
Christchurch, Novi Zeland – 2011.

Likvifakcija izazvala ogroman broj rupa i muljevitih izljeva u gradu. Cijeli dijelovi naselja morali su se evakuirati zbog nestabilnog tla.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Marina District, San Francisco, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Marina District, San Francisco, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Marina District, San Francisco, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
San Francisco Marina District, SAD – 1989.

Tijekom potresa Loma Prieta likvifakcija je uzrokovala urušavanje zgrada.
Nasip na kojem je izgrađen dio četvrti bio je posebno ranjiv.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Kobe, Префектура Хјого, Јапан

# data[].attributes.headline
Kobe, Префектура Хјого, Јапан

# data[].attributes.subject
Kobe, Префектура Хјого, Јапан

# data[].attributes.body
Kobe, Japan – 1995.

Područja uz more pretrpjela su ozbiljne posljedice likvifakcije. Ceste su se savijale, a infrastruktura tonula.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Izmit, Измит/Кочели, Турска

# data[].attributes.headline
Izmit, Измит/Кочели, Турска

# data[].attributes.subject
Izmit, Измит/Кочели, Турска

# data[].attributes.body
Izmit, Turska – 1999.

Industrijske zone uz obalu pogođene su jakom likvifakcijom. Cisterne s gorivom i vodom doslovno su "potonule".

# data[].attributes.location_name
Alaska, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Alaska, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Alaska, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Alaska, SAD – 1964.

Likvifakcija uzrokovala klizanje čitavih dijelova naselja u Anchorageu.
Tlo je izgledalo kao da “teče” tijekom potresa.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Bhuj, Гуџарат, Индија

# data[].attributes.headline
Bhuj, Гуџарат, Индија

# data[].attributes.subject
Bhuj, Гуџарат, Индија

# data[].attributes.body
Bhuj, Indija – 2001.

Podzemne su vode izbile na površinu stvarajući lokve mulja. Zgrade su se srušile unatoč otpornosti zbog gubitka čvrstoće tla.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Mexico City, Дистрито Федерал, Мексико

# data[].attributes.headline
Mexico City, Дистрито Федерал, Мексико

# data[].attributes.subject
Mexico City, Дистрито Федерал, Мексико

# data[].attributes.body
Mexico City, Meksiko – 1985.

Grad izgrađen na jezerskom tlu bio je posebno osjetljiv na likvifakciju.
Zgrade su "plesale" i urušavale se iako su bile daleko od epicentra.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Sendai, Префектура Мијаги, Јапан

# data[].attributes.headline
Sendai, Префектура Мијаги, Јапан

# data[].attributes.subject
Sendai, Префектура Мијаги, Јапан

# data[].attributes.body
Sendai, Japan – 2011.

Kombinacija tsunamija i likvifakcije dodatno je pojačala razaranje. Muljevite mase prekrile su ulice i usporile pomoć.

# data[].attributes.body
Taipei, Tajvan – 1999.

Likvifakcija se dogodila u nizinama, uzrokujući urušavanje stambenih objekata.
Tlo je “izdalo” čak i novije zgrade koje su bile propisno građene.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Louisiana, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Louisiana, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Louisiana, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Louisiana, SAD – obala se povlači godinama

Nestajanje tla zbog djelovanja rijeke Mississippi i oluja. Svake godine izgubi se površina veličine nekoliko nogometnih terena.

# data[].attributes.body
Bangladeš – stalna erozija obala rijeka

Tisuće ljudi svake godine gubi domove.
Rijeka Padma stalno mijenja tok.

# data[].attributes.body
Ghana – obalna erozija
Sela nestaju pod morem, vlada gradi obrambene zidove. Starije kuće danas su potpuno pod vodom.

# data[].attributes.body
Norfolk, Engleska – obala se urušava

Kuće klize prema moru, cesta nestaje.
Većina stanovnika zbog toga traži domove negdje drugdje.

# data[].attributes.body
Tuvalu – otoci tonu

Erozija tla kombinirana s porastom razine mora prijeti cijeloj naciji. Stanovnici se već sele na Fidži.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Rio Grande City, Тексас, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Rio Grande City, Тексас, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Rio Grande City, Тексас, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Rio Grande, Meksiko/SAD – gubitak plodne zemlje

Poljoprivredna zemlja gubi se zbog ispiranja.
Ugrožava lokalnu proizvodnju hrane.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Loara, Француска

# data[].attributes.headline
Loara, Француска

# data[].attributes.subject
Loara, Француска

# data[].attributes.body
Dolina Loare, Francuska – erozija padina

Vinogradi i sela gube tlo.
Posebne sadnje pokušavaju stabilizirati padine.

# data[].attributes.body
Maldivi – erozija koraljnih atola

Tlo “nestaje” pod valovima.
Mnoge plaže više ne postoje u izvornoj formi.

# data[].attributes.body
Gobi, Kina/Mongolija – pješčana erozija

Tlo postaje beživotno i neplodno.
Vlade sade “zeleni zid” da zaustave širenje.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Kalifornija, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Kalifornija, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Kalifornija, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Kalifornija – obalne stijene se urušavaju

Kuće na liticama klize zbog morske erozije.
Neki objekti su već pali u ocean.

# data[].attributes.body
Čeljabinsk, Rusija – 2013.

Eksplozija meteora iznad grada ozlijedila preko 1500 ljudi. Tlak udarnog vala razbio je tisuće prozora i izazvao kaos u zimskom jutru.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Tunguska, Краснојарска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.headline
Tunguska, Краснојарска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.subject
Tunguska, Краснојарска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.body
Tunguska, Rusija – 1908.

