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If you have to ask what jazz is, you'll never know.

All music is folk music. I ain't never heard a horse sing a song.

Musicians don't retire; they stop when there's no more music in them.

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Today, I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the earth.

There is no room in baseball for discrimination. It is our national pastime and a game for all.

The ballplayer who loses his head, who can't keep his cool, is worse than no ballplayer at all.

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Orville:
"The desire to fly is an idea handed down to us by our ancestors who, in their grueling travels across trackless lands in prehistoric times, looked enviously on the birds soaring freely through."

"The airplane stays up because it doesn't have the time to fall."

"No flying machine will ever fly from New York to Paris…[because] no known motor can run at the requisite speed for four days without stopping."

"If birds can glide for long periods of time, then… why can't I?"

Wilbur:

"I am an enthusiast, but not a crank in the sense that I have some pet theories as to the proper construction of a flying machine. I wish to avail myself of all that is already known and then, if possible, add my mite to help on the future worker who will attain final success."

"We could hardly wait to get up in the morning."

"I confess that in 1901, I said to my brother Orville that man would not fly for 50 years."

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Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration.

I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.

Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave up.

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It always seems impossible until it's done.

Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.

I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear.

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Neither a lofty degree of intelligence nor imagination nor both together go to the making of genius. Love, love, love, that is the soul of genius.

I pay no attention whatever to anybody's praise or blame. I simply follow my own feelings.

Music, even in situations of the greatest horror, should never be painful to the ear but should flatter and charm it, and thereby always remain music.

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The stars don't look bigger, but they do look brighter.

When you're getting ready to launch into space, you're sitting on a big explosion waiting to happen.

You have to reach a level of comfort with that risk.

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Music is a higher revelation than philosophy.

Music is the mediator between the spiritual and the sensual life.

Music should strike fire from the heart of man, and bring tears from the eyes of woman.

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“The British are coming!”

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Today you are you! That is truer than true! There is no one alive who is you-er than you!

Be who you are and say what you feel, because those who mind don't matter and those who matter don't mind.

The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places you'll go.

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Your most unhappy customers are your greatest source of learning.

Success is a lousy teacher. It seduces smart people into thinking they can't lose.

Life is not fair; get used to it.

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But now having seen him which is invisible I fear not what man can do unto me.

If you look upon the rule in Titus it is a rule to me. If you convince me that it is no rule I shall yield.

I am called here to answer before you, but I hear no things laid to my charge.

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A life is not important except in the impact it has on other lives.

I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me... All I ask is that you respect me as a human being.

Baseball is like a poker game. Nobody wants to quit when he's losing; nobody wants you to quit when you're ahead.

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It is easier to build strong children than to repair broken men.

If there is no struggle, there is no progress.

Power concedes nothing without a demand. It never did and it never will.

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The most effective way to do it, is to do it.

Adventure is worthwhile in itself.

Women must try to do things as men have tried. When they fail, their failure must be but a challenge to others.

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Every great dream begins with a dreamer. Always remember, you have within you the strength, the patience, and the passion to reach for the stars to change the world.

I had reasoned this out in my mind, there was one of two things I had a right to, liberty or death; if I could not have one, I would have the other.

I had crossed the line. I was free; but there was no one to welcome me to the land of freedom. I was a stranger in a strange land.

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Darkness cannot drive out darkness; only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate; only love can do that.

Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about things that matter.

Free at last, Free at last, Thank God almighty we are free at last.

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The only tired I was, was tired of giving in.

I have learned over the years that when one's mind is made up, this diminishes fear; knowing what must be done does away with fear.

Each person must live their life as a model for others.

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Men, their rights, and nothing more; women, their rights, and nothing less.

I declare to you that woman must not depend upon the protection of man, but must be taught to protect herself, and there I take my stand.

I distrust those people who know so well what God wants them to do, because I notice it always coincides with their own desires.

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They who can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety deserve neither liberty nor safety.

An investment in knowledge pays the best interest.

Well done is better than well said.

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Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passions, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence.

Our Constitution was made only for a moral and religious people. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other.

There is danger from all men. The only maxim of a free government ought to be to trust no man living with power to endanger the public liberty.

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Whatever you are, be a good one.

Government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the Earth.

A house divided against itself cannot stand.

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When one door closes another door opens; but we so often look so long and so regretfully upon the closed door, that we do not see the ones which open for us.

Mr. Watson — Come here — I want to see you. [First intelligible words spoken over the telephone]

Before anything else, preparation is the key to success.

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If the freedom of speech is taken away then dumb and silent we may be led, like sheep to the slaughter.

Be courteous to all, but intimate with few, and let those few be well tried before you give them your confidence.

Happiness and moral duty are inseparably connected.

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If you think you can do a thing or think you can't do a thing, you're right.

Coming together is a beginning, staying together is progress, and working together is success.

Failure is simply the opportunity to begin again, this time more intelligently.

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The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot be seen or even touched - they must be felt with the heart.

Life is either a daring adventure, or nothing.

Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much.

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'Biography: Phillis Wheatley' on ViewPure

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Historian Alexis Coe talks about Phillis Wheatley\'s ode to George Washington and his flattered/vain response. #Biography\n \nSubscribe for more Biography: http://aetv.us/2AsWMPH\n \nDive deeper into Biography on our site:\nhttp://www.biography.com\n \nLearn more about Phillis Wheatley\'s life and work:\nhttps://www.biography.com/people/phillis-wheatley-9528784\n \nFollow Biography for more surprising stories from fascinating lives:\nFacebook - https://www.facebook.com/Biography\nInstagram - https://www.instagram.com/biography\nTwitter - https://twitter.com/biography\n\nHISTORY Topical Video\nSeason 1\n\nWhether you\'re looking for more on American Revolution battles, WWII generals, architectural wonders, secrets of the ancient world, U.S.

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Edison, Thomas Alva (1847-1931), was one of the greatest inventors and technological innovators in history. His most famous contributions include useful electric lighting and the world’s first electric power system. He invented the first practical machine that could record and play back sound. He called this device the phonograph. Edison also made improvements to telegraphs,telephones, and motion pictures.

Edison looked for many different solutions when attempting to solve problems. When he created new or improved devices, he made a variety of designs. Sometimes, he borrowed features from one technology and adapted them to another. Edison obtained 1,093 United States patents, the most the U.S. Patent Office (now the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office) has ever issued to one person. Altogether, he received thousands of patents from some two dozen nations.

Edison also created one of the first modern research laboratories. Some scientists and historians regard this development as Edison’s greatest achievement. Edison's research laboratory grew out of the way he worked. He often worked alongside his assistants. He observed how others solved mechanical, electrical, and chemical problems. Then he tried to improve upon their ideas. By the early 1900's, many industrial corporations had seen the success of research labs and established their own.

Edison was an active businessman. He created new companies to manufacture and sell his products. Income from selling his products helped support his research laboratory and the development of more devices. As a result, Edison and other manufacturing pioneers in the late 1800's helped make the United States an industrial world power.

Armed with self-confidence and determination, Edison overcame a number of technical and commercial failures. He became world famous by his mid-30's and a millionaire by his mid-40's. His name—and the electric light bulb that he designed—became worldwide symbols of bright ideas and technical creativity.

Early lifeEdison was born on Feb. 11, 1847, in Milan, Ohio. He was the seventh and youngest child of Samuel and Nancy Elliott Edison. Edison's father fled fromCanada during the rebellions of 1837, in which Canadian rebels unsuccessfully revolted against British rule. Samuel Edison worked as a shingle maker and land investor. When Al—as the family called young Edison—was 7 years old, the Edisons moved to Port Huron, Michigan. There his father ran businesses in lumbering and land investing.Early interests. Edison received limited formal education. His mother, a former teacher, guided his learning. Edison was mischievous and inquisitive. He loved to pull pranks and practical jokes. He was also eager to read, particularly science books. His reading led him to experiment with chemicals and to construct elaborate models. He built models of a working sawmill and a railroad engine, both powered by steam.Even as a child, Edison was interested in business. He grew vegetables on his father's farm and sold them in town. At age 12, Edison began to sell newspapers, candy, and sandwiches on passenger trains between Port Huron and Detroit. When he was 15, he published and sold a newspaper called the Weekly Herald.By this time, Edison had developed hearing problems. His hearing worsened as he grew older. Late in life, he could only hear people shouting directly into his ear.The young telegrapher. At age 15, Edison rescued the son of a telegraph operator from the path of a railroad car. As a reward, the operator gave Edison telegraph lessons. In 1863, Edison began work as a telegraph operator for the Western Union Telegraph Company. During the following four years, he worked as a telegrapher in a number of Midwestern cities. Edison learned much about the scientific aspects of telegraphic communication. He experimented with telegraph equipment. He also read newspapers, scientific journals, and books.

