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THE SILK ROAD SONG (Featuring Mr. Baildon)

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Chapter

The Silk Roads were a network of trade routes that connected towns, settlements, and peoples, across Asia that flourished from about 200-900 C.E.

Map showing the trade routes that made up the Silk Roads (map by Evan Freeman, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0, adapted from Françoise Demange, Glass, Gilding, and Grand Design: Art of Sasanian Iran (224-642) (New York: Asia Society, 2007)

The name "Silk Road" is familiar to many, conjuring up caravan trains of camels crossing deserts weighed down by exotic goods such as tea, spices, medicines, and crucially, silk, but the reality of the Silk Roads was both more complex and more ordinary. The Silk Roads were a network of trade routes that connected towns and peoples across Asia that flourished from about 200-900 C.E. but existed from about 100 B.C.E. through the mid-1400s C.E. The foundation of the "Silk Roads" is attributed to Han dynasty envoy, Zhang Qian, whose mission to Central Asia in 114 B.C.E. brought the Chinese court into direct contact with kingdoms in Central Asia.

The phrase "Silk Road," invokes a pre-modern cross-continental highway, but the idea of a road meandering across Asia is relatively recent. The name "Silk Road" was given to the network of ancient trade routes crossing Asia by the German traveler and geographer Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877. Goods (including art objects, textiles, medicine, and foods) and ideas (including religious thought and philosophical concepts) certainly traveled very impressive distances along these trade routes, but most of the travel was relatively local in scope.

Many of the same routes continued to be used by later traders and travelers, but the combination of short and long-distance trade that characterized these overland routes shifted beginning in the 10 th century. This occurred for several reasons, including the fall of the Tang dynasty in China; the rise of maritime trade routes through Southeast Asia that allowed for goods and people to travel long distances much more quickly; and the absorption of communities of Sogdians, merchants who were responsible for much of the long-distance Silk Road trade, by Islamic empires. Pan-Asian exchange flourished again in the Mongol period in the 13 th and 14 th centuries which saw Mongol rule over most of Asia, sometimes following the old Silk Roads overland, sometimes following the maritime trade routes that had been established between the decline of the overland Silk Roads and rise of the Mongols.

Detail of the wall mosaic depicting the attendants of empress Theodora's wearing luxury silk garments of diverse designs, 540s, San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Asia is the primary focus of Silk Road trade, but it can be argued that the Silk Roads extended as far west as Rome, as attested by the presence of Roman glass bowls and other objects found in tombs in China and the Korean peninsula. Chinese silk was also highly sought after by Roman elites beginning as early as the second century B.C.E. Beginning in the fourth century C.E., the interconnectivity between Central Asia and the Eastern Roman Empire, which brought Asian goods into the Mediterranean, can also be understood as part of the Silk Roads.

This chapter will focus on the core of the Silk Roads, between Central and East Asia, but it is important to keep in mind that the "Silk Roads" extended further west and south than we have the space to cover here.

This is the earliest known dated Buddha sculpture produced in China. Buddha (detail), 338, Later Zhao Kingdom, bronze with gilding, China, Hebei province, 16 inches tall ( Asian Art Museum)

Many ideas and philosophical concepts were carried along the Silk Roads. Buddhism was arguably the most far-reaching of these. Buddhism originated in India in the 5 th or 4 th century B.C.E., and soon spread out of India to the east and west via the Silk Roads, arriving in China sometime in the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.- 220 C.E.). Some of the earliest Buddhist art objects to arrive in China were portable Buddhas brought from Central Asia to China by Buddhist monks, which may have served as objects of personal devotion.

More conspicuous were cave-temple complexes made by Buddhist monks and often located on sites near to major stops along the Silk Roads such as Bamiyan (in present-day Afghanistan) and the Mogao caves near Dunhuang (present-day Gansu province in China). Sometimes made up of hundreds of temples carved into cliff faces, these sites included intricately carved and painted scenes of the Historical Buddha's life and previous lives (called jataka tales), devotional images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, as well as images of the monks and donors who may have funded the art.

These donors were often prominent members of local society, or in some cases, royalty. In the library cave at Mogao multilingual texts, Buddhist sutras, printed images and books, and paintings on silk and paper were also preserved, hinting at the quantity of portable objects that traveled to and from these different sites.

The paintings and sculpture at these sites tell the story of different artistic traditions that came together along the Silk Roads, including inspiration from Greek art via Gandhara (in present-day north India and Pakistan). Most impressive are the monumental Buddhas found in several of the most prominent of these cave temple complexes, notably Bamiyan (tragically, the two monumental Buddhas were destroyed in 2001), Longmen, and Yungang in China.

The introduction of Buddhism into China, and then to Korea and Japan was not a smooth and linear process but took place over hundreds of years, with Buddhism falling in and out of favor over the centuries. However, during the height of the Silk Road, Buddhism enjoyed support among Chinese elites. In particular, the cave temples at Luoyang and Yungang were important sites of Chinese imperial patronage of Buddhism during the Northern dynasties period into the Tang dynasty (618-906).

Watch videos and read essays about ideas and religion along the Silk Roads

Seated Buddha: The earliest image of the Buddha in China that we know of.

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Buddhist monks were some of the most famous travelers along the Silk Road, bringing Buddhist art, scriptures, and thought with them during their journeys between India, Central Asia, China, Korea, and Japan. However, perhaps more important were the Sogdians, an Iranian people originating from present-day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.

Sogdian merchants established communities across the Silk Road and served as cultural intermediaries in many of the places they lived thanks to their ability to speak many languages and connections to Sogdian communities across Asia. Much of what we know about 4 th century Sogdian communities in both their homeland and in northwest China is thanks to the Sogdian ancient letters, discovered by Sir Aurel Stein in 1907 near Dunhuang. Most of the letters are written by merchants and discuss trade, but two were written by a woman, Miwnay, who was apparently abandoned by her husband in Dunhuang. Miwnay's letters are a unique window into one woman's experiences of the 4th-century Silk Road.

Sogdian Ancient Letter 1, 312 or 313 C.E.

[ Verso] From her daughter, the free-woman Miwnay, to her d[ear] mother [Chatis].

[ Recto] [From her dau]ghter, the free-woman Mi[wnay], to her dear [mother] Chatis, blessing and homage. It would be a good day for him who might [see] you healthy and at ease; and [for me] that day would be the best when we ourselves might see you in good health. I am very anxious to see you, but have no luck. I petitioned the councillor Sagharak, but the councillor says: Here there is no other relative closer to Nanai-dhat than Artivan. And I petitioned Artivan, but he says: Farnkhund . . . , and I refuse to hurry, I refuse to . . . And Farnkhund says: If your husband's relative does not consent that you should go back to your mother, how should I take you? Wait until . . . comes; perhaps Nanai-dhat will come. I live wretchedly, without clothing, without money; I ask for a loan, but no-one consents to give me one, so I depend on charity from the priest. He said to me: If you go, I will give you a camel, and a man should go with you, and on the way I will look after you well. May he do so for me until you send me a letter!

Translation courtesy of Dr. Nicholas Sims-Williams, discovered in 1907 at Watchtower T.XII, west of Dunhuang 敦煌, Gansu Province, China

By the 6 th century Sogdian populations had existed in China for hundreds of years, led by a sabao , an official who served as a liaison between the Sogdians and the Chinese government. The sabao named Wirkak (Shi Jun in Chinese) is one of the best known of these high level officials, thanks to the discovery of his tomb in Xi'an where he was buried with his wife. Combining Buddhist and Zoroastrian motifs with scenes from the couples' life, the stone sarcophagus that housed the couple after their deaths is a monument to the intercultural lives of elite Sogdians along the Silk Roads.

Read an essay about people along the Silk Roads

The Silk Roads saw many different products pass along it including such diverse goods as medicines, spices, metalwork, ceramics, glass, paper, and textiles. The Sogdian ancient letters were written on paper, a material that was not produced outside of China before the 8th century, when it began to be produced in Central Asia. The ancient letters are an example of the material moving from China to Central Asia, although it is unclear how paper-making technology was actually transmitted to Central Asia. One theory is that Chinese prisoners taken West after the Battle of Talas in 751 (which the Islamic Abbasid empire won against the Chinese Tang empire) brought their paper-making technology, but this has been questioned by scholars. It is likely, however, that it was people moving along the Silk Roads who eventually brought paper making technology west with them.

As the name "Silk Road" implies, the textile trade was particularly important to Silk Road commerce, and silk, whose production method was kept secret in China for hundreds of years, was particularly sought after. Even after the introduction of silk making (sericulture) into Central Asia and the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire, Chinese silk was still highly desirable. Textiles served a variety of roles in pre-modern societies. For example, bolts of plain silk were used as currency and used to pay taxes both in parts of present-day China and in West Asia. Textiles can also provide us with clear examples of technological and artistic exchange over long distances. The introduction of silk making into Central Asia and eventually into the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire both have legends associated with them, wherein individuals (a Chinese princess who was married to the King of Khotan in the Central Asian case and Nestorian monks in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire case) smuggled the human knowledge and the materials (silkworms and mulberry seeds) required for sericulture into new places. In other words, the spread of sericulture is another example of technological transfer that happened along the Silk Roads.

Artistic motifs and weave structures (ways of making textiles on the loom) also spread easily along these trade routes. Textiles were lightweight, portable, and durable, which meant they traveled easily. Weavers and other skilled artisans would also move, sometimes by choice, sometimes because of conflict or capture, along the Silk Roads as well, bringing their technology with them. A wool carpet from Khotan, in present-day Xinjiang province in China probably made in the 5 th- 6 th century C.E. brings together religious references from Hinduism and Buddhism alongside motifs that connect to the Greco-Roman world and Bactrian artistic traditions.

Attributed to Zhou Fang (active late 8th-early 9th century), Ladies Wearing Flowers in Their Hair (detail), handscroll, ink and color on silk, 46 x 180 cm (Liaoning Provincial Museum, Shenyang province, China)

In the Tang dynasty at the height of Silk Road exchange in China, Central Asian motifs spread by the Sogdians, such as the pearl roundel and large repeating floral rosettes, were adapted into textile decoration. Tang palace beauties were depicted in court paintings wearing textiles with repeat floral roundels, as in Zhou Fang's Ladies with Flower in Their Hair .

Examples of rosette patterns on ceramics and metalwork. Left: footed dish with lotus medallion and cloud scrolls, first half of 8th century, Tang dynasty, earthenware with impressed decoration and three-color ( sancai) lead glazes, China, 6.3 cm high, 29.5 cm in diameter ( Art Institute of Chicago); right: foliated mirror with birds and floral scrolls, late 7th-early 8th century, Tang dynasty, cast bronze and applied gold plaque with repoussé, chased, and ring-punched decoration, China, 22.1 cm in diameter ( Freer Gallery of Art)

Roundel or rosette patterns were adapted from textiles to a wide variety of media, including metalwork and ceramics.

Examples of textiles and other art objects with roundel motifs have been preserved in the Shōsōin treasury in Nara, Japan, one of the most important sources for elite Silk Road materials. The more than 10,000 objects from the Shōsōin collection all date to the 8th century and have been preserved since that time.

Read essays about materials along the Silk Roads

Attributed to Zhou Fang, Ladies Wearing Flowers in Their Hair: "Beautiful women paintings" provide insight into ideals of beauty and other social customs at the Tang court.

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Gold and jade crown: Silla tombs contained objects acquired from trade along the Silk Roads.

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The products and ideas that traveled along the Silk Roads between 200 and 900 provide us with innumerable examples of exchange between different peoples at different levels of society. The best preserved materials are those kept in royal collections, like the Shōsōin in Japan or the Imperial palace collection in China, but when we read the Sogdian ancient letters or some of the documents preserved in the Library cave in Dunhuang, we remember the individuals who were impacted economically, religiously, artistically, and culturally by the Silk Roads.

Key questions to guide your reading

How did the movement of people and ideas impact artistic practices along the Silk Roads?

Alongside Buddhism, what are some of the religions we find referenced in the art of the Silk Roads?

How do textiles help us understand the spread of artistic motifs and technology along the Silk Roads?

Jump down to Terms to Know

How did the movement of people and ideas impact artistic practices along the Silk Roads?

Alongside Buddhism, what are some of the religions we find referenced in the art of the Silk Roads?

How do textiles help us understand the spread of artistic motifs and technology along the Silk Roads?

Jump down to Terms to Know

Silk Road

Sogdians

Buddhism

Buddha

Bodhisattva

Brocade

Rock-cut cave temple

Zoroastrianism

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The Silk Roads were a network of trade routes that connected towns, settlements, and peoples, across Asia that flourished from about 200-900 C.E. The name "Silk Road" is familiar to many, conjuring up caravan trains of camels crossing deserts weighed down by exotic goods such as tea, spices, medicines, and crucially, silk, but the reality of the Silk Roads was both more complex and more ordinary.

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Take a journey across Asia and discover the secrets and wonders of the greatest trade route of ancient times.

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When they say, "It's a dangerous world out there," that is never more true than when traveling across the Silk Road. The ancient trade route was so hazardous in fact that it became infamous for violent encounters and thieves. While not all of these dangers were unique to this particular path, some people still found their way into drama-filled situations while trying to travel along the trading route between Europe and Asia during Ancient Roman times

The "how did traders deal with the dangers of traveling along the silk road" is a question that has been asked many times. The answer to this question will be provided by providing a link to the article on "brainly".

On the Silk Road, bandits were a constant hazard. The robbers discovered that the pathways were not only used to transport silk, but also gold, valuable stones, glass, and other Chinese commodities. At the time, these objects were considered opulent.

It's also interesting to learn about the hazards the Silk Road passengers faced.

The Silk Road was a tough and risky route to travel. The route was dangerous at all times of year, with dry deserts with no water for kilometers and mountain passes with avalanches, heavy snow, and spring floods. Bandits lurk in the shadows, waiting to rob unsuspecting tourists.

Also, what was it like to travel down the Silk Road? Teas, salt, sugar, porcelain, and spices were also exported (sold) by the Chinese. The majority of the items exchanged were high-end luxury items. This was due to the fact that it was a lengthy journey and merchants didn't have much storage for products. Cotton, ivory, wool, gold, and silver were among the items they imported or purchased.

What were some of the challenges that merchants experienced when traveling along the Silk Road?

The lack of safety and security, as well as harsh weather conditions, a rough topography, and a lack of suitable transportation were the primary issues that merchants on the Silk Road faced.

Is traveling the Silk Road risky?