Eksplozija u zraku srušila 80 milijuna stabala na 2000 km². Udar se osjetio na tisuće kilometara, ali nije ostavio krater.

# data[].attributes.body
Chicxulub, Meksiko – prije 66 milijuna godina

Udar asteroida doveo do izumiranja dinosaura. Danas se krater nalazi ispod poluotoka Yucatán i proučava se globalno.

# data[].attributes.body
Vredefort, Južna Afrika – prije 2 milijarde godina

Najveći poznati impaktni krater na Zemlji, 300 km širine. Danas je UNESCO-v lokalitet i geološki spomenik.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Barringer Crater, I-40, Винслоу, Аризона, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Barringer Crater, I-40, Винслоу, Аризона, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Barringer Crater, I-40, Винслоу, Аризона, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Barringer Crater, Arizona, SAD – prije 50.000 godina

Dobro očuvan meteorski krater, širok 1,2 km.
Posjećuju ga brojni turisti i znanstvenici.

# data[].attributes.body
Karakul, Tadžikistan – prije cca 10 milijuna godina

Krater se nalazi unutar planinskog jezera.
Vjeruje se da je meteor izazvao i lokalne klimatske promjene.

# data[].attributes.body
Manicouagan, Kanada – prije 215 milijuna godina

Jedan od najstarijih i najvećih kratera na svijetu. Danas je ispunjen jezerom u obliku prstena.

# data[].attributes.body
Morokweng, Južna Afrika – prije 145 milijuna godina

Ostaci meteora pronađeni su 770 m ispod površine. Krater je zakopan, ali jasno prepoznatljiv iz geofizičkih podataka.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Popigai, Краснојарска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.headline
Popigai, Краснојарска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.subject
Popigai, Краснојарска Покрајина, Русија

# data[].attributes.body
Popigai, Rusija – prije 35 milijuna godina

Krater promjera 100 km, povezan s dijamantima visoke kvalitete.
Rusija ga istražuje kao moguće buduće rudarsko nalazište.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Kaali, Саре, Естонија

# data[].attributes.headline
Kaali, Саре, Естонија

# data[].attributes.subject
Kaali, Саре, Естонија

# data[].attributes.body
Kaali, Estonija – prije 4000 godina

Serija manjih kratera nastala meteoritima.
Lokalna mitologija povezuje ih s božanskim kaznama.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Murray Darling Basin Map Information Board, Hereford Street, Kelso Нови Јужни Велс, Аустралија

# data[].attributes.headline
Murray Darling Basin Map Information Board, Hereford Street, Kelso Нови Јужни Велс, Аустралија

# data[].attributes.subject
Murray Darling Basin Map Information Board, Hereford Street, Kelso Нови Јужни Велс, Аустралија

# data[].attributes.body
Murray-Darling Basin, Australija – 20. stoljeće do danas

Irigacija podigla razinu podzemne slane vode. Velike poljoprivredne površine postale neplodne.

# data[].attributes.body
Aralsko more, Uzbekistan/Kazahstan – 1960-ih nadalje

Povlačenje vode ostavilo slane pješčane ravnice. Vjetrovi raznose sol, uništavajući usjeve u širokom pojasu.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Central Valley, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.headline
Central Valley, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.subject
Central Valley, Калифорнија, Сједињене Државе

# data[].attributes.body
Kalifornija Central Valley, SAD – 20. i 21. stoljeće

Intenzivna irigacija uzrokuje nakupljanje soli. Neki dijelovi postali su gotovo potpuno neupotrebljivi.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Indo Gangetic Basin, Highland Marg, Bhabat, Панџаб, Индија

# data[].attributes.headline
Indo Gangetic Basin, Highland Marg, Bhabat, Панџаб, Индија

# data[].attributes.subject
Indo Gangetic Basin, Highland Marg, Bhabat, Панџаб, Индија

# data[].attributes.body
Indo-Ganges ravnica, Indija – 1980-ih nadalje

Prekomjerno navodnjavanje izazvalo podizanje slanih voda. Zaslanjene zemlje donijelo je pad poljoprivredne proizvodnje.

# data[].attributes.body
Euphrates Valley, Irak – tisućljećima

Povijesno poznat primjer kako irigacija dovodi do salinizacije. Nekada plodne mezopotamske zemlje pretvorene su u pustinju.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Sindh, Пакистан

# data[].attributes.headline
Sindh, Пакистан

# data[].attributes.subject
Sindh, Пакистан

# data[].attributes.body
Sindh regija, Pakistan – 1990-e do danas

Visoka razina podzemne vode uzrokuje zaslanjivanje usjeva. Ratarstvo trpi zbog nedostatka slatke vode, odnosno viška slanog tla.

# data[].attributes.body
Nile Delta, Egipat – 2000-ih

Klimatske promjene i uzdizanje mora zaslanjuju obradivo tlo. Sol se infiltrira čak i u unutrašnjost delte.

# data[].attributes.body
Kina, sjeverne ravnice – 21. stoljeće

Brz razvoj i irigacija doveli do zaslanjivanja stotina tisuća hektara. Vlada razvija pilot-projekte za ispiranje soli iz tla.

# data[].attributes.body
Međimurje, Hrvatska – povremeno u sušnim sezonama

Plitka podzemna voda s povećanim salinitetom uzrokuje zaslanjenje.
Poljoprivrednici prijavljuju lošiji rast usjeva na ugroženim parcelama.

# data[].attributes.body
Andaluzija, Španjolska – posljednjih 30 godina

Intenzivna plastenička proizvodnja iscrpila vodne resurse. Sol ostaje u tlu, smanjujući plodnost i utječući na vinograde i masline.