Printing telegraph for stockbrokers

Inventor and businessmanIn 1868, Edison moved to Boston as a telegraph operator. He soon made improvements to the process used to print telegraphs and to a device that transmitted images over telegraph lines. Edison also applied for his first patent. But the invention—an electric vote-recorder for legislatures—was never used.In 1869, Edison moved to New York City. There he met leaders in the business community, who appreciated his work as an inventor. At the time, Edison’s inventions included improved stock tickers, telegraph devices used to report the purchase and sale of stocks. In 1870, Edison moved to Newark, New Jersey, and started a stock ticker manufacturing company.Edison hired associates with mechanical talent to help develop a steady stream of inventions. He continually tried to improve the devices he sold. He also kept systematic notes of his activities. He used these notes to organize research and to defend his patents.In 1874, Edison completed the design of the  quadruplex, a device that made telegraphs faster and more efficient. Edison called it the quadruplex because it could send four messages at the same time over a single  wire. In 1875, Edison and his staff developed an electric pen that cut stencils out of paper for copying documents.The Wizard of Menlo Park. In the spring of 1876, Edison built his first research laboratory in the rural community of Menlo Park, New Jersey. The work done by Edison and his assistants at Menlo Park would make him famous throughout the world. Three of his greatest inventions originated there: (1) an improved telephone transmitter, (2) the phonograph, and (3) the electric light. Menlo Park is now part of a township known as Edison.Telephone transmitter. Edison was one of many inventors who improved the "speaking telegraph," as the telephone was then called. Alexander Graham Bell, a Scottish-born inventor, patented the telephone in 1876. In 1877, Edison designed a carbon-based transmitter. It made the voice of a speaker louder and clearer over the telephone. Before his invention, people had difficulty hearing anything said over the telephone. Until the 1980’s, most phones used transmitters based on Edison's improvement.The phonograph. In 1876 and 1877, Edison experimented with ways to record and replay messages. These experiments led to the invention of his phonograph. To record messages, Edison attached a needle to a  diaphragm, a metal disk that vibrated in response to sound waves. The needle rested against a rotating cylinder wrapped with tinfoil. When the disk vibrated, the needle made varying impressions in the foil. To reproduce the sound, another needle was attached to a diaphragm and funnellike horn. This needle retraced the impressions or grooves in the foil. It vibrated the diaphragm and thus the air in the horn, re-creating the original sound waves.In December 1877, Edison had a machinist build the phonograph. When it was done, he recorded the nursery rhyme “Mary Had A Little Lamb.” Then Edison showed his phonograph to the editors of Scientific American magazine. The next spring, he demonstrated it for scientists, members of Congress, and President  Rutherford B. Hayes. Newspapers and magazines helped spread enthusiasm for the invention and its inventor. Edison became one of the most famous Americans alive. Stories of his childhood, pictures of his “invention factory,” and interviews with the inventor went out to the whole world. As a result, Edison became known around the world as the “Wizard of Menlo Park.”

Edison's first incandescent electric light Light bulb patent application

The electric light. In 1878, Edison began his most ambitious project. He developed a system of electric lighting to be used in homes, stores, offices, and factories. He found support for this project from J. P. Morgan, a powerful banker. Many inventors at the time were investigating electric lighting. They thought electric lighting would be cheaper, safer, and more reliable than the gas lighting that was popular in cities and suburbs.

Edison threw himself and his assistants into the complex work of developing a variety of electric light and power devices. This work required a system ofgenerators, wires and cables, switches, motors, meters, and  lamps (light bulbs). The lamps were probably the most famous component of the system.

An incandescent lamp produces light by passing an  electric current through a filament (fine thread or wire). The electric current heats the filament so that it glows. Edison had to figure out how to make practical, long-lasting incandescent lamps.

Edison and his associates placed the filament inside a glass  vacuum bulb. They spent months searching for an affordable filament material that would produce the best light. In October 1879, they tested a carbon filament made from burned sewing thread, resulting in their first practical incandescent light bulb. In 1880, they began using bamboo filaments, which lasted longer.

Electric utilities and manufacturing. In 1881, Edison moved back to New York City. He personally supervised the construction of his first central power stationin the United States. It opened in 1882 on Pearl Street and served the business community in lower Manhattan. By 1884, this station delivered electric lighting to more than 500 customers and more than 10,000 lamps.

Edison’s agents introduced his lighting system in other countries. They established companies to install Edison’s system abroad. In 1882, small central stations opened in London and in Santiago, Chile. In 1883, an Edison central station began operating in Milan, Italy. In 1885, a major station opened in Berlin,Germany. By the 1890's, hundreds of communities throughout the world had Edison power stations. Edison also developed and sold small generating plants. They could be used in individual houses, businesses, or ships.

Edison started companies that manufactured his inventions. The products of these companies included power stations, light bulbs, and underground conductors. In 1892, the American businesses that manufactured Edison’s electric lighting components became part of the General Electric Company.

Edison's laboratory at Thomas Edison National Historical Park

Edison in West Orange. In 1886, Edison moved to Llewellyn Park, a residential area of West Orange, New Jersey, near New York City. Just blocks away, he built a laboratory 10 times the size of the one in Menlo Park. Edison envisioned the lab as a large-scale research facility for the industrial development of inventions.

The West Orange lab carried out chemical, mechanical, and electrical experiments. Edison added a staff of more than 50 experimenters, machinists, and draftsmen. The new lab also included a library with thousands of journals and books. Eventually, Edison’s research and development center included manufacturing plants.

Motion pictures. Edison helped found the motion-picture industry. His interest seemed to take shape after he met Eadweard Muybridge, an English photographer. Like many people at the time, Muybridge was experimenting with photographing motion. In 1888, Edison envisioned a motion-picture device that “does for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear." His assistant, W. K. L. Dickson, began to record a series of images on celluloid film. Showing the images in rapid succession made them look like continuous action.

Edison’s staff developed a camera and built the first film studio. In 1894, Edison’s company introduced a commercial device for viewing motion pictures, called the  kinetoscope. It consisted of a cabinet with a peephole or eyepiece on top. A customer put a coin in the machine to watch a short motion picture through the hole. In 1896, Edison’s company introduced projectors designed by other inventors.  The Great Train Robbery (1903), directed by Edwin S. Porter, ranks among the most notable films in the Edison catalog.

In the late 1800’s, Edison also began working on motion pictures that included sound. Dickson had experimented in this area, and other inventors were working on it. One problem was that the sound was not loud enough for large audiences to hear. In addition, getting the sound to match the images was difficult. Edison’s new version of the  kinetophone—a combination kinetoscope and phonograph—debuted in 1913. It solved the problem of synchronizing(matching) the sound and images. The device used a pulley to attach a phonograph to a projector.

Edison and other inventors tried to control the motion-picture industry. In 1908, they formed the Motion Picture Patents Company. The company largely controlled the production, distribution, and exhibition of motion pictures in the United States. But in 1915, a federal court declared the company to be an illegalmonopoly—that is, a business that unfairly controls the market for a product. Afterward, Edison and most other members of the Motion Picture Patents Company lost much of their influence in filmmaking.

Phonograph developments. Edison exercised more direct control over his phonograph business than over his motion-picture business. He kept a close interest in the commercial and technical development of phonographs and recordings, especially when new competition emerged. Edison also set the general policies and strategies for his phonograph business. His guidelines determined which artists and tunes his company should record and release. The phonograph remained Edison’s favorite invention.

In the early 1900’s, the preferred format for sound recordings shifted from cylinders to flat discs. Discs were easier to mass produce and store than cylinders. Edison adopted the disc format in 1913. However, he continued to offer cylinder machines and recordings until 1929. The Ediphone, Edison’s dictating machine, was based on his cylinder phonograph.

Ore milling and cement. In the late 1800’s, Edison planned a complete system for mining and refining iron ores. Steel mills in the eastern United States needed high-grade ore. Edison would crush low-grade ore and use electromagnets to separate the iron, thus making a concentrated ore for the mills. For this enterprise, Edison designed huge equipment and built a plant in New Jersey. At the plant, raw ore moved continuously on conveyor belts. The system resembled the assembly line later perfected by the American automaker Henry Ford.

Edison invested more than $1 million in ore milling. But the project ended in failure. Rich iron ore discovered in Minnesota proved cheaper to mine and process.

In the early 1900's, Edison manufactured  portland cement, a gray powder used to make  concrete. The manufacturing plant made use of his iron ore project’s crushing and grinding technology and its large-scale mass-production techniques. Edison’s portland cement went into new bridges, highways, and buildings. More than 45,000 barrels of the cement were used to build the original Yankee Stadium in New York City. Edison also devised a way to build concrete houses quickly.

Batteries. Edison had worked with batteries since his earliest days as a telegrapher. During the 1880's and 1890's, he experimented with lighter, more durable, and more powerful batteries. In the early 1900's, Edison began to manufacture rechargeable storage batteries of a nickel-iron-alkaline design. He also set up a chemical plant to provide the materials. Edison batteries were used in electric trucks and automobiles and for electric starters in gasoline-powered cars. They were also used in railway cars, submarines, and mining lamps.

Thomas Edison in his West Orange laboratory

Final work. During World War I (1914-1918), Edison headed the Naval Consulting Board, a group of inventors and business people who aided the war effort. He also faced manufacturing problems. They were caused by shortages of  phenol, a chemical used in the production of phonograph records. During the 1920’s, Edison turned most of his businesses over to his son Charles. Edison continued to work and experiment while suffering from several illnesses in his later years. From the late 1920’s until the end of his life, Edison sought a natural substitute for  rubber plants as a source of latex. He died at his home in Llewellyn Park on Oct. 18, 1931.

Personal lifeEdison valued long, hard work. He believed that inventors should focus on practical projects that businesses or consumers would buy. "Genius is 1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration” is a quotation often associated with Edison—although Edison once wrote that he could not remember ever saying it.Edison tried to learn from mistakes, but he was selective in admitting his errors. It was easy for him to learn something from a series of failed chemical tests. But he had difficulty admitting more serious mistakes. For example, Edison failed to appreciate the advantages of the Serbian engineer Nikola Tesla’s alternating current (AC) electric power system over his own  direct current (DC) system. Direct current is an electric current that flows in only one direction. Alternating current, on the other hand, changes direction many times each second (see Electricity (Alternating and direct current)).Family and friends. On Dec. 25, 1871, Edison married Mary Stilwell, who had worked in one of his companies. The couple had three children—Marion; Thomas Alva, Jr.; and William. Edison nicknamed Marion and Tom "Dot" and "Dash" after the telegraph code. Mary died in 1884.In 1885, Edison met Mina Miller, the daughter of a wealthy Ohio industrialist. They married in 1886 and had three children—Madeleine, Charles, and Theodore. Of Edison's six children, Charles became the most famous. He served as secretary of the U.S. Navy in 1940 and as governor of New Jersey from 1941 to 1944.One of Edison's most famous friends was Henry Ford. The industrial leaders became friends after Edison encouraged Ford to use gasoline engines in automobiles. The two friends later took automobile camping trips with the industrialist Harvey Firestone and the naturalist John Burroughs. The Edisons and the Fords also kept adjoining winter homes in Fort Myers, Florida.Philosophy. Always a man of many ideas, Edison stayed informed about technology, business, and current affairs. He had a down-to-earth manner and a frank opinion on most matters. Edison often expressed faith in progress and industry. He believed that mass production would bring a higher standard of living. He also believed that technology could solve social problems.Honors. Edison received honors from throughout the world. France appointed him to the Legion of Honor, its highest civilian award, in 1878. The U.S. Congress presented him with the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest honor it can give, in 1928. Henry Ford brought Edison much attention with an international celebration called "Light's Golden Jubilee" in 1929. It honored Edison and the 50th anniversary of his incandescent lamp. In 2016, Ohio placed a statue of the inventor in Statuary Hall, a room in the U.S. Capitol that honors important people from each state.A number of major historical sites and museums in the United States honor Edison. They include his birthplace in Milan, Ohio, and his winter home in Fort Myers, Florida. There is also the restored Menlo Park laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan. The Thomas Edison National Historical Park at West Orange, New Jersey, includes Edison's laboratory and home.