Yes, traffic in certain areas may be pretty hazardous. It is, by far, the greatest danger to your life in the Silk Road area, with visitors dying in road accidents every year. Drunk driving is on the decline, but it is still a problem. Accept that drivers are free to breach any and all rules.

Answers to Related Questions

What was it about the Silk Road that made it so dangerous?

Traveling along the Silk Road was very perilous. You had to contend with harsh white-hot desert sand dunes, frightening mountains, ferocious winds, and venomous snakes.

What would it take to traverse the Silk Road in terms of time?

How long did it take to cross the Silk Road in ancient times? In ancient times, a round-trip voyage along the Silk Road from China to Rome took two years.

When did the Silk Road become the most active?

The Silk Road ran from from 220 BC (the founding of the Han dynasty) until 1453 AD (the fall of Constantinople), although it was only operational for a few years under the Tang and Yuan dynasties.

What were some of the Silk Road's drawbacks?

The spread of illnesses like smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague was one of the drawbacks of the silk route. The route had a lot of people using it, which made it easier for the infectious diseases to spread. In Europe, these illnesses were devastating, killing a large number of people (Omar, 2014).

What does the Silk Road have a reputation for?

The Silk Road, also known as the Silk Route, was a historic trading route that connected China with the West, carrying products and ideas between the two major civilizations of Rome and China. Wools, gold, and silver traveled east, while silk flowed west. The Silk Road also brought Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism (from India) to China.

What illnesses was the Silk Road responsible for spreading?

While prior study showed that ancient Silk Road migrants brought illnesses including bubonic plague, anthrax, and leprosy, there was no tangible evidence to support this.

Who did the Silk Road benefit?

The Silk Road benefitted India by providing new clients and trading links for its most valued items, particularly spices.

What is the start of the Silk Road?

China

What influence did the Silk Road have on the world?

The Silk Road was a massive commerce network that linked Eurasia and North Africa by land and water. Chinese silk, a very valuable product that traders moved through these trade networks, gave the Silk Road its name. Trade has risen as a result of technological advancements and increasing political stability.

What is the significance of the Silk Road's name?

The Silk Road is a historic international commerce route that connects China with the Mediterranean. Because China silk accounted for so much of the traffic along this historic route, Ferdinand von Richthofen, a renowned German geographer, dubbed it the "Silk Road" in 1877.

What caused the Silk Road's demise?

The demise of the Silk Road around the end of the 15th century was due to the speed of maritime transit, the ability to carry more commodities, and the relative cheapness of transportation. During China's civil war, the Silk Road, which had been damaged, once again played a significant part in the country's history.

Is Silk Road still operational?

The FBI shut it down in October of 2013. On November 6, 2014, the FBI and Europol shut down Silk Road 2.0. Due to a lack of money, Silk Road 3.0 fell down in 2017. Silk Road was the first contemporary darknet market and an online black market best known for selling illicit substances.

On the Silk Road, how did religion spread?

The Silk Road promoted not just trade but also cultural interchange. Buddhism, for example, entered China as one of the Kushan kingdom's faiths. Buddhist monks traveled from India to Central Asia and China with commercial caravans, promoting the new faith.

Is it safe to go in Uzbekistan?

Apart from Tashkent, Uzbekistan is a relatively secure nation to visit; the cities are all very small and have tranquil, relaxing atmospheres, whereas Tashkent has a large police presence that seems to dissuade minor crime. To summarize, solo travel in Uzbekistan is undoubtedly doable and may be quite rewarding.

Why was China's Great Wall constructed?

The Great Wall of China was constructed to defend China from invaders and adversaries from the north, particularly the Mongols. The Mongols were a nomadic tribe who raided China on a regular basis. The Mongols finally invaded China despite the wall. The Wall also prevented Chinese nationals from leaving the country.

Is Central Asia a secure place to visit?

Although Central Asia is typically a safe location to visit, there are sections of the region that may be unstable and risky to travel at various periods, so keep an eye on the news and your country's foreign advice to stay up to date.

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What dangers did traders face while traveling along the Silk Road? |

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When they say, "It's a dangerous world out there," that is never more true than when traveling across the Silk Road. The ancient trade route was so hazardous in fact that it became infamous for violent encounters and thieves. While not all of these dangers were unique to this particular path, some people still found ...

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This article explores the spread of plague, known as 'the Black Death', across the Silk Roads of the 14th Century CE. It examines ways in which people responded to the disease and looks at how we can respond to newly arising challenges today, utilizing the Silk Roads as an instructive example of the benefits of an interconnected world built on collaboration and timely and reliable knowledge sharing.

The Silk Roads are an instructive reminder that human beings do not occupy isolated worlds but a shared and interdependent one that flourishes when they interact with one another. Interactions across vast distances, such as those which took place along these historic routes, have made an undeniable contribution to the enrichment of life and culture. Now, as in the past, increasing human interconnectedness and movement presents challenges but also opportunities in numerous fields including science, medicine and epidemiology, and greatly adds to the improvement and richness of our daily lives. The constant movement and mixing of populations along the Silk Roads had a profound impact on the history and civilizations of the peoples of Eurasia and indeed of people worldwide, driving the development of knowledge, ideas, beliefs, culture and identities. Science, arts and literature, as well as knowhow, crafts and technologies were shared and disseminated into societies along the lengths of these routes.

However, wherever people, animals and goods have moved and brought enriching effects, undesirable phenomena such as disease have also been transmitted on a broad scale. Just as global movement and connectedness is not a new phenomenon, neither is the potential for, and the occurrence of, epidemics. Among the different kinds of parasites, bacteria and viruses, and their associated diseases, that were transmitted along the Silk Roads, plague was one of the most notable. Plague is a disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, commonly carried by fleas. Three pandemics of plague have occurred in human history: the best-known and perhaps largest was the second outbreak often referred to as the "Black Death", which infected vast numbers of people across Eurasia, and killed somewhere between 75 and 200 million. The outbreak peaked between 1347 and 1351 CE, reaching the trade ports of Europe by 1346. A number of theories exist as to where the 14 th century plague originated and how exactly it spread. One of the most often cited is that it was carried by infected rodents across the Silk Roads, reaching Europe along with infected merchants and travellers.

Societies were very limited in their ability to treat and prevent the spread of plague in the 14 th century as there was no accurate knowledge available about the exact cause of the disease or of effective treatments. Indeed, fleeing remained one of the only effective preventative public health measures available to people at the time. Whilst the attempted cures for plague had very little effect, the Black Death did prompt Europe and other parts of the world to expand and refine public health measures, particularly in the subsequent decades and centuries as the disease continued to periodically return. Furthermore, some methods for preventing the spread of plague, such as making suspected vessels and travellers remain in isolation for 40 days before they were allowed to enter the city of Venice, are still practiced today, and it is from this practice that we derive the term "quarantine".

The transmission of the Black Death, and the damage that it caused to societies in Asia and Europe, are undoubtedly examples of a disastrous catastrophe that trade, and interactions, helped exacerbate. However, an overall assessment of the outcomes of the exchanges along the Silk Roads reveals that despite some negative effects, these interactions have brought vast benefits and enriched human life and culture. In fact, the medical sciences have been one of the direct beneficiaries of these intercultural exchanges. During the medieval or "post-classical era" (500-1450 CE), scholars made large contributions to the fields of medicine, pharmacology and veterinary science thanks to the circulation of knowledge and ideas. The movement of people and knowledge across the Silk Roads facilitated the widespread translation of work from other parts of the world into Arabic, making a broad array of scholarship accessible to polymaths of the day. Their work synthesised and built on existing medical knowledge, such as that developed in Ancient Greece and Rome, and combined this with knowledge from other regions of the world such as China and the Indian subcontinent.

The example of the Black Death would be inspiring for dealing with challenges caused by the outbreak of epidemics in our contemporary world. Unlike in the 14 th century, today we can identify new viruses, sequence their genome, and develop a reliable test for the disease in just a few weeks. It may be tempting in uncertain times, particularly now as the world is witnessing the rapid spread of COVID-19, to conclude that the only way to prevent challenges such as the spread of infectious diseases is to restrict movement and exchange, and somehow roll back globalization and the connectedness of different cultures and peoples. However, the spread of plague in a world without planes, trains and cruise ships, serves as a reminder that diseases can move rapidly even without such technologies.

Although we live in an age of intense globalization that seems unprecedented, human movement, exchange and interconnectedness are not recent phenomena. In fact, people have always moved from place to place and exchanged goods, skills and ideas across vast distances. The outbreak of the Black Death and its spread along the Silk Roads would be a timely reminder that one of the greatest defences against newly emerging challenges is the exchange and collective analysis of reliable knowledge and experience. Despite the tremendous speed of the circulation of people and goods around the world today, humans are well prepared and ready to face the challenges that may result from these interactions, largely thanks to collaborations and collective experiences and these will continue to play an important role in tackling and preventing the spread of diseases.

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The Spread of Disease along the Silk Roads

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This article explores the spread of plague, known as 'the Black Death', across the Silk Roads of the 14th Century CE. It examines ways in which people responded to the disease and looks at how we can respond to newly arising challenges today, utilizing the Silk Roads as an instructive example of the benefits of an interconnected world built on collaboration and timely and reliable knowledge sharing.

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Silk Road Culture Exchange: Religion and Technology Introduced into China via the Road

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The Silk Road has a major influence on the cultural exchange between China and the West, so it was called a great "Cultural Bridge" between Asia and Europe.

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The Silk Road allowed the exchange of science, technology, language, culture, philosophy, and religious beliefs between the societies along its route. Our modern world wouldn't be what it is today without it.

The Silk Road extended from China on the east to the Mediterranean sea on the west, as shown in the map below.

The Silk Road began during China's Han dynasty, which ran from 207 BCE to 220 CE. The China Silk Road continued to be used all the way into the 18th century, and it connected Asia, Persia (present-day Turkey), the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa, and Southern Europe.

The Silk Road got its name from the trade-in silk, which was first developed in China; however, trade-in spices between India and Arabia and the Roman Empire was far more extensive than the trade-in silk.

Dotted along the Silk Road were a series of trading posts, roads, and markets that supported the transportation, storage, exchange, and distribution of goods. These included the Greco-Roman city of Antioch, Ctesiphon the capital of Parthia, and Seleucia on the Tigris River.

What was traded on the Silk Road

During the second millennium BCE, Chinese soil was low in the mineral Selenium, which caused muscular weakness and reduced growth in their horses. This was a distinct handicap for their warriors. The nomads of the neighboring central Eurasian steppes were known for breeding healthy and robust horses, so trade developed along the Silk Road, with the nomads selling the Chinese horses, along with:

Saddles

Grapevines and grapes

Animal furs and skins

Honey and fruit

Glassware, especially Roman glassware which was highly prized

Wool blankets, rugs, and textiles

Gold and silver.

Besides silk, goods moving east to west from China along the Silk Road included:

Paper

Gunpowder

Rice

Tea

Dyes

China, such as plates, bowls, cups and vases and porcelain

Spices, such as cinnamon and ginger

Precious gems.

Also being traded at this time was nephrite jade, which was mined in China, and Lapis lazuli and Spinel, which were mined in Badakhshan, modern-day northeastern Afghanistan, eastern Tajikistan, and the Tashkurgan county in China.

Remnants of Chinese silk dating to 1070 BCE have been found in Egypt. Chinese silks and Greek bronzes have been also found at a burial site dating to the sixth century BCE near Stuttgart, Germany.

2nd century BCE woven silk Source: DSC02641/Wikimedia Commons

Silk Road history

Between 500 and 330 BCE was the period of the Achaemenid Empire founded by Darius I in Persia, in what is today modern-day Iran and Turkey. The "Persian Royal Road" ran 1,775 miles ( 2,857 km), all the way from the city of Susa, which was east of the Tigris River, to the port of Smyrna (modern-day Izmir) on the Aegean Sea. Smaller Silk Road trade routes connected Mesopotamia to India, and North Africa via Egypt.

Persian Royal Road Source: Mossmaps/Wikimedia Commons

Fresh horses and riders were placed at stations along the Royal Road, allowing a courier to make the trip in just nine days. The Greek writer Herodotus, who lived between 484 and 425 BCE, described the road in his Histories:
" There is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor darkness of night prevents these couriers from completing their designated stages with utmost speed."

The U.S. Post Office adopted almost the same lines as its creed:
"Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds."

From 329 BCE to 10 CE the Macedonian Empire under Alexander the Great extended from Greece all the way to Central Asia in what is now Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. The Greek historian Strabo wrote of the Macedonian Empire: "They extended their empire even as far as the Seres (China) and the Phryni."

The Roman historian Florus described visits of envoys from China to the court of the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned from 27 BCE to 14 CE. Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who reigned from 161 to 180 CE, sent ambassadors to the court of Chinese Emperor Huan of Han, and Roman glassware has been found in tombs near Nanjing and Luoyang, China dating to between 25 and 220 CE.

Technology on the Silk Road

The Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE started increasing the trade of technology on the Silk Road between Rome and China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, and Africa. This kicked off a craze among Roman women for silk, which at the time, the Romans believed came from trees.

It took the writer Pliny the Elder to set the record straight when he wrote: "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk." To get their hands on silk, the Romans traded spices, glassware, and perfumes.

It was during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian ( 527 - 565 CE) who reigned from the city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) that spies disguised as monks were sent to China to steal silkworm eggs. They managed to smuggle some back, and silk production began in the northern Grecian city of Thrace, but its quality was inferior to that of Chinese silk.

Chinese silk moths Source: Bibliographisches Institut/Wikimedia Commons

Coins dating from the reign of Byzantine ruler Justinian II, who reigned between 565 and 574 CE, have been found in a Chinese tomb in Shanxi province dating to the Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 CE).

It was during the 7th century under the Tang Dynasty that the Silk Road reached its golden age. A consortium of Sogdians living in present-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, and the Göktürks from present-day Turkey were the main caravan merchants along the Silk Road.

Between 1,271 and 1,295, the Venetian explorer Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China. He recorded this journey in The Travels of Marco Polo, and it informed Europeans about life in China, Persia, India, and Japan.

In the late 1340s, traders exposed to marmots in Central Asia carried the Black Death along the Silk Road and back to Europe. The fall of the Mongol Empire further disintegrated trade, and the Silk Road fell into disuse.

The Silk Road today

The creation in 1990 of a railway through China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Russia called the Eurasian Land Bridge, is sometimes referred to as the "New Silk Road". The last link was the connection of the railway systems of China and Kazakhstan. In October 2008, the first Trans-Eurasia Logistics train reached Hamburg, Germany from Xiangtan, China.