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Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus,   <<MOHT sahrt, VAWLF gahng AM uh DAY uhs>> (1756-1791), was an Austrian composer. He is considered one of the greatest and most creative musical geniuses of all time. With Joseph Haydn, he was the leading composer of the classical style of the late 1700's. Mozart died before his 36th birthday, but he still left more than 600 works.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

His lifeMozart was born in Salzburg, Austria, on Jan. 27, 1756. His father, Leopold, was the leader of the local orchestra. Leopold also wrote an important book about violin playing. At the age of 3, Wolfgang showed signs of remarkable musical talent. He learned to play the harpsichord, a keyboard instrument that preceded the piano, at the age of 4. He was composing music at 5. When he was 6, he played for the Austrian empress at her court in Vienna.Before he was 14, Mozart had composed many works for the harpsichord, piano, or the violin, as well as orchestral and other works. His father recognized Wolfgang's amazing talent and devoted most of his time to his son's general and musical education. While serving as his teacher, Leopold took Wolfgang on concert tours through much of Europe. Wolfgang composed, gave public performances, and met many musicians. He also played the organ in many churches. In 1769, like his father before him, he began working for the archbishop of Salzburg, who also ruled the province. The Mozarts often quarreled with the archbishop, partly because Wolfgang was often absent from Salzburg. The archbishop dismissed young Mozart in 1781.Mozart was actually glad to leave Salzburg, a small town, and seek his fortune in Vienna, one of the music capitals of Europe. By this time, people took less notice of him, because he was no longer a child prodigy. But he was a brilliant performer and active as a composer.Mozart married in 1782. He earned his living in Vienna by selling his compositions, giving public performances, and giving music lessons. None of these activities produced enough income to support his family. Mozart even traveled to Germany for the coronation of a new emperor. But his concerts there did not attract as much attention as he hoped. Mozart died in poverty on Dec. 5, 1791.

His worksOperas. Mozart excelled in almost every kind of musical composition. Several of his 22 operas gained wide recognition before and after his death. They still please audiences all over the world. The Marriage of Figaro (1786) and Don Giovanni (1787) are operas Mozart composed with words in Italian. The Magic Flute (1791) has German texts. Each of these operas contains arias (songs for single voices) and recitative (rapidly sung dialogue). They also containensembles, in which several people sing at the same time, and choruses. The orchestra provides an ever-changing expressive accompaniment. The drama ranges from comedy to tragedy.

Symphonies. Mozart wrote over 40 symphonies, many of which are performed today. Some originally were overtures (orchestral introductions) for operas, and last only a few minutes. His later symphonies, which are the most popular, are full-length orchestral compositions that last 20 to 30 minutes. Most consist of four movements (sections). His last and most famous symphony, Number 41 (1788), is nicknamed the Jupiter.

Church music. Mozart composed a great amount of church music. Most of it was created for performance at the Salzburg Cathedral. He wrote Masses and shorter pieces called motets. He set psalms to music, especially for the vespers (afternoon or evening) service. The music is beautiful and varied. It includes choral and solo parts, usually with accompaniment by organ and orchestra. Mozart's best-known sacred work is the Requiem (Mass for the Dead). He began it in 1791. While writing it, he seems to have become concerned about his own death. Parts of the Requiem were composed during his final illness. He died before the work was finished.

Other works. Mozart wrote other, generally lighter, orchestral works calledserenades. Some were intended for outdoor performance. One has become well known as Eine kleine Nachtmusik(A Little Night Music, 1787). Mozart also wrote many compositions called concertos. They were written for a solo instrument such as violin or piano, with orchestral accompaniment. He often played the solo part.

Throughout his life, Mozart composed chamber music—works for a small number of instruments in which only one musician plays each part. Mozart concentrated on string quartets (two violins, viola, and cello). He was influenced in this by Haydn, whose quartets he admired. He dedicated six quartets to Haydn.

Mozart's sonatas for keyboard (harpsichord or piano) and for violin and keyboard are outstanding. The piano was then still fairly new and was widely played by amateurs. More than any other composer, Mozart helped to make the instrument popular.

His style. In spite of his hardships and disappointments, much of Mozart's music is cheerful and vigorous. He had a sense of humor and liked puns and practical jokes. He composed many lighter works. These works include the opera Cosi Fan Tutte (All Women Are Like That, 1790). In addition, his lighter music included much of his early instrumental music and canons (rounds) with nonsense words.

Mozart also produced deeply serious music. His most profound works include his late piano concertos, several string quartets, and the string quintet in G minor. His last three symphonies—E flat major, G minor, and the Jupiter—also fall into this category. Larger works contain both serious and light elements, as does Don Giovanni.

Mozart belonged to the Order of Freemasons and wrote several compositions for their meetings. Some scenes from his fairy-tale opera The Magic Flute were inspired by Masonic traditions and beliefs.

A catalog of Mozart's works was first prepared in the 1800's by Ludwig Kochel, a German music lover. Mozart's works are still identified by the numbers Kochel assigned to them. A famous music and theater festival held each summer in Salzburg features his works.

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Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770-1827), was one of the greatest composers in history. His most famous works include the third (Eroica), fifth, sixth (Pastorale), and ninth symphonies; an opera, Fidelio; and his religious composition Missa solemnis.

Beethoven has had a great influence on music. He won for composers a new freedom to express themselves. Before his time, composers wrote works for religious services, to teach, and to entertain people at social functions. But people listened to Beethoven's music for its own sake. As a result, he made music more independent of social, religious, or teaching purposes.

German composer Ludwig van Beethoven Waldstein Sonata

Beethoven's lifeBeethoven was born in Bonn, Germany, in December 1770, probably on December 16. He showed musical talent at an early age and learned to play the violin and piano from his father, Johann. Johann hoped to make Ludwig a gifted child like the famous composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. At the age of 11, Ludwig became assistant to the organist of the local court. In 1783, he first accompanied opera rehearsals at the keyboard. From 1788 to 1792, Beethoven played viola in the local theater orchestra.Beethoven's father developed a severe drinking problem. His mother died in 1787. Beethoven found relief from his difficult family life when he became the tutor of the two children of the von Breuning family. The children's mother was a kind, well-educated woman who introduced Beethoven to important people in Bonn.Beethoven visited Vienna in 1787. There, he played for Mozart and probably took a few lessons from him. Mozart is quoted as saying: "He will give the world something worth listening to." Beethoven also met Count Ferdinand Waldstein, who became his lifelong friend and often helped his career. In 1792, the composer Joseph Haydn, who was in Bonn, praised one of Beethoven's compositions and encouraged him to visit Vienna. The elector (ruler) of Cologne sent Beethoven to Vienna later that year. He was welcomed into the homes of many of Vienna's leading noblemen. Except for short trips, he stayed there the rest of his life.Many great composers of the day, even Haydn and Mozart, were treated as employees by the people who bought their music. However, Beethoven associated as an equal with royalty and the nobility. They paid him for his works, but they knew and admired him as a friend rather than as an employee.Beethoven suffered from chronic illnesses throughout his life and began to lose his hearing in the late 1790's. From about 1800, his personality changed. Beethoven had always been proud, independent, and somewhat odd, but he became more suspicious and irritable. In 2000, scientists announced the results of an investigation which suggested that Beethoven's physical and personality problems, though not his loss of hearing, may have been caused by lead poisoning. Beethoven became totally deaf during the last years of his life. His deafness did not hinder his composing, but it did reduce his normal social life.Beethoven's life took on added bitterness because of his unhappy relationship with his brothers Johann and Karl. The two quarreled frequently with Beethoven. Some scholars blame the two brothers for the trouble, but Beethoven himself was very difficult to get along with. Karl died in 1815, leaving a 9-year-old son. The boy became Beethoven's ward, but this relationship also turned out badly. Beethoven did not have the disposition to be a father and the young man rebelled against him, causing Beethoven much grief. Beethoven caught a serious cold at the end of 1826, which developed into pneumonia and then dropsy. He died on March 26, 1827.

Symphony No. 7 by Beethoven

Symphony No. 5 by Beethoven

Beethoven's musicBeethoven's works for orchestra include nine symphonies, five piano concertos, a violin concerto, and several overtures. His chamber music consists largely of 16 string quartets; 5 string trios; 9 trios for piano, violin, and cello; 10 violin sonatas; and 5 cello sonatas. His piano works include about 35 sonatas, more than 20 sets of variations (musical themes repeated with changes), and several smaller pieces. His vocal works consist chiefly of the opera, Fidelio; a song cycle,An die ferne Geliebte, and many other songs; several short pieces calledcantatas; and the Mass in C major and the Mass in D major (Missa solemnis).Throughout his life, Beethoven was guided by a basic optimism and a faith in moral values. These always dominated his music, although darker moods and a grim struggle usually preceded the joy typically found at the end of his compositions.Beethoven's sketchbooks show that he worked out his compositions with great care, tirelessly revising his themes and altering the shapes in which they appeared. This process often went on for many years before he was satisfied with the details and the overall form of his ideas. This painstaking workmanship is evident in the first movement of the fifth symphony and in the Hammerklavier Sonata, Op. 106. Such compositions show Beethoven's belief in the serious nature of his mission and the immortality of his work—a novel belief at that time.The first period of Beethoven's composing career extended from the late 1780's to approximately 1800. Beethoven's works during this period also show some dependence on older composers, especially Haydn, Mozart, C. P. E. Bach, and Christian Neefe, one of his teachers in Bonn. These works, nevertheless, show individuality in the careful way they are written and their strong melodies.

Moonlight Sonata

Piano concerto No. 5 "Emperor" by Beethoven, first movement

Fidelio

The second period, from about 1800 to 1815, was Beethoven's most productive period. He wrote his third through eighth symphonies, the last two piano concertos, his violin concerto, and many chamber pieces. In addition, Beethoven wrote 14 piano sonatas, including the Moonlight Sonata, the "Waldstein," and the "Appassionata."

Beethoven's music has become familiar on most concert programs today, but early in his own career his works aroused much controversy. He greatly expanded and changed traditional music forms such as the symphony. The force and strength of these works confused some critics, who found many of Beethoven's compositions impossible to understand. In his third symphony, theEroica, he revealed the ideal of heroism that he thought Napoleon symbolized. His audiences could not understand this work at first. However, the power and nobility of Beethoven's music came to be widely recognized and praised before he died.

In Fidelio, Beethoven was inspired by the story of a wife's devotion and courage in rescuing her husband from unjust imprisonment. In this opera, Beethoven praised the ideals of freedom, dignity of the individual, and heroism overcoming tyranny—ideals characterizing the French Revolution. Fidelio gave Beethoven more trouble than any of his other works. Beethoven revised it twice, and wrote four overtures before he was satisfied. He found himself restricted by the demands of composing for the stage and may have felt that writing operas was unsuited to his talents. Fidelio displays dramatic force, but its mood and meaning are expressed more by music than by action.

The third period includes several important works. The Missa solemnis is one of the most moving of religious compositions. The ninth symphony glorifies the ideal of human brotherhood that flourished in the late 1700's. In his last piano sonatas and string quartets, Beethoven created a new and personal world of expression. These works carry a feeling of great power and mysterious complexity. Yet Beethoven gave these works a lyrical quality expressed with touching simplicity.

The works of the second period had tremendous influence on the Romantic composers of the early 1800's. But the works of the third period were not fully understood until later, partly because they were extremely difficult to perform. In his quartets and sonatas, Beethoven tried to include complicated musical structures and fugues—short themes imitated or repeated by different instruments according to strict musical rules. These works demanded entirely new qualities of sound from the string quartet and piano. His compositions of the last period had a vital influence on the composers of the 1900's, notably Arnold Schoenberg and Bela Bartok.

Sonata Pathetique

Symphony No. 9 by Beethoven, second movement

Beethoven's place in music historyBeethoven belongs to both the Classical and Romantic eras of music history. In his skillful musical motives (brief themes), he was a master of Classical techniques. Beethoven also explored the new and more mysterious qualities of tone that attracted the Romantic composers. Beethoven's music suggests meanings without making them specific.Because of this constant feeling of hidden significance, Beethoven was regarded in the 1800's as one of the founders of musical Romanticism. It became fashionable to invent or "discover" stories that would explain the meaning of his instrumental works. Beethoven set this fashion by attaching descriptive titles such as "Pastoral" to some of his works. The ninth symphony in particular seems to endorse the notion that his instrumental music was striving for some definite meaning, since its final movement uses the words of an ode by the German writer Friedrich Schiller.To the Romantic composers of the first half of the 1800's, this suggestive but indefinite property was the most attractive feature of Beethoven's instrumental music. However, the more realistic composers of the later 1800's regarded this indefinite style as a fault. This style made the realistic composers turn away from sonatas, quartets, and symphonies toward opera and program(descriptive) music.To both Romantic and realistic composers, however, Beethoven correctly appeared as the composer who had first realized the full potential of instrumental music. He had sustained large, independent works of art from beginning to end with a convincing and highly varied flow of emotion. Yet the unity of each musical work did not rely on this psychological development or on an external course of action. Such unity always rests on the organization and interrelationships of the music itself. This was the classical and major part of Beethoven's accomplishment. Like Haydn and Mozart, Beethoven expressed emotion without sacrificing formal balance.

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Dr. Seuss

Seuss, Dr. (1904-1991), was the pen name of Theodor Seuss Geisel, an American writer and illustrator. He was best known for his books for children. These works combine delightful nonsense, humorous drawings, and social commentary. Young readers enjoy Dr. Seuss's clever rhymes, drawings of fantastic creatures, and silly names and invented words.

Most of Dr. Seuss's books are written in original comic verse and are illustrated by him. They include  And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street (1937), The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins (1938), Horton Hears a Who! (1954), How the Grinch Stole Christmas (1957), The Cat in the Hat (1957), Green Eggs and Ham(1960), Hop on Pop (1963), The Lorax (1971), The Butter Battle Book (1984), andOh, the Places You'll Go! (1990). He wrote and illustrated You're Only Old Once!(1986) for adults. Dr. Seuss's book What Pet Should I Get? was published in 2015. His wife found the text and illustrations for the book soon after his death in 1991, but they were set aside and only rediscovered in 2013.

Geisel was born on March 2, 1904, in Springfield, Massachusetts. He received no formal training in art. He wrote and illustrated his first book to amuse himself. The Association for Library Services to Children (ALSC) presented its 1980 Laura Ingalls Wilder Award to Dr. Seuss for his "substantial and lasting contributions to literature for children." In 1984, the Pulitzer Prize Board awarded Dr. Seuss a Special Citation "for his contribution over nearly half a century to the education and enjoyment of America's children and their parents." He died on Sept. 24, 1991. In 2004, the ALSC established the annual Theodor Seuss Geisel Award for the most distinguished American book for beginning readers, in honor of Dr. Seuss's ability to help children to read.

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Gates, Bill (1955-...), is a cofounder of Microsoft Corporation. He also formerly served as the company's chairman and chief executive officer and as its chief software architect. Microsoft is the world's largest developer and publisher of software for personal computers. The company’s success has made Gates one of the wealthiest people in the world. Gates contributes extensively to charitable causes through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

William Henry Gates was born in Seattle on Oct. 28, 1955. He set up his first software company at age 15 with a schoolmate named Paul Allen. In 1975, he and Allen began to design programs for personal computers (PC’s), which had just entered the marketplace. The two founded Microsoft that year. In 1980, International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) chose Microsoft to develop the operating system for its first personal computer, the PC. An operating system is the main program for controlling a computer’s functions. Gates wrote the Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) for IBM. Microsoft sold millions of copies of MS-DOS for use in IBM and IBM-compatible PC's.

In 1985, Microsoft introduced the first version of the popular Windows operating system. Microsoft has sold tens of millions of copies of Windows. The company continued to grow under Gates’s guidance. Today, it produces many types of software for business and consumer use.

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Hutchinson, Anne Marbury (1591-1643), was the head of a group of Puritans whose religious beliefs were unacceptable to Puritan leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her teachings caused deep divisions in the colony from 1636 to 1638.

Anne Marbury was born in Alford, Lincolnshire, England. She married William Hutchinson in 1612. In 1634, the Hutchinson family moved to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. There, Anne joined the congregation in Boston. She began holding religious meetings in her home, where she interpreted church teachings in ways that Puritan leaders considered dangerous. For example, Hutchinson preached that nothing people could do by choice, including obeying church and state law, could win God's love and favor. She also said that God communicated to people directly instead of through public and church officials. She and her followers were called Antinomians, meaning people who are against law.

Massachusetts officials ordered Hutchinson to leave the colony in 1637, and the church expelled her in 1638. She moved with her family to Rhode Island, and then to New York after her husband died in 1642. She was murdered there by Indians in August or September 1643.

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Wheatley, Phillis (1753?-1784), was the first important African American poet. She was brought to Boston on a slave ship when she was about 8 years old. John Wheatley, a wealthy merchant tailor, bought Phillis as a servant for his wife.

The Wheatleys taught Phillis to read and write. She also studied geography, history, and Latin. She began to write poetry when she was about 14. In 1773, she visited England, where her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moralwas published that year.

Wheatley was deeply religious. Some of her poems expressed her satisfaction at becoming a Christian in American society. She also wrote about more worldly issues, as in "To the Right Honorable William, Earl of Dartmouth" (1773). In this poem, Wheatley contrasted her status as a slave with the demand of the American Colonies for independence. After returning from England, Wheatley was freed and married John Peters, a free black man. Her reputation as a poet soon declined, and she died virtually unknown on Dec. 5, 1784.

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Robinson, Jackie (1919-1972), was the first African American to play modern major league baseball. The modern era of major league baseball dates from 1900. Robinson joined the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947 and played all 10 years of his major league career with them.

Robinson played first base during his first season with the Dodgers. But he spent the most successful years of his career playing second base. He also played third base and the outfield. Robinson was an outstanding hitter and finished with a .311 lifetime batting average. He was also an excellent base stealer. In 1947, he was named Rookie of the Year. In 1949, he won the National League's Most Valuable Player award. That year, he also won the league's batting championship with a .342 average.

Early life. Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on Jan. 31, 1919, in Cairo, Georgia. When Robinson was an infant, his mother moved her family to California. Robinson starred in football, basketball, baseball, and track in high school and at Pasadena Junior College. He transferred to the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1939. There, he excelled in the same four sports. In 1941, Robinson dropped out of UCLA to help support his mother by working at a youth camp. He also played minor league football and semiprofessional football.

From 1942 to 1944, during World War II, Robinson served in the United States Army. In 1944, he was court-martialed for refusing a white driver’s demands to go to the back of a bus because he was black. An all-white military jury found Robinson not guilty of insubordination (disobedience). He was honorably discharged from the Army in 1944 as a second lieutenant.

Breaking the racial barrier. Robinson coached basketball at Sam Houston State College during the 1944-1945 season. He started his professional baseball career in 1945 with the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League. The league was made up entirely of blacks. At the time, baseball was racially segregated—that is, black players were not allowed to play in the major or minor leagues. In 1946, Robinson broke through baseball’s racial segregation barrier by playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers’ minor league team in Montreal.

In 1947, Robinson became the first African American to play in the major leagues since the 1880’s. Robinson’s impact on segregation in sports went far beyond the Dodgers. After baseball desegregated, other professional sports quickly followed, and a number of previously segregated hotels and restaurants began to admit blacks.

Later achievements. In December 1956, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the New York Giants, but he retired to go into business. He began working for Chock full o’Nuts, a chain of coffee shops, becoming the first black vice president of a major American corporation. Robinson helped establish and served as chairman of Freedom National Bank. This bank was owned and operated by African Americans in New York City.