In July 2011, a freight service connecting Chongqing, China with Duisburg, Germany, began. It cut the travel time of goods from 36 days by a container ship to just 13 days by a freight train. In 2013, Hewlett-Packard began transporting its laptop computers and monitors along this rail line, and in January 2017, the service reached London.

In 2013, Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed a plan called the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) for a New Silk Road connecting China and Europe. On November 6, 2019, the first Chinese freight train arrived in Ankara, Turkey, and one left from there, completing the "Silk Railway".

Running beneath the Bosphorus in Istanbul's Marmaray Tunnel, China's Railway Express will connect Prague, the Czechia with Zian, the capital city of Shaanxi Province in central China.

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For 2,000 years, the Silk Road Has Connected East With West

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The Silk Road allowed the exchange of science, technology, language, culture, philosophy, and religious beliefs between the societies along its route. Our modern world wouldn't be what it is today without it. The Silk Road extended from China on the east to the Mediterranean sea on the west, as shown in the map below.

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The Silk Road spanned the Asian continent and represented a form of global economy when the known world was smaller but more difficult to traverse than nowadays. A network of mostly land but also sea trading routes, the Silk Road stretched from China to Korea and Japan in the east, and connected China through Central Asia to India in the south and to Turkey and Italy in the west. The Silk Road system has existed for over 2,000 years, with specific routes changing over time. For millennia, highly valued silk, cotton, wool, glass, jade, lapis lazuli, gold, silver, salt, spices, tea, herbal medicines, foods, fruits, flowers, horses, musical instruments, and architectural, philosophical, and religious ideas traveled those routes. The roads themselves were generally in poor condition. Travelers in caravans had to brave bleak deserts, high mountains, extreme heat and cold. They had to face bandits and raiders, imprisonment, starvation, and other forms of deprivation. Those going by sea braved the uncertainties of weather, poorly constructed ships, and pirates. Yet because the goods and ideas were in great demand and commanded high prices, courtly rewards, or spiritual benefits, they were worth the trouble of transporting great distances.

Since the concept of " Seidenstrassen" or "Silk Roads" was first invented by the German geologist and explorer Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877, the "Silk Road" has been used as a metaphor of European and Asian cultural interchange. While largely commercial, the Silk Road provided the vehicle for all sorts of creative exchange between tremendously diverse peoples and cultures.

Given the Silk Road's symbolic meaning of sharing and exchange, it is somewhat paradoxical that the desire to control its namesake commodity, silk, was so strong. The ancient Chinese guarded the secret of silk production for centuries. The Ottoman Turks and the Persians fought a war over it. The English and French competed to restrict its markets. But despite such attempts, silk moved across the planet with remarkable ease and was a vehicle of cultural creativity wherever it went. The degree of borrowings and choosing of techniques and patterns, the invention and discovery of uses and styles is incredible. Every culture that touched silk added to its adornment of humanity.

And silk turns up everywhere - aboard medieval Viking ships sailing out of Constantinople and as kerchiefs from India (bandannas, from bandhana) around the necks of cowboys in the American West. The terms used for silk reveal its history and influences. Damask silk, referring to the style of Damascus, Syria, is actually Chinese in origin. Silk chinoiserie is not Chinese but a European imitation of Chinese style. Martha Washington wore a dress of Virginia silk to her husband's inauguration, and Native Americans learned silk embroidery to decorate traditional apparel. In the 19th century Paterson, New Jersey, of all places, declared itself "Silk City."

What is so special about silk? How did it go around the globe, and connect diverse civilizations for millennia? And what is the current significance of the Silk Road?

Chinese Silk Cultivation

Silk cultivation and production is such an extraordinary process that it is easy to see why its invention was legendary and its discovery eluded many who sought its secrets. The original production of silk in China is often attributed to Fo Xi, the emperor who initiated the raising of silkworms and the cultivation of mulberry trees to feed them. Xi Lingshi, the wife of the Yellow Emperor whose reign is dated from 2677 to 2597 B.C.E., is regarded as the legendary Lady of the Silkworms for having developed the method for unraveling the cocoons and reeling the silk filament. Archaeological finds from this period include silk fabric from the southeast Zhejiang province dated to about 3000 B.C.E. and a silk cocoon from the Yellow River valley in northern China dated to about 2500 B.C.E. Yet silk cloth fragments and a cup carved with a silkworm design from the Yangzi Valley in southern China dated to about 40005000 B.C.E. suggest that sericulture, the process of making silk, may have an earlier origin than suggested by legend.

Many insects from all over the world - and spiders as well - produce silk. One of the native Chinese varieties of silkworm with the scientific name Bombyx mori is uniquely suited to the production of superbly high-quality silk. This silkworm, which is actually a caterpillar, takes adult form as a blind, flightless moth that immediately mates, lays about 400 eggs in a four- to six-day period, and then abruptly dies. The eggs must be kept at a warm temperature for them to hatch as silkworms or caterpillars. When they do hatch, they are stacked in layers of trays and given chopped up leaves of the white mulberry to eat. They eat throughout the day for four or five weeks, growing to about 10,000 times their original weight. When large enough, a worm produces a liquid gel through its glands that dries into a threadlike filament, wrapping around the worm and forming a cocoon in the course of three or four days. The amazing feature of the Bombyx mori is that its filament, generally in the range of 3001,000 yards - and sometimes a mile - long, is very strong and can be unwrapped. To do this, the cocoon is first boiled. This kills the pupae inside and dissolves the gum resin or seracin that holds the cocoon together. Cocoons may then be soaked in warm water and unwound or be dried for storage, sale, and shipment. Several filaments are combined to form a silk thread and wound onto a reel. One ounce of eggs produces worms that require a ton of leaves to eat, and results in about 12 pounds of raw silk. The silk threads may be spun together, often with other yarn, dyed, and woven on looms to make all sorts of products. It takes about 2,0003,000 cocoons to make a pound of silk needed for a dress; about 150 cocoons are needed for a necktie. The Chinese traditionally incubated the eggs during the spring, timing their hatching as the mulberry trees come to leaf. Sericulture in China traditionally involved taboos and rituals designed for the health and abundance of the silkworms. Typically, silk production was women's work. Currently, some 10 million Chinese are involved in making raw silk, producing an estimated 60,000 tons annually - about half of the world's output. Silk is still relatively rare, and therefore expensive; consider that silk constitutes only 0.2 percent of the world's textile fabric.

There are other types of silkworms and of silk. Indian tussah silk dates back possibly to 2500 B.C.E. to the Indus Valley civilization and is still produced for domestic consumption and foreign trade in various forms. Since traditional Hindu and Jain production techniques do not allow for the killing of the pupae in the cocoon, moths are allowed to hatch, and the resultant filaments are shorter and coarser than the Chinese variety. The ancient Greeks, too, knew of a wild Mediterranean silk moth whose cocoon could be unraveled to form fiber. The process was tedious, however, and the result also not up to the quality of mulberry-fed Bombyx mori.

Silk has been long thought to be a special type of cloth; it keeps one cool in the summer and warm in the winter. It is extremely absorbent, meaning it uses color dyes much more efficiently than cotton, wool, or linen. It shimmers. It drapes upon the body particularly well. Silk is strong enough to be used for surgical sutures - indeed, by weight it is stronger than steel and more flexible than nylon. It is also fire and rot resistant. All these natural characteristics make silk ideal as a form of adornment for people of importance, for kimonos in Japan and wedding saris in India, for religious ritual, for burial shrouds in China and to lay on the graves of Sufis in much of the Muslim world.

Early in Chinese history, silk was used to clothe the emperor, but eventually it was adopted widely through Chinese society. Silk proved to be valuable for fishing lines, for the making of paper, for musical instrument strings. Under the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.220 C.E.), silk became a great trade item, used for royal gifts and tribute. It also became a generalized medium of exchange, like gold or money. Chinese farmers paid their taxes in silk. Civil servants received their salary in silk.

Silk on the Road

Evidence of trade in ancient Chinese silk has been found in archaeological excavations in Central Asian Bactria (currently the region around Balkh and Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan) dating to about 500 B.C.E. Strands of silk have been found in ancient Egypt from about 1000 B.C.E., but these may be of Indian rather than Chinese origin. Alexander the Great, who ruled much of the known world from the Mediterranean to India in the late 4th century B.C.E., wore robes of deep purple-dyed silk. The silk was probably from China, which the Greeks knew as Seres - the place where serikos or silk was made - and made optimum use of the rare and expensive purple dye that was produced by the Phoenicians of Tyre from the secretions of sea snails. Yet, in the West, knowledge of silk and its trade were relatively limited. So, too, in the Far East. Sericulture was carried to Korea by Chinese immigrants in about 200 B.C.E. Though silk was extant in Japan at the turn of the millennium, sericulture was not widely known there until about the 3rd century C.E.

Conventionally, historians refer to three periods of intense Silk Road trade: 1) from 206 B.C.E. to 220 C.E., between the ancient Chinese Han dynasty and Central Asia, extending to Rome; 2) from about 618 to 907 C.E., between Tang dynasty China and Central Asia, Byzantium, the Arab Umayyad and Abbasid empires, the Sasanian Persian Empire, and India, and coinciding with the expansion of Islam, Buddhism, Assyrian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, and Judaism into Central Asia; and 3) during the 13th and 14th centuries, between China, Central Asia, Persia, India, and early modern Europe, made possible by Mongol control of most of the Silk Road. Some would add a modern Silk Road period, beginning in the 19th century with the "Great Game" - the competition between Russian and British colonial powers for influence over Central Asia - and extending through today.

From Han China to Rome

In 198 B.C.E., the Han dynasty concluded a treaty with a Central Asian people, the Xiongnu. The emperor agreed to give his daughter to the Xiongnu ruler and pay an annual gift in gold and silk. By the 1st century B.C.E. silk reached Rome, initiating the first "Silk Road." Pliny, writing about silk, thought it was made from the down of trees in Seres. It was very popular among the Romans. People wore rare strips of silk on their clothing and sought more; they spent increasing amounts of gold and silver, leading to a shortage in precious metals. Coinciding with the development of ruling elites and the beginnings of empire, silk was associated with wealth and power - Julius Caesar entered Rome in triumph under silk canopies. Over the next three centuries, silk imports increased, especially with the Pax Romana of the early emperors, which opened up trade routes in Asia Minor and the Middle East. As silk came westward, newly invented blown glass, asbestos, amber, and red coral moved eastward. Despite some warnings about the silk trade's deleterious consequences, it became a medium of exchange and tribute, and when in 408 C.E. Alaric the Visigoth besieged Rome, he demanded and received as ransom 5,000 pounds of gold and 4,000 tunics of silk.

The Tang Silk Road: Connecting Cultures

Silk continued to be popular in the Mediterranean region even as Rome declined. In Byzantium, the eastern successor of the Roman state, silk purchases accounted for a large drain on the treasury. In 552 C.E., legend has it that two Assyrian Christian monks who visited China learned the secret of silk production and smuggled out silkworms and mulberry seeds in their walking sticks. They returned to Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and provided the impetus for the growth of a local silk industry. Under Emperor Justinian I, Constantinople's silks were used throughout Europe for religious vestments, rituals, and aristocratic dress. The Persians, too, acquired knowledge of silk production; and Damascus became a silk center under Arab rulers. By the time the second Silk Road developed under the Tang dynasty (618907 C.E.) in China, Central Asians had also learned silk cultivation and developed the famed abr technique of silk resist dying generally known today by the Indonesian term ikat. Chinese silks, though, were still in demand for their exceptionally high quality. The Tang rulers needed horses for their military. The best horses were in the west, held by the Turkic Uyghurs and the peoples of the Fergana Valley. The Tang traded silk for horses, 40 bolts for each pony in the 8th century.

Not only did silk move, but so did designs and motifs as well as techniques for weaving and embroidering it. The Tang Chinese developed a satin silk, readily adopted elsewhere. Chinese silk weaving was influenced by Sogdian (Central Asian), Persian Sasanian, and Indian patterns and styles. For example, Chinese weavers adapted the Assyrian tree of life, beaded roundels, and bearded horsemen on winged horses from the Sasanians, and the use of gold-wrapped thread, the conch shell, lotus, and endless-knot designs from the Indians. Byzantines were also influenced by the Persians, weaving the Tree of Life into designs for European royalty and adopting the Assyrian two-headed eagle as their symbol. The Egyptian draw loom, adapted for silk weaving, was brought to Syria, then to Iran and beyond. Japanese weavers in Nara developed tie-dye and resist processes for kimonos. In some cases, weavers were uprooted from one city and settled in another; for example, after the Battle of Talas in 751, Chinese weavers were taken as prisoners of war to Iran and Mesopotamia. During the Tang dynasty, cultural exchange based upon silk reached its apex. Discoveries of the silk stowed in the Buddhist caves of Dunhuang in about 1015 C.E. reveal the tremendous richness of silk work of the time, as well as an archaeology of shared styles of silk weaving and motifs.

The growth of silk as a trade item both stimulated and characterized other types of exchanges during the era. Curative herbs, ideas of astronomy, and even religion also moved along the Silk Road network. Arabs traveled to India and China, Chinese to Central Asia, India, and Iran. Buddhism itself was carried along these roads from India through Central Asia to Tibet, China, and Japan. Islam was carried by Sufi teachers, and by armies, moving across the continent from Western Asia into Iran, Central Asia, and into China and India. Martial arts, sacred arts like calligraphy, tile making, and painting also traversed these roads. The Tang capital city of Chang'an, present-day Xi'an, became a cosmopolitan city - the largest on earth at the time, peopled with traders from all along the Silk Road, as well as monks, missionaries, and emissaries from across the continent.

The Mongol Silk Road and Marco Polo

Though some new silk styles such as silk tapestry made their way eastward from Iran to Uyghur Central Asia to China, the transcontinental exchange of the Silk Road diminished in the later Middle Ages and through the period of the Christian Crusades in the Holy Land from 1096 to the mid-1200s. Yet Crusaders, returning home with Byzantine silks, tapestries, and other spoils, rekindled European interest in trade with Asia. Moorish influence in Spain also had an enormous impact. It was through Arab scholars that Europeans gained access to Indian and Chinese advances in medicine, chemistry, and mathematics, and also to ancient Greek and Roman civilizations that had survived in Arabic translations and commentaries. This flow of knowledge eventually helped to fuel the Renaissance.

With the Mongol descendants of Genghis (Chinghis) Khan in control of Asia from the Black Sea to the Pacific, a third Silk Road flourished in the 13th and 14th centuries. The emissary of King Louis IX of France, Willem van Rubruck, visited the court of the Mongol ruler in 1253, and, seeing the wealth of silks, realized that Cathay, or China, was the legendary Seres of Roman times. The Venetian Marco Polo followed.

Setting out with his uncles in 1271, Polo traveled across Asia by land and sea over a period of 24 years. The tales of his travels, narrated while a prisoner in a Genoa jail cell, spurred broad European interest in the Silk Road region. He told of the Mongols, who under Genghis and then Kublai Khan had taken over China and expanded their dominion across Asia into Central Asia, India, Iran, and Asia Minor. Polo related fantastic tales of the lands he had visited, the great sites he had seen, and the vast treasures of Asia.

The 13th and 14th centuries were characterized by considerable political, commercial, and religious competition between kingdoms, markets, and religious groups across Eurasia. Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, and Hindus vied for adherents and institutional support. Conflict between and among the Mongols, European kingdoms, Arab rulers, the Mamluk Turks, Hindu chiefdoms, and others made for unstable states, diplomatic jockeying, alliances, and wars. Yet the Mongols, with their vast Asian empire skirting the edge of Russia and Eastern Europe, were, through a mixture of hegemony and brutality, able to assure a measure of peace within their domains, a Pax Mongolica. They were also pragmatic and quite tolerant in several spheres, among them arts and religion. Their Mongolian capital of Karakorum hosted, for example, 12 Buddhist temples, two mosques, and a church. The Mongols developed continental postal and travelers' rest house systems. Kublai Khan welcomed European, Chinese, Persian, and Arab astronomers and established an Institute of Muslim Astronomy. He also founded an Imperial Academy of Medicine, including Indian, Middle Eastern, Muslim, and Chinese physicians. European, Persian, Chinese, Arab, Armenian, and Russian traders and missionaries traveled the Silk Road, and in 1335 a Mongol mission to the pope at Avignon suggested increased trade and cultural contacts.

During this "third" Silk Road, silk, while still a highly valued Chinese export, was no longer the primary commodity. Europeans wanted pearls and gems, spices, precious metals, medicines, ceramics, carpets, other fabrics, and lacquerware. All kingdoms needed horses, weapons, and armaments. Besides, silk production already was known in the Arab world and had spread to southern Europe. Silk weavers and traders - Arabs, "Saracens," Jews, and Greeks from Sicily and the eastern Mediterranean - relocated to new commercial centers in northern Italy. Italian silk-making eventually became a stellar Renaissance art in Venice, Florence, Genoa, and Lucca in the 14th and 15th centuries. New stylistic techniques were added, like alto-e-basso for velvets and brocades, while old motifs, like the stylized Central Asian pomegranate, took on new life.

Commercial trade and competition was of great importance by the 15th century with the growth of European cities, guilds, and royal states. With the decline of Mongol power, control over trade routes was vital. The motivation behind Portuguese explorations of a sea route to India was to secure safer and cheaper passage of trade goods than by land caravans, which were subject to either exorbitant protection fees or raiding by enemies. Indeed, it was the search for this sea route to the East that led Columbus westward to the "New World." When Vasco da Gama found the sea route to India and other Europeans subsequently opened direct shipping links with China, contact with Central Asia decreased dramatically.

The Modern Era

Trade in silks helped fuel the mercantile transformation of Western Europe. French King Charles VII, the dukes of Burgundy, and their successors participated vigorously through markets in Bruges, Amsterdam, Lyon, and other towns. The practice of emulating Asian silk styles was institutionalized in Lyon, France, with the development of imitative Chinese and Turkish motifs, chinoiserie and turqueserie respectively. A steady stream of European travelers and adventurous merchants moved luxury goods between Europe, the Middle East, Iran, India, and China. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (160598), who traversed parts of the Silk Road on six journeys and witnessed the building of Versailles, Isfahan, and the Taj Mahal, traded in diamonds and pearls, was awarded "Oriental" silk robes of honor by the Shah of Iran and a barony by Louis XIV (for the sale of what later became the Hope Diamond). The English developed their own silk industry and tried silk cultivation in Ireland, and even in the New World. Mulberry trees and silkworms went with settlers to Jamestown in the early 1600s. Silk cultivation was successful but only for a time; other attempts followed later in Georgia, among the 19th-century Harmonists in Pennsylvania, and even among the Shakers in Kentucky. Still, imported silks showed the long reach of an international trade.

Silk styles and fashions were led, in Europe, by royalty, but soon extended to a wealthy merchant class, and were broadened further as a result of new manufacturing techniques. Silk production became industrialized in 1804 with the Jacquard loom. This loom relied upon punched cards to program the complex orchestration of threads into wonderful patterns; the cards later inspired the computer punch cards of the mid-20th century. Throughout the 19th century, chemists developed synthetic dyes. Designers, who could create one-of-a-kind items for the elite but also develop mass-produced lines of clothing, furnishings, and other silk products, set up shop in Paris. Asia was the subject of romantic allure and fascination by elites of the period. In the early 1800s, England's George IV built his Brighton palace in an Indo-Persian style, decorated it with Chinese furniture, and wore silk garments, thereby setting a trend, with his friend Beau Brummel, for men's formal fashion. Declared Empress of India in 1858, Queen Victoria was feted with grand celebrations and a diamond jubilee that included "Oriental" durbars or courtly convocations, replete with marching elephants and parades of Asian troops adorned in native dress. Parisians held costumed balls, dressed up as sultans and Asian royalty. Kashmiri and Chinese silk scarves were a big hit. Jewelers Cartier and Tiffany used Asian gemstones and imitated Asian decorative styles. Tiffany and Lalique were designing silk sashes, scarves, and other items. New silk textiles like chiffons and crepes were developed in France, and silk cultivation centers sent raw silk to design houses and production factories to meet demand. This demand extended to the United States, and raw silk was imported from Japan and dyed using the soft waters of the Passaic River in Paterson, New Jersey. Paterson became the U.S. headquarters of silk supply, design, and furnishing companies.

It was during this Orientalist period that the idea of the Silk Road as a way of connecting European and Asian culture, history, and art, was articulated by Baron von Richthofen. In 1786 William Jones had found the links between Sanskrit and Latin, devising the idea of an Indo-European family of languages. Throughout the 19th century, European philologists were working on the relationships between European and Asian languages, positing such "families" as Uralic and Altaic. European scholars found common roots in religions and symbols spanning Eurasia and relating Hinduism and Buddhism to ancient Greco-Roman mythology, and with Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. Archaeologists had begun to find links between widely dispersed civilizations of Egypt, the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, Iran, India, and Central Asia. Cultural diffusion, particularly strong in German and later English social science, became an explanatory model for the similarities found in widely separated societies, and an alternative to cultural evolutionary theories. These connections across cultures, history, and geography still intrigue us today. Consider, for example, the names of a number of stringed instruments with the root tar ("string" in Persian), from the tar itself to the dotar, dutar, lotar, setar, sitar, qitar, guitarra, and the guitar.

Silk became both a component and a symbol of this cultural diffusion. It was seen as a valuable index of civilization with regard to religious ritual, kingship, artistic production, and commercial activity. Silk stood for the higher things in life. It was a valuable, traded commodity, as well as a historical medium of exchange. Silk both epitomized and played a major role in the early development of what we now characterize as a global economic and cultural system. Europeans of the 19th century saw this new globalism not just as an interesting historical occurrence, but also as something that resonated with the growing distribution of silk use and manufacturing of the time.

Central Asia and the Silk Road Today

In formulating the idea of the Silk Road, Richthofen saw Central Asia as not only the land bridge between distant civilizations, but as a source of cultural creativity in its own right. He also saw it as disputed territory, a region that had served as the crossroads of political and military influence. Indeed, control over the Silk Road, particularly its Central Asian link, was serious business for 18th- century colonial powers playing the "Great Game." Both the Russians and the British vied for control over Afghanistan at the limit of their territorial aspirations. Rudyard Kipling, the English colonial writer, set the fictional tale of Kim against this backdrop, with the hero traveling one of the historical trade routes along what is now the Afghan-Pakistan frontier and partaking of what we might today call a multicultural adventure.

Though eclipsed in trade volume by sea routes for several centuries, Central Asia has in recent times and particularly after September 11 resumed its historical importance. Its geopolitical significance has grown as a result of the demise of the Soviet Union, the need to achieve stable political states in light of competing interests, and the need to find an appropriate role for religion, particularly Islam, in civic life. Most recently, the entry of the United States in Central Asia, fighting the Taliban and al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, using bases in Uzbekistan and Pakistan, and being drawn into disputes over sovereignty in Kashmir, democracy in Iran, rights for ethnic minorities in western China, and freedom in Kazakhstan, mark a new development in the contemporary jockeying for political influence and control.

The nations of the region are trying to build their own post-Soviet and contemporary economies. They are struggling to develop local markets, industries, and infrastructures, while at the same time participating in an increasingly globalized world economy. Some local entrepreneurs seek to rebuild economies based upon a traditional repertoire of deeply ingrained Silk Road commercial skills. Among emerging markets are those for recently discovered oil in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and western China. Pipelines are being planned and constructed, constituting new pathways for moving a valuable commodity across the region to the rest of the world.

New social institutions are being built - universities, hospitals, and financial systems. Some leaders like the Aga Khan are encouraging a contemporary renaissance of traditional knowledge, architecture, and artistry embedded in Central Asian history that will allow local citizens the opportunity to flourish. Famed and beautiful Uzbek ikat weavings are returning to the world marketplace. Designers from the region are creating their own distinctive fashions. Ancient musics performed by contemporary artists are making their way onto world stages. Historical sites are being restored.

Given the needs in the region, the work to build politically stable nations that are economically healthy, socially secure, and culturally confident is of immense scope, and the prognosis far from certain. But it does seem clear that people in the region stand the best chance of bettering their lives and those of their children by reclaiming their place in a transnational, transcultural flow of goods and ideas exemplified by the historical Silk Road. It is better to connect to the peoples and cultures around them and to participate in the commerce of nations than to withdraw from such interchange. By reclaiming the heritage of the Silk Road, the region may, once again, play an important role in the cultural and economic life of the global community.

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The Silk Road: Connecting People and Cultures

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The Silk Road spanned the Asian continent and represented a form of global economy when the known world was smaller but more difficult to traverse than nowadays. A network of mostly land but also sea trading routes, the Silk Road stretched from China to Korea and Japan in the east, and connected China through Central Asia to India in the south and to Turkey and Italy in the west.

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The Silk Road was a vast trade network connecting Eurasia and North Africa via land and sea routes.

The Silk Road earned its name from Chinese silk, a highly valued commodity that merchants transported along these trade networks.

Advances in technology and increased political stability caused an increase in trade. The opening of more trade routes caused travelers to exchange many things: animals, spices, ideas, and diseases.

In the first century CE, during the reign of Emperor Tiberius, silk had become a big problem. The luxury fabric, imported at great cost from China, had become a symbol of decadence and excess among Romans. In order to make their supply of silk last longer, merchants unraveled and re-wove their fabric into thinner, sheer garments. This practice had a side-effect of making the garments nearly transparent.

Seneca the Younger, a writer and imperial advisor, complained of people wearing silk:

"I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes. ... Wretched flocks of maids labor so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body."

In the year 14 CE, the Roman historian Tacitus reported that the Imperial Senate made it illegal for men to wear silk, resolving that "Oriental [Eastern] silks should no longer degrade the male sex. "

This prohibition on silk did not last. The demand for silk continued to drive trade between the Roman Empire, China, India, and many places in between. To understand what caused this trade in silk, we need to look at how Chinese silk got to Rome.

State power and the Silk Road

One cause of expanded trade was the growth of imperial power. Near the end of the second century BCE, Emperor Wu of Han mounted many campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu people. Xiongnu horsemen had raided Chinese settlements along the northern border for many years. Emperor Wu looked for a new source of horses for his cavalry in order to deal with the threat of the Xiongnu.

Emperor Wu sent an emissary named Zhang Qian to find allies in the fight against the Xiongnu. Zhang returned to China, eager to discuss the wonders he had seen in Ferghana-modern-day Uzbekistan. Along with rice, wheat, and grapes, the region produced hardy, "heavenly" horses.

Ferghana horses became a highly-desired trade item in China. China imported so many horses that the Dayuan people who controlled the Ferghana valley refused to sell any more of the horses! This led to a three-year conflict known as the War of the Heavenly Horses. By 101 BCE, the Ferghana valley belonged to Han China. Control of the Ferghana valley also opened a route to the West.

With a new supply of horses, Han China projected its new military strength throughout Asia. The expansion of Han control led to the first -or Chinese Peace. During this time, the standard of living in China rose and cities grew in size. Economic growth and political stability led to increased demand for luxury goods from far-off places.

Stop and consider: Why might economic growth and political stability cause more trade?

The Roman empire was expanding during this time, too. Victory in the Punic Wars gave Rome control over the western Mediterranean Sea. Over the next few centuries, Rome expanded to control all of the Mediterranean shoreline.

The first century CE saw the beginning of the Pax Romana-Roman Peace. The Pax Romana lasted about 200 years and was a period of relatively few wars. As with Han China, political stability brought more trade. Rome gained access to overseas trade routes to India via Egypt and began to trade regularly.

Although Rome and Han China expanded greatly, there was still a lot of distance between them. Central Asia is covered with mountains, deserts, and vast grasslands. Traders provided an essential link between the Roman and Han empires.

Travel on the Silk Road

Traders had to find ways to move their goods efficiently. To travel overland, the camel was favored mode of transportation. Nomadic peoples in central Asia started domesticating camels as early as the second millennium BCE. For example, the Han Chinese used camels captured from the Xiongnu to carry military supplies. Camels could withstand the harsh desert conditions through central Asia and were also able to carry up to 500 pounds at a time! Pack animals-especially camels-made the transportation of goods over land on the Silk Road viable.

Merchants and sailors made use of the ocean to transport goods, too. Sailors needed a strong understanding of wind patterns and storm systems to successfully navigate the oceans. For example, in the Indian Ocean, monsoon winds blow from the northeast in the winter and from the southwest in the summer. With a southwestern wind pushing them east, merchants were able to travel from the Red Sea between Egypt and Arabia to India in the summer and then back to the Red Sea in the winter. This information was exchanged among sailors and made its way beyond the Indian Ocean.

Stop and consider: How did environmental factors influence trade patterns along the Silk Road(s)?

The effects of exchange

One obvious effect of trade along the Silk Road was more goods were available in more places. Silk, owing to its soft texture and appealing shimmer, became so hotly desired that it was used as currency in central Asia. However, the process of raising silkworms and creating fabric from their cocoons remained a Chinese secret through the 6th century C.E. The fact that China remained the only source of silk meant that trade goods continued to travel across Asia. This involved many people and locations in the Silk Road trade networks.