In 1956, Robinson received the Spingarn Medal. The medal is an award given annually to an outstanding African American. Robinson was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. He died on Oct. 24, 1972.

In 1997, major league baseball permanently retired Robinson’s uniform number 42. This action ensured that his number would never be assigned to another major league player.

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Earhart, Amelia (1897-1937), an American aviator, became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean alone. She was also the first woman to receive the Distinguished Flying Cross. The United States Congress awarded her that honor.

Amelia Earhart

Early life. Amelia Mary Earhart was born in Atchison, Kansas, on July 24, 1897. She received a modest inheritance from her maternal grandmother. The money helped give her a secure life with considerable opportunity for travel. She became a volunteer nurse during World War I (1914-1918).

In 1920, Earhart moved to California to live with her mother. While there, she became fascinated by aviation. Flying was a new and dangerous sport at that time. Earhart took flying lessons from an instructor named Neta Snook. Snook was one of only a few women pilots in the 1920's. Earhart purchased her ownairplane and set an unofficial altitude record for women. In 1924, she moved to the East Coast. Earhart became a social worker in 1926, but she continued to fly.

Amelia Earhart

Flights. Earhart rode as an observer on a transatlantic airplane flight from Trepassey Bay, Newfoundland, to Burry Port, Wales, in 1928. The flight made her famous as the first woman to cross the Atlantic by airplane. Her resemblance to the famous American pilot Charles Lindbergh also contributed to her fame.

In 1929, Earhart helped found the Ninety-Nines, an international organization of women pilots. The Ninety-Nines provides professional opportunities to women in aviation. In 1931, she married George Palmer Putnam, a wealthy publisher. Putnam had helped organize her 1928 flight.

In 1932, Earhart became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean alone. She took off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, and landed in a pasture nearLondonderry, Northern Ireland. She went on to set other speed and distance records. Earhart also became an important figure in the movement to develop commercial aviation.

Earhart's attempt to fly around the world

Disappearance. In March 1937, Amelia Earhart made her first attempt to fly around the world from east to west, starting in Oakland, California. But she changed plans after crashing her plane in Hawaii. The plane was shipped back to California for repairs and adjustments. On May 20, Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, took off again from Oakland, but this time they headed east toMiami, Florida. On June 1, they flew from Miami to Puerto Rico. Their flight plan then took them to South America, Africa, Asia, Australia, and the island of New Guinea. They had completed about three-fourths of their planned flight around the world.

On July 2 (local time), Earhart and Noonan left New Guinea and began the longest leg of their journey. They tried to fly 2,600 miles (4,200 kilometers) over open water to Howland Island in the central Pacific Ocean. The next day, a U.S. Navy vessel picked up radio messages from Earhart. She reported empty fuel tanks. But efforts to make radio contact failed. An extensive search found no trace of the plane or crew. Earhart and Noonan probably crashed into the ocean and died. Their plane likely ran out of fuel after navigation errors took them off course.

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Tubman, Harriet (1820?-1913), was an African American who helped hundreds of slaves in the southern United States escape to freedom. She became a famous leader of the underground railroad. The underground railroad was a secret system that helped slaves escape to the northern United States or to Canada (see Underground railroad). Admirers called her Moses. The name referred to the Biblical figure who led the Jews out of slavery in Egypt.

Tubman was born into slavery on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. Her name was Araminta Ross. She came to be known by her mother’s name, Harriet. Her father taught her a knowledge of the outdoors that later helped her in her rescue missions. When Harriet was a child, she tried to stop a supervisor from punishing another slave. The supervisor fractured Harriet’s skull with a metal weight. Because of the injury, Harriet suffered blackouts. She interpreted them as messages from God. She married John Tubman, a free black man, in 1844.

Harriet Tubman, acting alone, escaped from slavery in 1849. After arriving in Philadelphia, she vowed to return to Maryland and help liberate other slaves. Tubman made her first of 19 trips back shortly after Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. This law made it a crime to help runaway slaves.

Tubman became a conductor on the underground railroad. She carried a gun and promised to use it on anyone who threatened the success of her operation. She was assisted by white and free black abolitionists. She also got help from members of a religious sect known as the Quakers. On one rescue mission, she and a group of fugitives boarded a southbound train to avoid suspicion. On another mission, Tubman noticed her former master walking toward her. She quickly released a group of chickens and chased after them to avoid being recognized. In 1857, Tubman led her parents to freedom in Auburn, New York. Slaveowners offered thousands of dollars for Tubman’s arrest. But they never captured her or any of the 300 slaves she helped liberate before the American Civil War (1861-1865).

In the late 1850’s, Tubman met the radical white abolitionist John Brown. He told her of his plan to end slavery by launching a massive slave revolt (see Brown, John). Tubman approved of his plan. She remained one of Brown’s greatest defenders after his arrest and execution in 1859.

Tubman continued her courageous actions during the Civil War. She served as a nurse, scout, and spy for the Union Army. During one military campaign along the Combahee River in South Carolina, she helped free more than 750 slaves. After the war, Tubman became the subject of numerous biographies. Upon returning to Auburn, she spoke in support of women’s rights. She established the Harriet Tubman Home for elderly and needy African Americans. She died on March 10, 1913.

The people of Auburn erected a plaque in Tubman's honor. The United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp bearing her portrait in 1978. The Harriet Tubman National Historical Park, in Auburn, contains Tubman’s home, the residence she created for elderly African Americans, and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church she raised funds to build. The historical park, which is operated by the National Park Service, opened in 2017.

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Parks, Rosa Louise (1913-2005), an African American civil rights activist, became best known for her role in a boycott of the Montgomery, Alabama, bussystem. The protest began in late 1955 and lasted over a year. Parks triggered the boycott when she refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a bus. Her action helped bring about the civil rights movement in the United States.

Parks was arrested on Dec. 1, 1955, for violating a city law requiring that whites and blacks sit in separate rows on buses. She refused to give up her seat in the middle of the bus when a white man wished to sit in her row. The front rows were for whites only. The law required blacks to leave their seats in the next rows when all seats in the front rows were taken and other whites still wanted seats.

Even before Parks's arrest, Montgomery's black leaders had been discussing a protest against racial segregation on the city's buses. Parks allowed the leaders to use her arrest to spark a boycott of the bus system. The leaders formed an organization to run the boycott. Martin Luther King, Jr.—then a Baptist ministerin Montgomery—was chosen as president.

Rosa Parks in the front of a Montgomery bus

From Dec. 5, 1955, to Dec. 20, 1956, thousands of blacks refused to ride Montgomery's buses. Their boycott ended when the Supreme Court of the United States declared segregated seating on the city's buses unconstitutional. The boycott's success encouraged other mass protests demanding civil rights for blacks.

Rosa Louise McCauley was born on Feb. 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama. She attended Alabama State Teachers College. In 1932, she married Raymond Parks, a barber. She held a variety of jobs and, in 1943, became one of the first women to join the Montgomery Chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). She served as the organization's secretary from 1943 to 1956.

Parks lost her job as a seamstress as a result of the Montgomery boycott. She moved to Detroit in 1957. From 1967 to 1988, she worked on the Detroit staff ofJohn Conyers, Jr., a Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1979, she won the Spingarn Medal for her work in civil rights. She wrote anautobiography,  Rosa Parks: My Story (1992). In 1996, she was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedom. In 1999, she was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal. Parks died on Oct. 24, 2005. A statue of Parks was dedicated at Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol in 2013.

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Anthony, Susan Brownell (1820-1906), was a reformer and one of the first leaders of the campaign for women's rights. She helped organize the woman suffrage movement, which worked to get women the right to vote.

Anthony was born in Adams, Massachusetts, on Feb. 15, 1820. Her family were Quakers, who believed in the equality of men and women. Anthony's family supported major reforms, such as antislavery and temperance, the campaign to abolish alcoholic beverages.

From 1839 to 1849, Anthony taught school. She then joined the temperance movement. But most temperance groups consisted of men who did not allow women to help the movement. In 1852, she attended a temperance rally in Albany, New York, but was not allowed to speak because she was a woman. Soon after, she formed the Woman's State Temperance Society of New York.

Through her temperance work, Anthony became increasingly aware that women did not have the same rights as men. In 1851, she met Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a leader of the women's rights movement. The two women became close friends and co-workers. Soon, Anthony devoted herself completely to women's rights and became a leader of the movement. She supported dress reform and, for a time, wore bloomers, which became a symbol of the women's rights movement. She also worked in support of equal educational opportunities and property rights for women.

Before and during the American Civil War (1861-1865), Anthony and Stanton supported abolitionism. After the war, however, they broke away from those who had been involved in the abolitionist movement. Many of these people showed little interest in woman suffrage and supported the 15th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. This amendment gave the vote to black men, but not to women. In 1869, Anthony and Stanton formed the National Woman Suffrage Association and worked for a woman suffrage amendment to the Constitution.

From 1868 to 1870, Anthony published a weekly journal, The Revolution, which demanded equal rights for women. In 1872, she voted in the presidential election and was arrested and fined $100 for voting illegally. Anthony never paid the fine, but no further action was taken against her. From 1881 to 1886, Anthony and Stanton coedited three volumes of a book called History of Woman Suffrage. Anthony published a fourth volume of the book in 1902. In 1904, she established the International Woman Suffrage Alliance with Carrie Chapman Catt, another leader of the suffrage movement.

In 1890, the National Woman Suffrage Association united with the American Woman Suffrage Association and formed the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Anthony served as president of the group from 1892 until 1900. She died on March 13, 1906, 14 years before the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution became law and gave women the right to vote. In 1979 and 1980, the U.S. government minted for circulation $1 coins bearing Anthony's picture. Anthony was the first woman to be pictured on a United States coin in general circulation.

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Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790), was a jack-of-all-trades and master of many. No other American, except possibly Thomas Jefferson, has done so many things so well. During his long and useful life, Franklin concerned himself with such different matters as statesmanship and soapmaking, book-printing and cabbage-growing, and the rise of tides and the fall of empires. He also invented an efficient heating stove and proved that lightning is a huge electric spark.

As a statesman, Franklin stood in the front rank of the people who built the United States. He was the only person who signed all four of these key documents in American history: the Declaration of Independence, the Treaty of Alliance with France, the Treaty of Paris that made peace with Great Britain (now also called the United Kingdom), and the Constitution of the United States. Franklin’s services as a diplomat in France helped greatly in winning the Revolutionary War in America (1775-1783). Many historians consider him the ablest and most successful diplomat that America has ever sent abroad.

Franklin was a leader of his day in the study of electricity. As an inventor, he was unequaled in the United States until the time of Thomas A. Edison. People still read The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (1789) and quote sayings from Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac (1733-1758). Franklin also helped establish Pennsylvania's first university and America's first city hospital.

Franklin's fame extended to Europe as well as America. Thomas Jefferson hailed him as "the greatest man and ornament of the age and country in which he lived." A French statesman, Comte de Mirabeau, referred to Franklin as "the sage whom two worlds claimed as their own."

Early lifeBenjamin Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on Jan. 17, 1706. He was the 15th child, and youngest son, in a family of 17 children. His parents, Josiah and Abiah Franklin, were hard-working and religious. His father made soap and candles in his shop “at the sign of the 🤬” on Milk Street, and later in a bigger house on Union Street.Student and apprentice. Benjamin attended school in Boston for only two years. He proved himself excellent in reading, fair in writing, and poor in arithmetic. Josiah Franklin decided that he could not afford further education for his youngest son. He kept Benjamin home after the age of 10 to help cut wicks and melt tallow in the candle and soap shop.Franklin's schooling ended, but his education did not. He believed that "the doors of wisdom are never shut," and continued to read every book that he could get. He worked on his own writing style, using a volume of the British journal The Spectator as a model. His prose became clear, simple, and effective. The boy also taught himself the basic principles of algebra and geometry, navigation, grammar, logic, and the natural and physical sciences. He studied and partially mastered French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Latin. He eagerly read such books as Pilgrim's Progress (1678, 1684), Plutarch's Lives (about A.D. 100), Cotton Mather's Bonifacius (1710), and Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe(1719). Franklin made himself one of the best-educated persons of his time.Franklin did not care much for the trade of candlemaking. When the boy was 12, his father persuaded him to become an apprentice to his older brother James, a printer. James proved to be a good teacher, and Benjamin a good pupil. Benjamin soon became a skilled printer. He wrote several newspaper articles, signed them "Silence Dogood," and slipped them under the printshop door. James admired the articles and printed several of them. But the brothers quarreled frequently, and Benjamin longed to become his own master. He also wished to escape from his brother’s beatings, which Benjamin later called the cause of his “Aversion to arbitrary Power that has stuck to me thro’ my whole Life.”At 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia. The story of his arrival there, as told in his autobiography, has become a classic of American folklore. Many tales describe the runaway apprentice trudging bravely up Market Street with a Dutch dollar in his pocket, carrying one loaf of bread under each arm and eating a third.

Benjamin Franklin as a printer

Printer. From 1723 to 1730, Franklin worked for various printers in Philadelphia and in London, England. He became part owner of a print shop in 1728, when he was 22. Two years later, he became sole owner of the business. He began publishing The Pennsylvania Gazette, writing much of the material for this newspaper himself. His name gradually became known throughout the colonies. Franklin had a simple formula for business success. He believed that successful people had to work just a little harder than any of their competitors. As one of his neighbors said: "The industry of that Franklin is superior to anything I ever saw ... I see him still at work when I go home from the club; and he is at work again before his neighbors are out of bed."

Franklin married Deborah Read (1708–1774), the daughter of his first Philadelphia landlady, in 1730. Deborah was not nearly so well educated as her husband, but her work in the printing shop helped diversify the business. Franklin quickly became a leader in the printing trade. He sent a series of former apprentices to open shops in other locations, from Newport in Rhode Island to the British colony of Antigua in the Caribbean Sea.

The Franklins raised three children, William Franklin (1731?-1813), Francis Folger Franklin (1732-1736), and Sarah Franklin Bache (1743-1808). William Franklin became governor of New Jersey in 1762 and a leading Tory, or Loyalist, when he sided with the British in 1776. Sarah Franklin Bache helped collect funds for American troops during the Revolutionary War. She also raised a large family, including the printer and political activist Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798).

The first citizen of PhiladelphiaPublisher. Franklin's printing business prospered from the start. He developedThe Pennsylvania Gazette into one of the most successful newspapers in the colonies. He published it from 1729 until 1766. Franklin was often on the lookout for new ideas. Historians credit him as the first editor in America to publish a newspaper cartoon and to illustrate a news story with a map. He laid many of his projects for civic reform before the public in his newspaper.

Franklin achieved even greater financial success with Poor Richard's Almanacthan with his newspaper. He wrote and published the almanac for every year from 1733 to 1758. The fame of the almanac rests mainly on the wise and witty sayings that Franklin scattered through each issue. Many of these sayings preach the virtues of industry, frugality, and thrift. "Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." "God helps them that help themselves." "Little strokes fell great oaks." Other sayings reflect a shrewd understanding of human nature. "He's a fool that makes his doctor his heir." "He that falls in love with himself will have no rivals." See  Poor Richard's Almanac.

Franklin retired from running the print shop in 1748, at the age of 42, so that he could pursue science and politics full time.

Benjamin Franklin

Civic leader. Franklin was always interested in public affairs. In 1736, he became clerk of the Pennsylvania Assembly. The poor service of the colonial postal service disturbed him greatly. Hoping to improve matters, he became Philadelphia's postmaster in 1737. He impressed the British government with his efficiency in this position, and in 1753 he became a deputy postmaster general for all the colonies. Franklin worked hard at this job and introduced many needed reforms. He set up the first city delivery system and the first Dead-Mail Office. He speeded foreign mail deliveries by using the fastest packet ships available across the Atlantic Ocean. To speed domestic mail service, he hired more post riders and required his couriers to ride both night and day. Franklin also helped Canada establish its first regular postal service. He opened post offices at Quebec, Montreal, and Trois Rivieres in 1763. He also established messenger service between Montreal and New York.

Franklin was public-spirited and worked constantly to make Philadelphia a better city. He helped establish the first subscription library in the American Colonies. The members of this library contributed money to buy books and then used them free of charge. The Library Company of Philadelphia still exists. Fire losses in Philadelphia were alarmingly high, and Franklin organized a fire department. He reformed the city police when he saw that criminals were getting away without punishment. City streets were unpaved, dirty, and dark, so he started a program to pave, clean, and light them. Philadelphia shamefully neglected the sick and people with mental illness during Franklin’s time. He raised money to help build a city hospital, the Pennsylvania Hospital, for these people.

Scholars in the American Colonies had no special clubs or professional organizations, so Franklin helped establish the American Philosophical Society, with headquarters in Philadelphia. The city had no school for higher education, so Franklin helped found the academy that grew into the University of Pennsylvania. As a result of such projects, Philadelphia became the most advanced city in the 13 colonies.

The scientistExperiments with electricity. Franklin was one of the first persons in the world to experiment with electricity. He became famous for his description of an electrical experiment he said he conducted at Philadelphia. In 1752, he described how he flew a homemade kite during a thunderstorm to prove that lightning is a giant electric spark. According to Franklin, a bolt of lightning struck a pointed wire fastened to the kite and traveled down the kite string to a key fastened at the end, where it caused a spark. Franklin also tamed lightning by inventing the lightning rod (see Lightning rod). He urged his fellow citizens to use this device as a sure "means of securing the habitations and other buildings from mischief from thunder and lightning." When lightning struck Franklin's own home, the soundness of his invention became apparent. The lightning rod saved the building from damage. Franklin's lightning rod demonstrated his saying that "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." Authorities generally agree that Franklin created such electrical terms as  armature, condenser, and battery.See  Electricity (History).

Franklin's experiments with electricity involved some personal risk. He knocked himself unconscious at least once. He had been trying to 🤬 a turkey with an electric shock, but something went wrong and Franklin, not the bird, was stunned. Franklin later said: "I meant to 🤬 a turkey, and instead, I nearly killed a goose."

Other studies. Franklin's scientific interests ranged far beyond electricity. He became the first scientist to study the movement of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean. He spent much time charting its course and recording its temperature, speed, and depth. He favored daylight saving time in summer. It struck him as silly and wasteful that people should "live much by candle-light and sleep by sunshine."

Franklin gave the world several other valuable inventions in addition to the lightning rod. The Franklin stove proved most useful to the people of his day. By arranging the flues in his own stove in an efficient way, he could make his sitting room twice as warm with one-fourth as much fuel as he had been using. People continue to appreciate his invention of bifocal eyeglasses. This invention allowed both reading and distant lenses to be set in a single frame. Franklin discovered that disease flourishes in poorly ventilated rooms. Franklin also showed Americans how to improve acid soil by using lime. He refused to patent any of his inventions, or to use them for profit. He preferred to have them used freely as his contribution to people's comfort and convenience.

Franklin quickly appreciated the inventive efforts of other people. He once said that he would like to return to earth a hundred years later to see what progress humanity had made. The first successful balloon flight took place in 1783, during Franklin's stay in Paris. Many bystanders scoffed at the new device and asked, "What good is it?" Franklin retorted, "What good is a newborn baby?"

Franklin's scientific work won him many high honors. The Royal Society of London elected him to membership, a rare honor for a person living in the colonies. Publishers translated his writings on electricity into French, German, and Italian. The great English statesman William Pitt told the House of Lords that Franklin ranked with Isaac Newton as a scientist. He called Franklin "an honor not to the English nation only but to human nature."

The public servantThe Plan of Union. In the spring of 1754, war broke out between the British and French in America (see French and Indian wars). Franklin felt that the colonies had to unite for self-defense against the French and Indians. He printed the famous "Join or Die" cartoon in his newspaper. This cartoon showed a snake cut up into pieces that represented the colonies.

Franklin presented his Plan of Union at a conference of seven colonies at Albany, N.Y. This plan tried to bring the colonies together in “one general government,” in part to negotiate better with Native Americans who were joined through the Iroquois Confederacy. The Plan of Union contained some of the ideas that were later included in the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution of the United States. The delegates at the Albany Congress approved Franklin's plan, but the colonies failed to ratify it. Said Franklin: "Everyone cries a union is absolutely necessary, but when it comes to the manner and form of the union, their weak noddles are perfectly distracted." SeeAlbany Congress.