Spices from the East Indies, glass beads from Rome, silk, ginger, and lacquerware from China, furs from animals of the Caucasian steppe and slaves from many locations all travelled along the Silk Road.

Some effects were cultural. During the rule of the Tang dynasty of China, for example, sculptures of camels from the caravans that frequently traded in China were placed in graves. Clearly the animals made an impression!

Ideas and diseases were also exchanged along the sea lanes and camel-routes-and both would have profound effects on the locations they traveled to. Toward the end of the second century, a plague tore through the Roman Empire, killing 10% of the population. Historians think that this plague first appeared in China before making its way through trade routes to the Near East, where Roman soldiers were campaigning.

As for the exchange of ideas, Buddhism came to China through trade with India. The Sogdians of central Asia often acted as traders between India and China. Sogdians also translated Sanskrit sutras into Chinese and spread the Buddhist faith as they traded. Other faiths, like Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Christianity also traveled along the sea and land routes. These religions developed and changed to fit the new regions they travelled to.

Stop and consider: What effects did trade have beyond moving goods?

Chinese silk in Rome

So now we have a sense of the economic and political conditions that enabled Chinese silk to make its way to Roman markets. Both the Han Chinese and Roman Empires controlled vast territories and kept them relatively peaceful. The Han conquered their way into central Asia. From there, nomadic traders carried goods farther west or south. Trade brought new faiths, new ideas, and new goods to places they had not previously been.

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The Silk Road, which crossed Asia and Europe, was a great channel for cultural and mercantile exchange between Eastern and Western civilizations. A large number of cities emerged along the route and became melting pots where different civilizations met.

This legendary ancient trade route linked Asia and Europe across the vast landmass of Central Asia. Travelers and traders came from areas such as present-day China, Iran, Turkey, Greece, and Italy, all of which were part of the Silk Road. The roots of the Silk Road go back to the Western Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 9 CE). However, it was during the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 CE) that the Silk Road saw the greatest international activity.

From archaeological finds and surviving texts, especially those discovered in the last two decades, there is evidence of an almost incessant flow of goods and ideas across Eurasia. Porcelain, silk, paper, and gunpowder traveled from East to West, while chariots, wool, glass, and wine came into China. Even ostriches and rhinos found their way to the Chinese imperial court in Chang'an. The linking of diverse foreign lands made the Silk Road a melting pot of cultural fusion, and this was no more evident than in the cities that developed along the ancient trade routes.

1. Chang'an (Near Xi'an)

The ancient city of Chang'an, near present-day Xi'an in Shaanxi Province, is regarded as the eastern starting point of the Silk Road. With more than a million inhabitants at the height of its prosperity, Chang'an was one of the largest cities in the world. As the political, economic, and cultural center of ancient China, this was a popular destination for foreigners, most of whom came to Chang'an via the Silk Road.

During the Tang Dynasty, Chang'an had two main markets - the West and the East. The eastern market was mainly reserved for members of the imperial family and aristocrats, while the western market was open to the common people and was best known for its trade in foreign goods. The western market developed into a flourishing trading center, where goods from all over the world were available - jewelry, silk, tea, exotic herbs, and rare medicines. Cultural and artistic influences also reached Chang'an via trade connections to other countries along the Silk Road, influencing local tastes in everything from food to fashion.

For more than a thousand years, Dunhuang was an important commercial, cultural, and military center on the Silk Road. Dunhuang is located at the westernmost end of the Hexi Corridor in China, where the three provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, and Xinjiang meet. It is a small oasis surrounded by the Gobi Desert. Dunhuang occupied a strategic position, connecting the Central Plains of China to the east, with Xinjiang and Central Asia to the west.

In the second year of the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (121 BCE), the Xiongnu army was defeated by the Han army. Dunhuang became a hub of imperial military, commercial, cultural, political, and transportation activities on the road from the Central Plains to the Western Regions. Under the conditions of slow travel, communication difficulties, and a harsh natural environment, Dunhuang became a refuge for humans and animals and a transit point for the exchange of commodities during the long journey.

Dunhuang became the first place where Buddhism was introduced into the East. Zhu Fahu and his disciples translated Buddhist scriptures and disseminated doctrines in Dunhuang during the Jin Dynasty (266 - 420 CE). Soon afterward, a monk named Lezun came to Dunhuang and excavated the first of the magnificent Mogao Grottoes. The earliest dated printed book, a Tang-dynasty Buddhist manuscript known as the Diamond Sutra, was found in Dunhuang in 1907.

3. Kashgar

Kashgar, the westernmost city in China, was the focal point of the Silk Road for centuries. Geographically, Kashgar is the "Wild West" of China, in the far west, not far from the borders with Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Pakistan. The city thrived as the interface between Central Asia and China, being the assembly point for caravans heading westwards towards Samarkand or eastwards across the fearsome Taklamakan Desert.

According to legend, the Chinese Emperor Wu of the Han learned that the people here owned special horses that had come down from heaven and sweated blood. He wanted these horses for his own army and sent an emissary. This mission opened the way for China to the western areas beyond the desert. Since then, the Chinese have claimed rule over the Kashgar oasis and its people. However, they never had complete control of the area, and over the past two millennia, they have ruled over Kashgar for less than 500 years, with many interruptions. In the ancient oasis city, the Uyghur minority still makes up the majority of the population.

In the last century, Kashgar became the center of intrigues and conspiracies, the bone of contention between three great world empires: England, Russia, and China. Together they played the " Great Game," as the struggle for rule over Central Asia and its riches was called. Kashgar became a melting pot of diplomats and spies, officers and archaeologists, explorers and adventurers from all over the world.

The source of China's wealth during the Tang dynasty, namely the transcontinental trade in luxury goods, was largely organized by a people who are now almost forgotten: the Sogdians. By the end of the 1st millennium BCE, the Sogdians had a highly developed civilization with large fortified cities, such as Samarkand (known to the Greeks as Marakanda). Located on a plateau on the westernmost tip of the Alai Mountains, Samarkand benefited greatly from its location at the heart of the Silk Road. Founded around 2,750 years ago, the city was conquered by several famous and powerful rulers over its long history. These include Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and Timur (also known as Tamerlane).

From the 6th to the 8th centuries, the Sogdians ruled the largest trading empire in Asia. A prerequisite for their success in the most varied of Asian countries was, in addition to extensive language training, an open-mindedness in religious matters. Although many Sogdian communities practiced forms of Zoroastrianism, they were open to other religions, such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Manichaeism. Another pillar of their success was their flexibility in adapting their business to new political circumstances.

5. Balkh

The ancient city of Balkh was known as the " Mother of Cities," but was completely destroyed by Genghis Khan's army in the 1220s. Afghanistan was once the political, economic, social, and religious center of Asia. The Silk Road once attracted countless nomads, warriors, settlers, adventurers, and missionaries throughout the region, all of whom left their mark. Balkh is located 22 kilometers (13 miles) west of the provincial capital Mazar-i-Sharif, on the edge of the Balkh River.

It was here that Alexander the Great led an army to fight and kill the king of Balkh, before he married the beautiful Princess Roxanne. In the early 7th century, before the Arab invasion of Persia, the traveling Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang discovered that many Buddhists lived in Balkh. Zoroaster, the philosopher who created the first monotheistic religion 3,500 years ago, was born here and may have died here. Balkh was also the birthplace of Rumi, the great Persian poet of the 13th century, and many Afghans prefer to believe that Rumi was buried here after his death.

The ancient city of Merv is located 30 kilometers (18 miles) away from the eastern outskirts of Mary, a city in the Karakum Desert of Turkmenistan. It is one of the most important historical sites in Turkmenistan and Central Asia, having witnessed the prosperity and glory of the ancient Silk Road. The first record of the ancient city of Merv appeared in ancient Persian books of the 8th to 6th centuries BCE. By the height of its development in the 12th century CE, Merv matched Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo as a major Islamic center and had a profound impact on the region's Islamic civilization.

As a hub connecting Central Asia and Persia, the ancient city of Merv was a stage where several empires collided in history. The city continuously expanded and displayed a great diversity of architectural styles and cultural characteristics. The highest point of the ancient city is occupied by its oldest surviving structure, the El Kekara, a castle built in the 6th century BCE by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty. The Parthians, Sassanids, and Seljuk Turks all left their own mark, and Buddhist, Zoroastrian, and Christian temples were all found in the city.

In the 13th century, the ancient city of Merv was devastated. In 1218, the Mongolians arrived and demanded tribute be paid to the great Genghis Khan. However, the envoy was killed and, in 1221, Genghis Khan's son Tolui led an army into the city, razed it to the ground, massacred hundreds of thousands of people, and instantly turned the prosperous Merv to ashes.

Ctesiphon was a great city in ancient Mesopotamia, the capital of the Parthian Empire and its successor, the Sassanid Dynasty. It is located on the banks of the Tigris River southeast of Baghdad, the capital of Iraq. This place was originally garrisoned by Mithridates I of Parthia against the Seleucid dynasty was later occupied by the Romans, and eventually came under the control of the Sasanian Empire. When the second Islamic Caliph Umar was in power, he sent troops to conquer Iraq. In 637 CE, the Arab army defeated the Sassanid army and took over the city, using it as a base to conquer the whole of Persia eastward.

After hundreds of years of occupation, Ctesiphon became an important political and economic center of the Silk Road. The people regarded the city as a paradise on earth at that time, but all that remains in the ruins of Ctesiphon today are many tall mud-brick walls and palaces. Among them, the huge vaulted palace of the Sassanid King Khosrow I is the most famous, known as the Taq Kasra. This boasts a 100-foot-high unreinforced brick arch in the main hall, the tallest single-span brick vault in the world.

8. Palmyra

The ancient city of Palmyra in central Syria is a famous city on the Silk Road. Palmyra is located on an oasis on the edge of the Syrian desert, north-east of Damascus, between the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the Euphrates River. From the 1st century CE, it was a trading center connecting the Persian Gulf and Asia with the Mediterranean and Europe. Merchants brought Chinese silk, pottery, and herbs through Syria in exchange for glass products, dyes, and pearls.

Palmyra is often referred to as Syria's " Pearl of the Desert". The ruined city covers 6 square kilometers (2.3 square miles) of scattered columns, towers, barriers, tombs, temples, and other structures. During the Roman Empire, Palmyra rose rapidly and reached its peak in the 2nd century CE, becoming the largest and most prosperous city in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. In 1957, during an oil pipeline project in the Syrian desert, construction workers discovered a catacomb at the site. This was the mausoleum of Zenobia (c. 240 - 274 CE), the most noble and beautiful oriental queen of ancient Syria, who broke from Roman rule and established the Palmyrene Empire. However, Palmyra was destroyed by the Romans in 273 CE.

Damascus, the capital of Syria, is a beautiful and elegant city with over 4,500 years of history. It is located at the foothills of the majestic Mount Qasioun. The seven tributaries of the Barada River rush through the city day and night, bringing vitality and prosperity to this famous West Asian city. According to historical records, Chinese silk was introduced to Damascus as early as 115 CE. Chinese silks and ceramics were transported to the Phoenician Kingdom (on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea, today's Syria and Lebanon) through Petra (in present-day Jordan). Silk was processed and dyed to adapt to the Romans' needs. Then, it was transported to markets in Rome and Damascus for sale.

The remains of several ancient caravanserais can still be seen in Damascus. These monumental buildings of wood and stone are mostly found close to the souqs (marketplaces) in the Old City. They were divided into upper and lower floors, with an open central courtyard. The post's downstairs is where camels and horses were tied, while the upper floor had rooms where silk merchants stayed. The central courtyard was used for trading silk. Caravanserais like these would have once been found all along the Silk Road, providing much-needed locations for travelers to rest.

10. Constantinople

In its long history, Istanbul has been the capital of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Turkish Republic in the early days of the country's founding. It has long been the political and religious center of the Near East. Known in the past as Constantinople, this city combines the quintessence of the ideology, culture, and art of all ethnic groups in Europe, Asia, and Africa, thus becoming an important intersection of Eastern and Western ideology and culture.

In the 7th century BCE, after the Greeks first built this city, it became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was renamed Constantinople in 330 CE and was only called Istanbul after the Ottoman Turks acquired the city in 1453. After that, Istanbul became the capital of the Turkish Empire. In 1923, the Republic of Turkey moved the capital to Ankara, but Istanbul is still the largest city in Turkey. Historically, Constantinople was a commercial center and the only route for merchant ships from Black Sea countries. The city was built on the junction between Asia and Europe and is often classified as the end of the Asian part of the Silk Road.

In recent years, China has reactivated the Silk Road of ancient times with an ambitious development program known as "One Belt One Road" or the "Belt and Road Initiative". This is a huge undertaking: two trade routes are being created to better connect China with other countries, one by land and one by sea. The routes lead through more than 60 countries in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Some of the cities that are experiencing major change along the Silk Road in modern times include New Lanzhou (China), Wuwei (China), Khorgas (China), Aktau (Kazakhstan), Gwadar (Pakistan), Anaklia (Georgia), Istanbul (Turkey), Duisburg (Germany) and Rotterdam (Netherlands).

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Here Are The 10 Largest Cities of the Silk Road

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The Silk Road, which crossed Asia and Europe, was a great channel for cultural and mercantile exchange between Eastern and Western civilizations. A large number of cities emerged along the route and became melting pots where different civilizations met. This legendary ancient trade route linked Asia and Europe across the vast landmass of Central Asia.

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Luoyang, located in Central China's Henan Province, is a great ancient capital of China of 13 dynasties. It was the capital of China during the Eastern Han Dynasty, which witnessed China's friendly communications with ancient Rome, and it was the center of the Grand Canal and one of the cradles of Chinese civilization. Luoyang has 6 World Cultural Heritage sites, including Longmen Grottoes (the finest stone carving Buddhist grottoes in China) and other ancient city ruins and sites. When visiting Luoyang, don't miss the White Horse Temple - the first Buddhist temple in China, which was built after Buddhism was introduced into China in 2 AD and historic ruins of earlier periods. The annual Peony Festival held in spring adds Luoyang a splash of colour. Luoyang is still a popular transfer center to Dengfeng Shaolin Temple for Chinese Kung Fu fans.

Xian is the starting point of the Silk Road and home to the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage - Terracotta Warriors. It once served as the capital of ancient China for 13 dynasties, thus it is voted as one of the Four Greatest Chinese Ancient Capitals and one of the oldest cities in China. With massive historic sites of different dynasties and 6 World Heritage sites, Xian is one of the best representations of Chinese history and culture. There are lots of meaningful things to do in Xian, such as exploring Terracotta Army in Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum and other Han Dynasty mausoleums to learn previous craftsmanship and funerary rituals, visiting Ancient City Wall, palaces, towers to appreciate traditional architectures, seeking Buddhist history in Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, enjoying a Tang Dynasty show, experiencing ethnic fusion and trying various local flavors in Muslim Quarter, etc.

Ningxia, situated inland northwest China between Shaanxi and Gansu, was a must pass on the ancient Silk Road. In the Han and Wei Dynasties, Ningxia's Guyuan and Zhongwei were important stops. During the Tang Dynasty, Silk Road changed direction and went through Yinchuan, Wuzhong and Zhongwei of Ningxia. In the Yuan Dynasty, a new Silk Route via Guyuan passing Liupanshan Mountain was opened and used until the Qing Dynasty. Ningxia played a very important role in connecting the Central China and Western Regions and the outside world. Many cultural relics preserved can help you explore Ningxia's history and culture during the Silk Road periods, including the famous Xumishan Grottoes (one of the top 10 grottoes in China with 162 caves and over 500 stone-carved statues), Western Xia Emperors' Tombs, Guyuan Ancient City, etc. Nature fans should never underrate Ningxia, because it has an interesting and stunning topographic diversity where deserts, rivers, mountains, plains, valleys magically exist in Ningxia.

Lying in southeastern Gansu and the middle of Xian and Lanzhou, Tianshui is the geometric center of China and a vital communication hub among Shaanxi, Gansu and Sichuan and the hometown of Fuxi - ancestor of mankind in Chinese mythology. During ancient times, Tianshui served as a crucial pass between Xian and the Hexi Corridor and the Western Regions, a military stronghold and a necessary channel of Buddhism transmission on the Silk Road. The place was a bustling frontier trade center during the Northern Song Dynasty. The previous prosperity and cultural exchanges are well recorded in the exotic Buddhist grottoes and ancient post houses of Tianshui. Maijishan Grottoes, known as "the Oriental Sculpture Gallery" with thousands of exquisite clay sculptures, is an outstanding example of Buddhist grottoes in China, which has been listed as a World Cultural Heritage site. Besides, you can visit Tianshui Museum to see different cultural relics, learn more about Tianshui and visit Fuxi Temple which was built in the Ming Dynasty (late 15th century) to worship the ancient legendary "Fuxi Emperor". Fuxi was very knowledgeable, and created the Eight Diagrams, which made a great progress in Chinese civilization.

Lanzhou has been an important transportation and military town on the Silk Road as well as a significant bond of linking minority groups in the Western Regions since ancient times. Now it's the gateway to northwest China, especially to Zhangye, Dunhuang and other destinations in Lanzhou. In the Western Han Dynasty of over 2000 years ago, Lanzhou began to play a part in trade and traffic and promotion of the economic and cultural exchange between the East and the West. Lots of following contacts left marks in Lanzhou, such as Ban Chao's visit to the Western Regions, Tang Sanzang's Buddhist journey to India, etc. The best place to catch a glimpse of its glorious history and contribution to the Silk Road is the Gansu Provincial Museum in Lanzhou, which exhibits hundreds of cultural relics, like bronze wares, Han & Tang Dynasties silks, Buddhist statues, etc. Meanwhile, the city is the only provincial city China's mother river - Yellow River flows through. Therefore, you can observe the restless Yellow River, walk through the iconic Iron Bridge to climb up the White Pagoda Mountain, and get a panoramic view of Lanzhou City on either river bank.

Located in western Gansu, middle of Hexi Corridor, northwest China, Zhangye was called Ganzhou long before and is where Gansu gets its name "Gan". Later, Zhangye was renamed for its location of connecting the Western Regions. Since then, Zhangye has long worked as a vital trade center and strategic thoroughfare on the ancient Silk Road. Nearly all major ancient Silk Road contributors have visited Zhangye when travelling to the west and farther areas, including Zhang Qian, Ban Chao, Monk Fa Xian, Tang Sanzang and Italian traveler - Marco Polo. Top historic sites to explore in Zhangye include Matisi Grottoes - a cliffside Buddhist grottoes remaining splendid Buddhist sculptures of the Western Xia and Yuan Dynasties, Dafo Temple - a famous symbol of Zhangye which has the country's largest indoor clay reclining Buddha. The most famous emblem of Zhangye nowadays is the colorful Zhangye Danxia - "Rainbow Mountains", one of the top 10 geological wonders elected by American National Geographic.

Jiayuguan City in northwestern Gansu is the home to the famous Jiayuguan Pass, the westernmost end of the Ming Dynasty Great Wall and the biggest fortress on China's Great Walls. Jiayuguan City was a very important transport hub on the ancient Silk Road and a busy place where merchants and envoys gathered during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Jiayuguan Pass stretching in front of the majestic Qilian Mountains is the biggest heritage and highlight of Jiayuguan. The pass was constructed in 1372 during the period of Emperor Hongwu of the Ming Dynasty. With the surrounding beacon towers, abutments, moats and city walls, Jiayuguan Pass had a strict military defense system. During your Jiayuguan tour, visitors can learn the history of the pass and China Great Wall in the Great Wall Museum, hike on a less-known Overhang Great Wall and view the grand Taolaihe Canyon and mysterious brick wall paintings of Wei-Jin Tombs. Popular China Great Wall Tours >>

Dunhuang is world-known for the Mogao Caves, the top of all China's Buddhist grottoes which gains the title of "Oriental Louvre". The city, located in the northwest of Gansu, westernmost of Hexi Corridor, used to be the demarcation point of the northern and southern routes of the ancient Silk Road. Therefore, silks and other goods, crops, handicrafts, religions and cultures from ancient China and other countries met and mixed in Dunhuang, making Dunhuang a flourishing border trade and cultural center. That kind of alive scene can be precisely found in the murals in Mogao Caves. As the world's largest Buddhist art treasury with the richest contents, Mogao Caves is the top must-visit attraction along the ancient Silk Road. You can appreciate time-honored Buddhist sculptures and wall paintings of high artistic value. Yumen Pass and Yangguan Pass are cultural relics of over 2000 years of history. Magical Singing Sands Mountain and the desert oasis - Crescent Spring, Yardang Geopark in Dunhuang shows you supernatural power and beauties.

Most people and travelers know the main Silk Routes from Xian to Hexi Corridor (Zhangye-Jiayuguan-Dunhuang), but very few of them know Qinghai also played an important role in offering a safe and convenient trade route between the East and West during the Wei-Jin Dynasties and late Tang Dynasties. It was said that Zhang Qian returned to Chang'an (Xian) via a little-known path in Qinghai on his first journey. At that time, Xining was the center of Qinghai's Silk Route which linked neighboring Gansu, Sichuan and Xinjiang. Travelling from Xining to westward areas via Qinghai Lake and Qaidam Basin is the roughest and most dangerous Silk Route within Qinghai. Tourists can partly follow ancient footprints to explore Qinghai, visit Xining's Kumbum Monastery (Ta'er Monastery) - one of the six greatest Gelug monasteries in China, enjoy beautiful Qinghai Lake, Chaka Salt Lake - Mirror of the Sky, authentic Tibetan Buddhist culture in Tongren, amazing Danxia hills in Kanbula National Forest Park and other plateau landscapes in Qinghai. Taking a sky train trip to the holy land of Tibet from Qinghai is a once-in-a-lifetime experience.

Turpan is a miraculous oasis located in the intermountain Turpan Basin, southern of Tianshan Mountains, eastern Xinjiang. Turpan was the seat of ancient Cheshi Kingdom and Gaochang Kingdom and a crucial pass on the northern route of ancient Silk Road. Products, religions and cultures of different regions once exchanged here via the ancient Silk Route. Turpan's Jiaohe Ancient City and Gaochang Ancient City, two well-preserved city ruins, have been inscribed as World Cultural Heritage sites of the Silk Road network. Besides, Turpan has Bezklik Thousand Buddha Caves which painted Buddhist murals and royal images of Huihu Gaochang Kingdom. Another lightspot of Turpan is its highest temperature during summer in China, which can be felt in the spectacular fire red Flaming Mountains. Apart from those, you can enjoy desert entertainment in the vast expanding Kumtag Desert, taste sweet and juicy grapes in Grape Valley and learn traditional intelligence of Karez System, a great underground water conservancy project.

Urumqi, which means beautiful pasture in Mongolian, is the capital city and the most important transportation hub in Xinjiang. As the world's farthest city away from the sea, Urumqi used to be a significant city in the Western Regions on the northern Silk Route. The city has experienced brilliant cultural exchanges from different groups and regions, and the cultural diversity and traditional ethnic customs remain alive in Urumqi. In downtown Urumqi, you can visit Xinjiang Regional Museum to trace back to the ancient Silk Road period, view a large number of cultural relics discovered in Xinjiang and get a quick understanding of the history and culture of Xinjiang areas. Xinjiang International Grand Bazaar is the best place to feel the previous prosperity of international trade culture. Pursue natural beauty in Urumqi? Heavenly Lake of Tianshan Mountains with phenomenal scenery of serene lake, primitive forests and grandiose snowy mountains will surprise you deeply. When summer comes, Nanshan Pasture provides an ideal summer resort and refreshing grassland vision. From Urumqi, it's easy and convenient to transfer to Kashgar, Kanas, Kucha, Turpan, Hotan, Ili and other major destinations in Xinjiang.

Kucha in ancient times was the Qiuci Kingdom, one of the most powerful states in the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty, and it served as a strategic town on the middle route of ancient Silk Road in Xinjiang. Kucha once owned highly-developed grotto art (much earlier than Dunhuang Mogao Caves), religion, economy and culture. Ancient people of Qiuci were good at music and iron-smelting tech, which had a great influence on other states in the Western Regions. Here has Kizil Caves, the first Buddhist grottoes in China, that preserves some China's oldest, delicate and unusual murals of ancient Qiuci Kingdom, and two World Cultural Heritage sites - Kizil Gaha Beacon Tower, a military alarm structure of the Han Dynasty and the oldest & best-preserved beacon site on the northern route of the Silk Road, and the Subash Ruins, a major Buddhist temple during the Wei-Jin Dynasties and the largest Buddhist cultural ruin in Xinjiang. With more time, you can visit the Kucha Royal Palace to appreciate integrated architectural styles of traditional Chinese and Islamic and the magnificent Tianshan Mysterious Grand Canyon.

Hotan, situated in the south of Taklamakan Desert and Tarim Basin, west of Kashgar, was the starting point of the Jade Road, first stop of Buddhism's transmission and a vital town on the southern route of the ancient Silk Road. Hotan once was the Yutian Kingdom, a very strong state on the southern Silk Route, which had developed agriculture, crop production and manual textile industry, and the earliest silkworms raising technique in China. After Buddhism was introduced into China in the late 2nd century, Hotan had long been the center of Mahayana Buddhism.

Through the ancient Silk Road, many western travelers and merchants gathered in Hotan, brought different goods and cultures, which later shaped the mixed musics, operas, paintings, art and folk customs of Hotan with some Indian and Iranian styles. History left massive cultural relics and city ruins in Hotan. Niya Ruins is the most famous and mysterious one, it is a large ruins composed of tombs, houses, temples, farmlands and other functional zones between the 1st century BC to 4th century. Unearthed cultural relics are extremely rich covering different types, textiles excavated are rare and valuable. In central Hotan city, you can learn more history from the Hotan Museum. Now Hotan is most known for Hotan Jade, hand-made carpet and Adilis Silk. To arrive in Hotan, a scenic road trop via the wild Taklamakan Desert is highly recommended.

Kashgar in southwestern Xinjiang has been an important frontier trade and cultural center and gateway to Central & West Asia for over 2 millenniums years. Historically, Kashgar was the seat of many ancient kingdoms. Among them, the Shule Kingdom and the Shache Kingdom were two main regimes. Just then, Kashgar was a center where the middle and south routes of ancient Silk Road converged, therefore, grew rapidly as an international trade port attracting numerous Eastern and Western merchants. Today, Kashgar is the only national-level historical and cultural city in Xinjiang which exhibits the essence of Uyghur folk customs, art, architecture and diverse cultures. There are lots of places to explore the abundant cultures of Kashgar, such as the "Living Memory of the Silk Road" - over 2000-year-old Kashgar Old Town (the world's largest earthen building complex), Kashgar Bazzar - Asian largest bazaar, Sunday Livestock Market - Xinjiang's biggest livestock market, Id Kah Mosque - the largest mosque in China, etc. Moreover, Kashgar is the transfer center in Southern Xinjiang, and travelers can get from Kashgar to Tashkurgan via Karakul Lake on the Karakoram Highway, view stunning Pamirs landscape, and travel to Hotan, Kucha and Shache.

Major Destinations to Go: Xian, Luoyang, Dunhuang, Zhangye, Jiayuguan, Lanzhou, Qinghai, Urumqi, Turpan, Kashgar, Kucha, Hotan, Tianshui, Ningxia...

Top Tourist Attractions to Visit: Xian Terracotta Warriors, Dunhuang Mogao Caves, Zhangye Danxia Landform - Rainbow Mountains, Qinghai Lake, Heavenly Lake, Jiaohe Ancient City, Kashgar Old Town, Karakul Lake...

Best Time to Go: Generally, months from April to October are the best time, because the temperature is moderate and pleasant, the weather is good and the natural scenery is the most beautiful during this period.

The ancient Silk Road is a long tourist travel route involving lots of Chinese destinations, mostly located in Northwest China. A Silk Road travel can be flexibly customized according to travelers' length of vacations, departure city, individual preferences and budget. It can take a few days to a few weeks and months.

If you have a tight schedule with only several days ( 4 ~ 5 days), you're advised to make a brief Silk Road tour from the starting point - Xian, and visit Luoyang nearby or Dunhuang, the legendary treasury of Buddhist art, history and culture. If you have visited Xian and would like a deeper exploration, then Gansu's Hexi Corridor (Zhangye, Jiayuguan and Dunhuang) - essence of ancient Silk Road is the best recommendation and a classic trip takes about 6 days.

☛ 6 Days Zhangye Jiayuguan Dunhuang Discovery Tour
☛ 5 Days Silk Road Tour from Xian to Dunhuang by Flight
☛ 5 Days Luoyang Xian Tour by Train

Travelers with 7 ~ 8 days can visit more Silk Road destinations. You can explore the Hexi Corridor with neighboring Qinghai, enjoy beautiful Qinghai Lake and other stunning landscapes and cultures, or travel farther to Xinjiang, unveil the mysterious Western Regions in top destinations - Turpan, Urumqi and Kashgar. Depending on your pace, you can even take some side trips, such as travelling to Karakul Lake from Kashgar.