The war led Franklin to turn his attention to military matters. During two earlier conflicts, he had urged Philadelphians, including the pacifist Quakers who dominated Pennsylvania politics, to defend the city by supporting a militia company he founded. In 1755, General Edward Braddock and two British regiments arrived in America with orders to capture the French stronghold of Fort Duquesne, at the point where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers met. The British had trouble finding horses and wagons for the expedition, and Franklin helped provide the necessary equipment. However, the French and Indians ambushed the British on the banks of the Monongahela River. Braddock was killed, and the British army was almost destroyed. In the meantime, Franklin raised volunteer colonial armies to defend frontier towns and supervised construction of a fort at Weissport in Carbon County, Pennsylvania.

A delegate in London. In 1757, the Pennsylvania legislature sent Franklin to London to speak for the colony in a tax dispute with the  proprietors(descendants of William Penn living in Britain). The proprietors controlled the governor of the colony and would not allow the colony to pass any tax bill for defense unless their own estates were left tax-free. In 1760, Franklin finally succeeded in getting the British Parliament to adopt a measure that permitted the taxation of both the colonists and the proprietors. Franklin remained in Britain during most of the next 15 years as a sort of unofficial ambassador and spokesman for the American point of view.

A serious debate developed in Britain in the early 1760's at the end of the French and Indian War. The French, who lost the war, agreed to give the British either the French province of Canada or the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe in the French West Indies. At the height of the argument, Franklin published an influential pamphlet that shrewdly compared the boundless future of Canada with the relative unimportance of Guadeloupe. In this and other writings, Franklin supported the North American colonies and described them as crucial to the British Empire.

Franklin also took part in the fight over the Stamp Act (see  Stamp Act). He seems to have been rather slow to recognize that the proposed measure threatened the American Colonies, but once he realized its dangers, he joined the struggle for repeal of the act. This fight led to one of the high points of his career. On Feb. 13, 1766, Franklin appeared before the House of Commons to answer a series of 174 questions dealing with "taxation without representation." Members of the House threw questions at him for nearly two hours. He answered briefly and clearly. His knowledge of taxation problems impressed his audience, and his reputation grew throughout Europe. The Stamp Act was repealed a short time later, and Franklin received some of the credit.

Political relations between Britain and the colonies grew steadily worse. Franklin wanted America to remain in the British Empire, but he also wanted the rights of the colonists recognized and protected. Like other patriot leaders, he grew frustrated with the tendency of many Britons to see colonists as inferiors. Franklin pledged his entire fortune to pay for the tea destroyed in the Boston Tea Party if the British government would agree to repeal what the colonists felt was an unjust tax on tea (see Boston Tea Party). The British ignored his proposal. Franklin realized that his usefulness in Britain had ended, and he sailed for home on March 21, 1775. Franklin had worked hard to keep the American Colonies in the empire on the basis of mutual respect and good will.

The statesman

Organizing the new nation. Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, about two weeks after the Revolutionary War began. The next day, the people of Philadelphia chose him to serve in the Second Continental Congress. Franklin seldom spoke at the Congress, but became one of its most active and influential members. He submitted a proposed Plan of Union that contained ideas from his earlier Albany Plan of Union. This plan laid the groundwork for the Articles of Confederation. Franklin served on a commission that went to Canada in an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the French Canadians to join the Revolutionary War. He also worked on committees dealing with such varied matters as printing paper money, reorganizing the Continental Army, and finding supplies of powder and lead.

The Continental Congress chose Franklin as postmaster general in 1775 because of his experience as a colonial postmaster. The government directed him to organize a postal system quickly. He soon had mail service from Portland, Maine, to Savannah, Georgia. He gave his salary to the relief of wounded soldiers.

Franklin helped draft the Declaration of Independence and was one of the document's signers. During the signing ceremonies, according to tradition, John Hancock warned his fellow delegates, "We must be unanimous; there must be no pulling different ways; we must all hang together." "Yes," Franklin replied, "we must indeed all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately."

Serving in France. Shortly after the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, Congress appointed Franklin as one of three commissioners sent to represent the United States in France. The war was not going well, and Congress realized an alliance with France might mean the difference between victory and defeat. Late in 1776, at the age of 70, Franklin set forth on the most important task of his life.

Franklin received a tremendous welcome in Paris. The French people were charmed by his kindness, his simple dress and manner, his wise and witty sayings, and his tact and courtesy in greeting the nobility and common people alike. Crowds ran after him in the streets. Poets wrote glowing verses in his honor, and artists made portraits and busts of him.

Treaty of Alliance

In spite of Franklin's popularity, the French government hesitated to make a treaty of alliance with the American Colonies. Such a treaty would surely mean war between France and Britain. So Franklin tactfully set out to win the French government to the American cause. His chance came after British General John Burgoyne’s army surrendered at Saratoga. The French were impressed by this American victory and agreed to a treaty of alliance. The pact was signed on Feb. 6, 1778. Franklin then arranged transportation to America for French officers, soldiers, and guns. He managed to keep loans and gifts of money flowing to the United States. Many historians believe that without this aid the Americans could not have won their independence.

In 1778, Franklin was appointed minister to France. He helped draft the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War. France, Britain, and Spain all had interests in the American Colonies, and Franklin found it difficult to arrange a treaty that satisfied them all. The treaty gave the new nation territory extending west to the Mississippi River and north to Canada. Franklin was one of the signers of the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

The twilight yearsFranklin returned to Philadelphia in 1785. For the next two years, he served as president of the executive council of Pennsylvania. In 1787, Pennsylvania sent Franklin to the Constitutional Convention. The delegates met in Independence Hall and drafted the Constitution of the United States. The 81-year-old Franklin was the oldest delegate at the convention.Franklin helped the convention settle the bitter dispute between large and small states over representation in Congress. He did this by supporting the so-called Great Compromise. The compromise sought to satisfy both groups by setting up a two-house Congress. It also allowed three-fifths of slaves to be counted for the purpose of taxation and representation. Franklin had not wanted slaves to be counted. However, as in earlier debates during the revolutionary years, he believed that ensuring the survival of the nation was more important than fighting slavery. In his last formal speech to the convention, Franklin appealed to his fellow delegates for unanimous support of the Constitution.Franklin's attendance at the Constitutional Convention was his last major public service. However, his interest in public affairs continued to the end of his life. He rejoiced in Washington's inauguration as the first President of the United States. He hoped that the example of the new nation would lead to a United States of Europe. In 1787, he was elected president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. Franklin’s last public act was to sign an appeal to Congress calling for the speedy abolition of slavery. Franklin had owned slaves and defended Americans against charges of hypocrisy on the issue of slavery. Only in private had he supported slavery’s critics. But abolitionists later claimed Franklin as an antislavery pioneer because of his final stance on the issue.Franklin died on the night of April 17, 1790, at the age of 84. About 20,000 people honored him at his funeral. He was buried in the cemetery of Christ Church in Philadelphia beside his wife, who had died in 1774. Franklin accomplished much in many fields, but he began his will with the simple words: "I, Benjamin Franklin, printer ..." Franklin left $5,000 each to Boston and Philadelphia, in trust funds to be loaned out at interest. He directed that part of the accumulated funds be used for public works after 100 years, and the rest after 200 years. Part of the money was used to establish Franklin Union (now the Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology), a Boston trade school; and the Franklin Institute, an organization in Philadelphia that promotes science education. The Franklin Institute includes the well-known Franklin Institute Science Museum.

His place in historyFranklin became known to future generations for his lifelong concern for the happiness, well-being, and dignity of humanity. George Washington summarized American popular sentiment in a letter to Franklin in 1789: "If to be venerated for benevolence, if to be admired for talents, if to be esteemed for patriotism, if to be beloved for philanthropy, can gratify the human mind, you must have the pleasing consolation to know that you have not lived in vain."Franklin's name would almost certainly be on any list of the half-dozen greatest Americans. His face has appeared on postage stamps, and on the coins and paper money of the United States. Two presidents of the United States proudly bore his name: Franklin Pierce and Franklin D. Roosevelt.Philadelphia has also revered the memory of its most famous citizen. The University of Pennsylvania named its athletic field in his honor. One of the showplaces of the city is the spacious Benjamin Franklin Parkway. Midway along the parkway stands the Franklin Institute Science Museum, dedicated to popularizing the sciences that Franklin loved so much. This building contains the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial, with a famous statue of Franklin by James Earle Fraser (see Franklin Institute Science Museum). Independence National Historical Park includes the site of Franklin’s home and many museum exhibits about Franklin and his world.

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Adams, John (1735-1826), guided the young United States through some of its most serious troubles. He served under George Washington as the first vice president, and followed him as the second president. The United States government moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., during Adams's administration, and he became the first president to live in the White House. Adams was the first chief executive whose son also served as president.

Adams played a leading role in the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and was a signer of the historic document. He had spoken out boldly for separation from Great Britain (now called the United Kingdom) at a time when most colonial leaders still hoped to settle their differences with the British. As president, Adams fought a split in his own party over his determination to avoid war with France. He kept the peace, but in the process he lost a second term as president. Adams was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson.

In appearance, Adams was short and stout, with a ruddy complexion. He seldom achieved popularity during his long political career. Those close to him loved him, but his bluntness, impatience, and vanity made more enemies than friends. On most great decisions of his public career, history has proved him right and his opponents wrong. But his clumsiness in human relations often caused him to be misunderstood. Few people knew about another part of Adams's personality. His diary and personal letters show his pleasant, affectionate, and often playful nature.

During Adams's term, the United States took its first steps toward industrialization. The first woolen mills began operating in Massachusetts, and Congress established the Department of the Navy and the Marine Corps. Americans enjoyed such songs as "The Wearing of the Green" and "The Blue Bells of Scotland." People read and admired The Life and Memorable Actions of George Washington by Mason Locke Weems. On the frontier, Johnny Appleseed began wandering through Ohio and Indiana, planting apple seeds and teaching the Bible.