☛ 7 Days Miraculous Land Tour from Dunhuang to Zhangye Xining
☛ 8 Days Classic Xinjiang Tour including Urumqi Turpan Kashgar Tashkurgan

A holiday of 10 ~ 15 days and a longer length is suitable to cover major destinations along the Silk Road in China. You can flexibly arrange an itinerary based on your interests. The most classic Silk Road tour covers Xian, main destinations in Hexi Corridor and Xinjiang, and takes just 10 days. Qinghai and Ningxia are popular regions for an in-depth Silk Road adventure. If time allows, you can visit the holy land of Tibet (Lhasa, Shigatse, Mount Everest, Mt.Kailash...) which has impressive Buddhist and Tibetan culture and plateau vista, and other destinations in China to experience the vast and diversity of China.

☛ 10 Days Classic Silk Road Tour (Xian/Dunhuang/Turpan/Kashgar)
☛ 11 Days In-depth Wild Silk Road Adventure Tour
☛ 12 Days Epic Silk Road Tour including Qinghai Lake and Zhangye Danxia
☛ 15 Days Classic Ancient China Silk Road Tour with Bullet Train Experience
☛ 19 Days Silk Road & Tibet In-depth Tour

Our customers Cameron Family from New Zealand visited Terracotta Warriors in Xian in July, 2021.

Our customers Erin family from USA visited Zhangye Danxia Geopark in Gansu in August, 2020.

Kashgar Old Town ©骆小洛的世界 / mafengwo

Start planning your tailor-made holiday to China by contacting one of our specialists. Once inquired, you'll get a response within 0.5~23.5 hours.

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Major China Silk Road Cities, Best China Silk Road Destinations

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Luoyang, located in Central China's Henan Province, is a great ancient capital of China of 13 dynasties. It was the capital of China during the Eastern Han Dynasty, which witnessed China's friendly communications with ancient Rome, and it was the center of the Grand Canal and one of the cradles of Chinese civilization.

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Nothing sparks a traveller's imagination like the fabled Silk Road.

Once a network of trading routes that stretched from the Korean Peninsula all the way to Istanbul, the Silk Road was the original bridge between Asia and Europe, East and West.

Walking in the footsteps of merchants and pilgrims, retracing the route caravans of camels once plied, modern-day travellers will discover that the Silk Road is still a gateway to some of the planet's most incredible cultural heritage and exquisite landscapes.

A thousand years of Silk Route history lives on in the many and varied outposts and trading hubs that popped up along the route, from Japan to Azerbaijan.

Here are 20 modern-day Silk Road cities that are worth visiting as part of any Silk Route adventure.

Please note: This post contains affiliate links, meaning I may earn a commission if you make a purchase by clicking a link (at no extra cost to you).

20 incredible modern-day Silk Road cities

Ground zero for the collision of two continents, the Silk Road was the main arterial for ferrying goods between Asia and Europe - including, most famously, silk.

This was the original information highway; a means by which ideas could permeate otherwise impenetrable mountain passes, cross vast deserts and navigate treacherous steppes. Along with earthly goods, knowledge, philosophy and religion also coursed along the Silk Road, harnessed to the backs of merchant camels and tucked away in pilgrims' rucksacks. No thoroughfare has played a more important role in shaping the world as we know it than the Silk Road.

As traders carved their paths across Central Asia, they set down roots for a string of cities and towns along the way. Endowed with great bazaars, caravanserais and anything else a Silk Road trader could want or need, each of these outposts grew to embody the essence of the trading route.

Today, they carry on that legacy for us modern travellers to enjoy.

1. Istanbul, Turkey

The single most important city on the Silk Road was its final terminus: Istanbul (Constantinople). It was here that traders wound up their westward journey before their goods were spirited deeper into Europe, to the marketplaces of Venice and Rome.

From the 4th century onwards, all ancient roads led to Constantinople. Almost everything you see in Turkey's biggest city today has some connection to that time of great financial and intellectual prosperity, when the city profited from its prime location on the cusp of two continents. Christianity emanated from the cloisters of the 6th century Hagia Sophia and started its march east with Constantinople as its origin point. The Bosphorus Strait took on its persona as a lively hub for sea trade.

When it fell to the Ottomans in 1453, the city's name was changed, but its new rulers made sure its reputation as a trading centre was still cultivated. The Grand Bazaar was established to centralise goods and still dominates Istanbul's centre to this day.

A walk through the alleys of the Spice Bazaar and the halls of the Grand Bazaar is a highlight of any visit to Istanbul. Stop for a Turkish coffee, one of Istanbul's most beloved traditions, before picking up a few authentic souvenirs.

2. Tbilisi, Georgia

Tbilisi, Georgia.

Georgia has always enjoyed a position at the geographic and conceptual crossroads of Europe and Asia, but it wasn't until relatively late - around the 6th century - that Tbilisi became a fixture on the Silk Road. Around this time, conflict started brewing between Byzantium and Iran, necessitating the development of a new trading route that bypassed the Mediterranean.

The first caravans loaded with Chinese silk passed through Georgia in the 560s, tracking their way from the Caspian coast through the west of the country towards Constantinople. Tbilisi flourished as a trading point.

You can detect hints of Tbilisi's Silk Road past in the crumbling mansion houses built by merchants who made their riches on successive trade routes and in the carpet shops that overflow with colourful textiles. The Meidan Bazaar, Tbilisi's undercover marketplace, harks back to this period in time while the Dezerter Bazaar and the Dry Bridge Market - although established much, much later - echo the animated trade atmosphere Tbilisi was known for.

Anyone interested in investigating this epoch should visit the State Silk Museum, a grand (and slightly mothball) institution in Tbilisi's Tsereteli neighbourhood. It's wholly dedicated to documenting Georgia's history of silk cultivation and displays a monumental collection of cocoons and silk-related study materials collected from around the world. Georgia's climate, perfect for cultivating mulberry trees, made it the epicentre of sericulture under the Soviet Union.

3. Sheki, Azerbaijan

Sheki, Azerbaijan.

Sheki is Azerbaijan's most charming and atmospheric city, thanks in no small part to its connection with the region's Silk Route heritage.

Sheki is best-known for its twin Khan's Palaces, summer and winter residences built for the region's ruling family in the 18th century. These, along with Sheki's citadel, were recently recognised by UNESCO for their value to cultural heritage.

Around the same time as Sheki's skilled craftspeople were working on the palaces, fashioning shebeki window panes using coloured glass from Burano, carving ornate window frames and painting the interiors with detailed miniatures, the city started hosting traders from far-flung places.

A new tributary of the Silk Road that passed directly through Sheki made the city an important rest stop, transforming Sheki's urban landscape in the process.

A huge caravanserai was constructed to accommodate overnight guests and their livestock. It's still operational today, serving as a basic hotel with a beautiful green courtyard at its centre, and shops and restaurants on its lower levels. Craft workshops and a Soviet-era silk factory also speak to Sheki's past.

The religious philosophies that moved along the Silk Road had a huge impact on Sheki. Albanian churches, some of the first in the region, popped up here as Christianity started to spread east. Visitors can see one such church in the village of Kis just outside Sheki.

4. Samarkand, Uzbekistan

Samarkand is the most popular destination in Uzbekistan and one of the most iconic stops on the Silk Route. It's also one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, dating back to the 6th century BC. The real development of the city happened during the Silk Road time, when Samarkand was the largest city in Central Asia.

Today you can admire numerous monuments from that period. The most important is, of course, Registan, a complex of three madrases - the oldest one completed in 1420. The architecture and decorations are stunning and will surely take your breath away. Be sure to visit early in the morning to avoid the crowds. While you're there, don't skip Gur-e-Amir, the mausoleum dedicated to the conqueror of Central Asia, Amir Timur (known also as Tamerlane).

Another beautiful place you should see in Samarkand is Bibi-Khanym Mosque. Built in the 15th century as a gift from Amir Timur to his wife, it was counted among the most impressive mosques in the world. The last important place in Samarkand is Shah-i-Zinda, a cemetery with beautiful mausoleums, some of them from as far back as the 9th century.

There are plenty of accommodation options in Samarkand, but you should choose a place close to all the attractions. Visit local restaurants to try delicious Uzbek food, itself reason enough to visit Uzbekistan.
By Kami from Kami & the Rest of the World
5. Shiraz, Iran

Shiraz was once the capital of Persia and as one of the biggest cities south of the Zagros mountains, an important place on the ancient Silk Road. Trade caravans passed through Shiraz on their way to and from the Persian Gulf.

Known as the city of flowers, Shiraz has always been a beauty, but had its share of misfortunes as well. In its long history, it was damaged by earthquakes and Mongol invasions. Most of what we see today comes from the 18th century Zand dynasty, when Shiraz developed into a true multicultural city with markets, gardens, palaces, wealthy merchant houses, mosques and madrassas.

Walking through the ancient Vakil Bazaar still gives you that 'Silk Road feeling'. The city is full of beautiful Islamic architecture - from the lush and symmetrical Eram gardens to the colourful pink mosque, and the visually appealing Vakil hammam.

Another Silk Road experience is dining at the Saray-e-mer tea house in the heart of the Vakil Bazaar. This restaurant not only serves tea, but also traditional Persian dishes such as eggplant stew and chicken in walnut and pomegranate sauce. The interior is like a journey back in time, when places like this catered to hundreds of merchants from all over the world every day.
By Ellis from Backpack Adventures
6. Dunhuang, China

Dunhuang, a city in Gansu province of northwestern China, was one of the most important stops on the Silk Road. It was a major trade centre and military outpost during the Sui and Tang dynasties (581-907).

When Buddhism reached China via the Silk Road, Dunhuang was the first stop for monks arriving from the west. They built the Mogao Caves (also known as the 'Caves of a Thousand Buddhas') for meditations, pilgrimage and worship. Today, Mogao Caves famously holds the world's largest collection of Buddhist art, including murals, sculptures, artefacts, printed images, textiles, and cave art.

Another notable sight is Yumen Pass (also known as Jade Gate). Located at the west of Dunhuang, Yumen Pass was an important gateway for the ancient Silk Road. Nature lovers should not miss Yadan National Geological Park, a collection of rock formations in the Yadan desert that's said to be over 700,000 years old.

For an unforgettable gastronomic experience in Dunhuang, visit Shazhou Night Market on Yangguan Road. It's the perfect place for tourists to sample local delicacies and fruit. The top must-try foods are donkey meat with yellow noodles, apricot peel water, lamb noodle soup, and dried fruits (raisins, dried Goji, and dried apricot).

Finally, Dunhuang is very popular among domestic travellers. It's advisable to avoid visiting Dunhuang (or China in general) during Golden Week and the summer holiday. Instead, the best time to visit Dunhuang is May through June, and September through October, when the weather is agreeable and there are no annoying crowds.

7. Karimabad, Pakistan

Hunza Valley, Pakistan. Photo: Monkey Rock World.

Sheltered by a barrage of high mountains that encapsulate it like a rare diamond, Karimabad, the main settlement in the Hunza Valley of Pakistan, probably still looks much as it did when it was an important stop along the Southern Silk Road between China and the Indian Subcontinent.

Set along the stunning Karakoram Highway that connects Islamabad to Kashgar in China's Xinjiang province, Karimabad has developed into a tourist hotspot.

It couldn't not have - Karimabad is nearby Ultar Peak (7388m) and its glacier, and set above the ancient village of Ganesh, with its ancient wooden mosque and traditional homes. Watched over by mount Rakaposhi (7788m) and Diran (7270m), Karimabad is as beautiful as it is peaceful. There's no better way to soak up the scenery than by driving up to the Eagle's Nest viewpoint at sunset.

The Altit and Baltit forts, two of Pakistan's UNESCO World Heritage Sites, have protected the two opposite sides of Karimabad for 800 years, and are the perfect places to start discovering the town's Silk Road heritage. Start by exploring the small passageways within the forts that lead up to open roofs and turrets perched above deep gorges and ravines.

Then it's time to experience the modern face of Karimabad. Cafe de Hunza is an unmissable bakery where you must try the valley's famous walnut cakes and apricot jams. All this while you sip on real espresso and surf the web on Hunza's fastest WIFI!

Karimabad's central strip is lined with all the small cafes, restaurants, pizzerias and guesthouses you can expect from a tourist town - remember that you won't get the same level of facilities anywhere else on Pakistan's Karakoram Highway, so enjoy all of it while it lasts.

Serena Inn Hunza, one of Pakistan's best boutique hotels, is the most expensive and atmospheric choice in town, and it will throw you back to a caravanserai atmosphere. Highly recommended for a stylish stay.
By Marco from Monkey Rock World
8. Baku, Azerbaijan

Much of modern-day Baku's skyline has been shaped by the country's oil wealth. As black gold started flowing in the Land of Fire, silk and other goods that flooded in via the Silk Road added to the city's prosperity.

Baku sits on the Caspian Sea and was the main port that received goods from Central Asia, a maritime iteration of the Silk Road. The city still revolves around the seafront, with the massive Bulvar boulevard wrapped around its coast.

The Icherisheher ('Inner City') is home to many of Baku's must-see monuments, including the Maiden Tower. This edifice has a connection to Zoroastrianism, a transformative religious force that wielded great influence along the Silk Road and had strong roots in Baku.

A number of Silk Road-era relics can also be found inside the Old City: caravanserais, hammams, madrassas, tea shops, and more.

9. Almaty, Kazakhstan

Almaty is another of the historic epicentres of the Silk Road. The country of Kazakhstan is heavily investing in reviving places related to this chapter of history. Their goal is to increase Silk Road tourism and make the road more accessible to visitors.

One complication that the country is facing is that the nature of the Silk Road, which served as a connector between different cities, means that there aren't many physical sites left from the period.

One place you can visit as a day trip from Almaty is Tamgaly Tas, a Buddhist Rock Art Sanctuary. The petroglyphs here were created by Buddhist monks and are a great reminder of Almaty's role on the East-West corridor. You can also see yurts here and you can visit Nomad's Land, a former movie set turned tourist site.

While in Almaty, make sure to see Big Almaty Lake outside of the city, as well as other Almaty highlights like Zenkov's Cathedral. This is also a great place for Red Tourism. Make sure to visit the memorial to the victims of the Kazakh Famine, which was as devastating to Kazakhstan as the famine in Ukraine was. You can also stay in a former Soviet Hotel, the Kazakhstan Hotel.
By Stephanie from History Fangirl
10. Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Bishkek is an eclectic mix of its Silk Road past, nomadic Kyrgyz influence, and Soviet-era relics. The city doesn't ooze charm in the way many tourist destinations do - but if you look a little deeper, there are plenty of quirky and interesting things to see and do around the city.

There are the main attractions such as Ala-Too Square, which boasts large concrete buildings and the token Lenin statue of most post-Soviet cities. One of the buildings houses the State History Museum which illustrates all eras of Kyrgyzstan's past.

For those wanting a throwback to the Silk Road times, head to the Osh bazaar where you'll find everything from souvenir stands to food, traditional dress to instruments, and everything in between. The low numbers of foreign tourists in Kyrgyzstan mean that visiting the market is still an authentic experience. You'll have to dodge your way through crowds of men in kalpaks (traditional hats) and people spruiking their wares.

With such a rich history, Bishkek has done well to keep up with the times and also offers visitors a great cafe, restaurant and craft beer scene. Tucked in corners around the city you can find delicious traditional cuisine (try Navat) as well as popular Western options.

For great craft beer and food from the restaurant next door, head to Save the Ales, a female-run brewery which employs lesbian women who struggle to find work elsewhere due to Kyrgyzstan's conservative attitude towards the LGBT community.
By Rohan from Travels of a Bookpacker
11. Bhaktapur, Nepal

Bhaktapur is known as Nepal's cultural capital. If you're a keen cultural observer, you must stay here for at least a couple of nights in order to trace back all the invisible links to the ancient Silk Route that connected a vast part of Asia.

Bhaktapur rose from the rubble of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, but unfortunately the natural disaster claimed most of the remnants of her glorious past. Back then, tradesmen trod all the way from the coast of the Andaman sea, braved the Himalayas, and walked still further. Bhaktapur was one of their pit stops, and the town benefited substantially as a strategically important link on the Silk Road.

Every stone of Bhaktapur bears some kind of religious semblance. The city's intricately carved windows and art testify to Bhaktapur's rich heritage. Each of its temple is rich with Newari architecture and styled with a pagoda as its top, various pillars and staircases. The most famous temples of Bhaktapur are Dattatryara, Nyataponla (the contemporary of the Taj Mahal), Pashupatinath, and the most important of all, Taleju Bhabani. Only Hindus are allowed inside the latter temple complex, however anyone can see the stunning golden gates.

Apart from traditional Newari cuisine, must-eats in Bhaktapur include Juju Dhau, curd with a crunchy layer on top. Black clay pottery is a famous handicraft from Bhaktapur and you must visit the local village where this art is practiced.

Dress modestly, and be aware that Hindu religious involving animal sacrifice are common practice (during a half day tour of Bhaktapur, I came across at least two sites where an animal was sacrificed).
By Madhurima from Orange Wayfarer
12. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Ulaanbaatar is one of those cities where what you see isn't exactly what you get.

Everyone knows (or thinks they know) the stories and legends surrounding the country's most regaled ruler/warrior (you know the one), but it isn't until you see the 40-metre tall Chinggis Khaan Equestrian Statue, or visit the city's National History Museum, or hear locals speak about the Great Khaan and everything he once accomplished and how he shaped the modern world today, that you start to understand who the man behind the legend actually was, for better or worse.

(You also won't be able to escape his image in the city - from being the face on local currency, to adorning vodka bottles, and sitting guard in front of the capital's parliament building - he still watches over Mongolia and it's people with a watchful eye, more than 800 years later.)

Once ruler of half the world, and an important overseer of the development of the Silk Road route, Ulaanbaatar and the ancient capital city of Kharkhorin, and the surrounding countryside, are still home to nomads and thousands of years of traditions.

Mongolia is sometimes reminiscent of a land that time forgot. It's a truly surreal experience to live like this - drinking , herding horses, living life in a ger - even just for a few days, putting into perspective what life in the 13th century must have been like.
By Breanna from Meanwhile... in Mongolia
13. Xi'an, China

No list of Silk Road cities is complete without the Eastern departure point, often dubbed the 'start' of the Silk Road: Xi'an. This Chinese city has a rich history stretching back to the Zhou dynasty in the 11th century BC; but it's the confluence of cultures about 1,000 years ago during the Western Han dynasty that truly put Xi'an on the map.

A noted trading post and hub for merchants in China, Xi'An saw silk, ceramics and spice traders from Arabia and Persia flock to the city, most of them settling in what is now known as the 'Muslim Quarter'. The Quarter is a must-see for anyone visiting this captivating city, not just to explore the ancient attractions of the Hanguang Gate, the City God Temple and the Grand Mosque, but also to tuck into the unique dishes, where meat-lovers will delight in beefy steamed sandwiches and local delicacies like pao mo, a bread and mutton soup.

Silk Road adventure seekers should also spend a few hours walking the old city walls - claimed to be the largest in the world. The 14km loop was constructed to protect the city from invaders and is the oldest military defensive system on the planet, now best enjoyed on a very long walk or by meandering along on one of the bicycles available for rent.
By Lee from The Travel Scribes
You can't go to Xi'an without visiting the legendary Terracotta Warriors, of course, as well as climbing the beautiful Bell and Drum Towers, soaring structures built to signal the start and end of the working day.

14. Bukhara, Uzbekistan

Bukhara is another of the most popular tourist destinations in Uzbekistan. In medieval times, the city was one of the main stops on the Silk Road and specialised in the trading of carpets. It was also a cultural and religious centre.

Bukhara has around 140 monuments, so visitors are spoiled for choice. The best thing to do in Bukhara is wander around the historical centre with no particular destination in mind. This place still witnesses trading and is home to many remnants of the country's glorious past, boasting magnificent mosques, madrassas, and other monuments.

People interested in the Silk Route shouldn't miss the three main bazaars, where people buy and sell just as they did in Silk Road times. A visit to a rug shop is an interesting experience. A stop at the UNESCO Carpet Weaving Shop is highly recommended.

Make time to visit at least one religious complex to admire the monumental architecture decorated with blue tiles so typical of Central Asia. The Mosque Kalon or Friday Mosque is a good example of this kind of design. It's one of the oldest mosques in the city (8th century) and also the biggest, with a capacity of more than 10,000 worshippers.

During the hottest hours of the day, look for a shady cafe to sip a mint tea. This drink is very typical of Bukhara - and Uzbekistan in general - plus it's a good opportunity to meet the locals.

15. Nara, Japan

Nara was the eastern end of the Silk Road and was also the capital of Japan from 710 AD to 794 AD. It was not just silk but also religion that spread along the Silk Route, and Nara became an important religious centre for followers of Shintoism as well as Buddhism.

The city's most impressive man-made site is the Great Buddha statue ( Daibutsu in Japanese). This gigantic bronze edifice sits inside the Todai-ji Temple, which still today is the largest wooden building in the world.

This temple, along with an important Shinto shrine and several other historical and religious monuments, are all contained within the very green Nara Park. In addition to its monuments, the park is most famous for the semi-tame deer who live there.

Most people visit Nara as a day trip from Kyoto or Osaka, but it's definitely worth spending at least one night. That way, you can enjoy the peace and quiet of the park before the hordes of tourists arrive, and you can see the spectacular sunset from Nigatsu-do, a sub-temple of Todai-ji.
By Wendy from The Nomadic Vegan
Ramuna Cafe makes a convenient lunch stop as it's near all the main sights. It's one of several restaurants that offer delicious vegan food in Nara. Hiloki Hostel is a solid budget accommodation option, offering dorms as well as private rooms.

16. Gyeongju, South Korea

Located on the south-east coast of South Korea, Gyeongju is a must for your Korea bucket list. This city is known for its fascinating history, acting as the capital of the Silla dynasty for almost a millennium, which flourished from BC 57 to AD 935 under the rule of 56 different kings.

In the 7th century, Gyeongju became the main trading port on the Korean Peninsula, greeting merchants who came by both land and sea from China, Japan and the Arabian Peninsula via the Silk Road. Over time, the different influences and ideas they brought with them permeated local culture, turning Gyeongju into a dynamic cultural hub.

For history lovers, there are few better stops in Korea than Gyeongju, which is often called the 'museum without walls'. Morbid as it may sound, one of the best things to do is wander Tumuli Park where a collection of man-made pyramids house the remains of the kings, many found buried with decadent gold, jewels, and the bones of their servants who would have been buried alive with them, apparently the ultimate honour!

Other things to do in Gyeongju include visiting Bulguksa Temple, which dates back to 528, and hiking up to Seokguram Grotto just above it, home to a 1,000-year-old Buddha statue. You'll need to catch a bus to these two attractions; on the way back, stop off at Gyeongju National Museum to learn about the Silla Dynasty.
By Rose from Where Goes Rose
You shouldn't miss the oldest astronomical observatory in East Asia, Cheomseongdae Observatory Tower, located close to Donggung Palace and Wolji Pond, a colourful palace complex that's also worth exploring.

17. Jaisalmer, India

Jaisalmer rises straight up out of the flat sands of the Rajasthani desert like a fantasy from the Arabian nights. A sandstone fortress that sits atop a rocky outcrop in the middle of the desert, this is India's famed Golden City. Seeing Jaisalmer from afar at twilight, when it glows in the light of late afternoon, is a breathtaking experience that you will never forget.

Built in the 12th century, Jaisalmer was a major stopover on the southern tributary of the Silk Route. It's possible to recreate the old Silk Road experience today in several ways. Modern-day travellers can imagine what it was like to be a merchant by taking an overnight or multi-day camel safari into the nearby That Desert, visiting tiny tribal villages and sleeping on sand dunes under the stars. There are many travel agencies in town that can arrange these trips.

Or step back in time exploring Jaisalmer Fort. The fort, which dominates the town, is a living city, and gives travellers a real sense of what life was like back in the old Silk Road days. There are several hotels inside the fort itself, as well as many nearby hotels with views of the fort.

Jaisalmer is home to many ornate Jain temples that date from between the 12th and 16th centuries, as well as many incredible havelis (merchant houses). The best havelis ones are covered in incredibly elaborate carvings. Many of the smaller houses have been converted into comfortable guesthouses that are full of character and mystical charm.
By James Ian from Travel Collecting
Jaisalmer is an absolute must-stop on every Silk Road trip (and every journey to India!)

18. Leh, India

Leh is a beautiful Indian town situated in Ladakh in the heart of the Himalayas. During Silk Road times, it was an outpost on the mountain pass that connected India with Tibet to the east and Kashmir and the Karakoram mountains to the north and west - a vital route for trading much-sought-after pashmina wool.

Salt, cotton, silk and spices flowed along this route until as recently as the 1940s, with Leh serving as the Western Himalayas' main marketplace for the exchange of goods between India and Tibet.

The landscape around Leh is diverse and there are many stunning places for nature lovers to explore. Nubra Valley, Pangong Lake and Khardung La Pass are unmissable. While in Leh city, be sure to visit the famous Shanti Stupa and the Leh Palace. The bustling Leh Main Bazaar is a hive of activity and another must-see for anyone interested in Silk Route heritage.

Be sure to try the local food as well. Thukpa is an exceptionally tasty noodle soup that is typical to the town. Tibetan-style dumplings are a must-try. Kashmiri cuisine, including yakhni (mutton with yogurt and saffron), is a testament to the exchange of recipes and spices along the Silk Road.
By Merryl from Merryl's Travel and Tricks
The helpful and kind people of Leh make visiting this town even more special.

19. Yazd, Iran

Yazd, a charming city in the south of Iran, is one of the most interesting places to visit in the country. Together with the smaller cities of Kashan, Nain and Kerman, the Silk Road crossed Yazd on its way through southern Iran.

Yazd was famous for its silk and carpet production, and the centre of the town during its Silk Road heyday was the bazaar, which remains a hub to this day. Caravanserais, mosques, bathhouses, schools and other infrastructure were built in the vicinity.

The old part of Yazd is a labyrinth of mud houses with typical wind chimneys called badgir. A unique water pipe system called qanat provided much-needed water from the mountains and contributed to the prosperity of Yazd and its textile production.
By Veronika from Travel Geekery
A large caravanserai can be visited on the outskirts of a village called Kharanaq, about an hourlong drive from Yazd. Visitors can also admire Yazd's Zoroastrian sights, since the town has always been home to a large Zoroastrian community, the dominant religion before Persia's turn to Islam.

Yazd shouldn't be missed - it's recommended to visit as part of a two week Iran itinerary.

20. Yerevan, Armenia

Armenia isn't always associated with the Silk Road, but because of its location, caravans couldn't help but pass through the Caucasus nation as they crisscrossed from east to west via the Ararat valley. Yerevan and other Armenian cities benefited from the exchange of goods and ideas just as much as more established outposts in Central Asia did.

More than being conveniently positioned, Armenia was always looked on as a land of infinite cultural and artistic riches. Armenian wine, dyes, carpets - and even horses - were exported to Babylon and Persia from as early as the 5th century BC. Merchants naturally gravitated towards Armenia's craft workshops and marketplaces when looking for new objects to buy and sell.

Yerevan's history reaches far further back than its Silk Road days, yet reminders of this time can be felt everywhere, from the sprawling Vernissage Market where modern-day artisans ply their trades, crafting beautiful woodwork, textiles and souvenirs, to the Tufenkian Historic Hotel where fine Armenian carpets are displayed.

It's also interesting to note the ways Armenia resisted the influence of the Silk Route - the globalisation force of its time. The first state to adopt Christianity as its religion, its many churches, including the oldest in Yerevan, Katoghike Church, are a testament to how this country held onto its religious and cultural convictions in the face of great change.

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Travel the Silk Road: 20 Must-see Silk Road Cities

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Nothing sparks a traveller's imagination like the fabled Silk Road. Once a network of trading routes that stretched from the Korean Peninsula all the way to Istanbul, the Silk Road was the original bridge between Asia and Europe, East and West.

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The Silk Road: Connecting the ancient world through trade - Shannon Harris Castelo

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Silk Roads and Trade | The Story of China | PBS LearningMedia

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Learn about the Silk Roads that began the global network that opened up trade between China, Persia, India, and the Roman Empire in this clip from The Story of China.

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The Silk Road Facts for Kids - History for Kids

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When China opened trade with the West in 130 B.C., people started trading goods on the Silk Road. Click for more facts about the Silk Road!

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The Silk Road was a network of trade routes that linked Asia with Europe. Traders and travelers began using the Silk Road more than 2,000 years ago. It remained in use until...