Important dates in John Adams's life

Early life

Childhood. John Adams was born in Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, on Oct. 30, 1735. (The date was October 19 by the calendar then in use.) His father, also named John Adams, was a farmer, a deacon of the First Parish of Braintree, and a militia officer. His mother, Susanna Boylston Adams, came from a leading family of Brookline and Boston merchants and physicians.

The Adams farm lay at the foot of Penn's Hill. The National Park Service preserves as a memorial the house in which John Adams was born. It stands close to the place where his great-great-grandfather, Henry Adams, settled before 1640. Henry Adams had sailed from Somerset, England, along with thousands of other Puritans, to escape the religious persecution found in his homeland.

Young John helped with the chores on the farm. He studied hard in the village school, but did not particularly enjoy books.

Education. Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1755, ranking 14th in a class of 24. In those days, the rank of a student indicated social position, not scholarship, and Adams was one of the best scholars in his class.

After teaching school for a short time, Adams studied law in the office of James Putnam in Worcester, Massachusetts. He began to practice law in Braintree in 1758. He became a leading attorney of the Massachusetts colony.

Abigail Smith Adams

Adams's family. In 1764, Adams married Abigail Smith (Nov. 22, 1744-Oct. 28, 1818), the daughter of a minister in Weymouth, Massachusetts. (Her birth date was November 11 by the calendar then in use.)

Like most women of her time, Abigail Adams had received little formal schooling. But she read widely, and became one of the best-informed women of the day. She wrote delightful letters to Adams during his absences from home. Mrs. Adams was a lively observer of people and events, and her letters provide colorful pictures of colonial life.

The Adamses' eldest child, Abigail, became the wife of Colonel William Stephens Smith, the secretary to the United States legation in London. The Adamses' eldest son, John Quincy, became the sixth president of the United States the year before his father died. The third child, Susanna, died in infancy. The fourth child, Charles, died while his father was president. Thomas, the youngest child, became a lawyer and a judge.

Political and public career

In New England. Adams took a leading part in opposing British colonial policies in America. The year 1765, when the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, was a turning point in his life. This law taxed newspapers, legal papers, and other items. It hit Adams hard as a lawyer. He wrote: "This tax was set on foot for my ruin as well as that of Americans in general."

Adams wrote resolutions against the tax which were adopted by the Braintree town meeting. More than 40 other Massachusetts towns adopted these resolutions. The Boston town meeting appointed Adams to a committee to present a petition against the tax to the British governor. Adams argued that the tax was illegal because the people had not consented to it. This amounted to saying that Parliament could not tax the colonies at all. Britain repealed the Stamp Act in 1766. See Stamp Act.

Adams rejoiced at every expression of popular opposition to the British. But the treatment of British soldiers who had taken part in the Boston Massacre distressed him (see Boston Massacre). His sense of justice led him to defend Captain Thomas Preston and the British soldiers charged with manslaughter. He felt that the soldiers should be freed, because the mob had provoked them to fire. Adams feared his viewpoint would cost him popularity. Instead, his prestige rose. In 1770, the people of Boston chose him as one of their representatives in the colonial legislature. There, with the help of his cousin, Samuel Adams, he led the fight against British colonial policies.

The British tax on tea enraged Adams and most of his fellow colonists. When a band of patriots dumped large quantities of tea into Boston Harbor on Dec. 16, 1773, Adams called this act "the most magnificent movement of all." See Boston Tea Party.

National politics. In 1774, in response to the Tea Party, the British government passed several laws that became known as the Intolerable Acts (see Intolerable Acts). Under these laws, the British shut down the port of Boston and suspended the Massachusetts government. Massachusetts called for representatives from each colony to meet in Philadelphia. Adams was one of the four Massachusetts delegates at this meeting, later called the First Continental Congress. He and a few other men wanted to seek independence from Britain, but he knew it was too early to propose such drastic action.

Adams's influence had grown by the time the Second Continental Congress met in 1775. By this time, war had begun, and Adams argued forcefully that the colonies should be independent. He persuaded Congress to organize the 16,000 militiamen of New England as the Continental Army. He also helped bring about the appointment of George Washington as commander in chief.

Beginning in 1776, Adams served as chairman of the Continental Board of War and Ordnance. He also worked on a committee appointed to draft a plan for treaties with European powers, especially with France. Adams later wrote: "I was incessantly employed through the whole fall, winter, and spring of 1775 and 1776, in Congress during their sittings, and on committees in the mornings and evenings, and unquestionably did more business than any other member of the house."

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a resolution to Congress declaring that "these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Adams seconded the resolution. Congress chose him to be a member of the committee to prepare a declaration of independence. Adams urged Thomas Jefferson to draft the document. Adams defended the Declaration in the stormy debate that followed in Congress.

Diplomat. Early in 1778, Congress sent Adams to Paris to help Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee strengthen American ties with France and other European nations. Adams arrived in Paris to find that treaties had already been signed with France. He noted that friction had developed among the American ministers, and wrote to Congress proposing that one person take charge of affairs in France. Congress chose Franklin, and Adams sailed home in 1779.

Upon his return to Massachusetts, the people of Braintree elected Adams to the convention that framed a state constitution. Adams wrote almost all the constitution, which had a detailed bill of rights. The document also included a separation of powers that divided the government into three branches—the governor, the legislature, and the courts. In such a system, each branch can use its powers to check and balance (exercise control over) the other two. It would be a “government of laws, and not of men,” Adams wrote. Many other states, and later, the United States, adopted features of this Massachusetts Constitution of 1780. It is the oldest still-functioning written constitution in the world.

During the Massachusetts constitutional convention, Congress appointed Adams to negotiate treaties of peace and trade with Great Britain. He sailed for Paris, and arrived in February 1780. But the British were not prepared to negotiate. Adams then went to the Netherlands to seek diplomatic and commercial support for the American war effort. After two years of hard work, he obtained recognition of the United States as a sovereign (independent) power. He also obtained a loan of about $1,400,000 for the United States. Adams's mission to the Netherlands ranks among his greatest diplomatic achievements.

In the fall of 1782, Adams joined John Jay and Benjamin Franklin in Paris to meet British and French representatives and arrange a peace treaty. Adams and Jay distrusted the French foreign minister, Count de Vergennes. They feared he would sacrifice American interests to gain advantages for France and its ally, Spain. As a result, the Americans departed from their instructions and negotiated with the British without informing Vergennes of each step taken. Franklin smoothed over affairs with France after the British and Americans had agreed on peace terms.

British and American commissioners signed a preliminary peace treaty on Nov. 30, 1782. The document was signed again in Paris on Sept. 3, 1783, as the final peace treaty. Adams made sure that the United States kept fishing rights in North Atlantic waters. He also arranged provisions recommending amnesty (a general pardon) for Americans who had remained loyal to the British. During the next two years, Adams negotiated another Dutch loan and served in Paris on a commission to negotiate trade treaties with many European governments. He was proud when the French called him "the Washington of negotiations."

In 1785, Congress named Adams the first U.S. minister to Great Britain. He hoped to negotiate treaties that would encourage trade with Britain. But the British treated Adams coolly, and they made it clear that they would not relax their harsh trade policies. Adams eventually asked to be recalled, and returned home in 1788 after almost 10 years abroad.

Vice president. Adams had been home only a few months when he was elected vice president. At that time, every elector voted for two men for the presidency. The man who ran second became vice president. Each of the 69 electors voted for George Washington, and 34 gave their second vote to Adams.

Adams later wrote that the vice presidency was "the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived." Washington relied on others for policy advice, and Adams was left to a vice president's duties—presiding over Senate debates in which he could not participate. Adams proposed giving the president what he thought was a more suitable title—”His High Mightiness, the President of the United States and Defender of their Liberties”—which earned him ridicule and raised suspicions that Adams favored a monarchy.

The French Revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, divided Americans. Many saw the French pursuit of liberty, equality, and fraternity as an extension of the American Revolution. Others feared the overthrow of established order and the anarchy (lawlessness) that might result. In reaction to the events in France, Adams wrote a series of newspaper articles called Discourses on Davila.Many readers thought these articles indicated that he had become much more conservative in his political views. Old friends, such as Thomas Jefferson, felt he had become too fond of kingly rule and too distrustful of popular government.

Washington and Adams were reelected to second terms as president and vice president, returning to office in 1793. Two political groups began to form in response to the French Revolution, and to Washington's policies. Adams and Alexander Hamilton led a group that favored a strong federal government. This group, known as the Federalists, supported Washington's policies. James Madison and Thomas Jefferson led the Democratic-Republicans (called Republicans at the time, though later to become the Democratic Party) in fighting for strong states' rights. Jefferson resigned as secretary of state in 1793 because he disapproved of the growing dominance of Hamilton in the Cabinet.

By the time Washington refused in 1796 to seek a third term, the two parties had become well defined. The Federalists supported Adams for the presidency, and the Democratic-Republicans nominated Jefferson. Adams received only three more votes than Jefferson did, and the two rivals thus became president and vice president.

John Adams's vice president and Cabinet

Adams's administration (1797-1801)

The Federalist split. During Adams's four years as president, the government faced many problems at home. Relations with European nations were also unsettled. To make his task more difficult, Adams could not count on the support of his party or his Cabinet. Disagreement over foreign policy split the Federalist Party into two groups. Adams led the more moderate of these groups. The other was led by Alexander Hamilton, who had left the Cabinet and returned to private life before Adams became president.

Difficulties with France. The French Revolution caused most of the problems that faced Adams. President Washington had insisted that neutrality was the best policy in case of a war in Europe. But, in the wars following the French Revolution, European warships attacked American ships. France and Great Britain claimed the right to seize American vessels. The United States was forced to protect itself, and the government launched several new warships, including the Constitution ("Old Ironsides").

The United States also became involved in the European wars on philosophical grounds. Jefferson believed that the French Revolution was a people's movement, like the American Revolution. His party sympathized with the French people, and wanted to aid them. But Hamilton led many Federalists in demanding a war against France. Adams was determined to keep the United States neutral, and deplored the policy of Hamilton and his followers. The split in the Federalist Party became irreparable.

One of Adams's first acts as president was to call a special session of Congress to consider ways of keeping peace. He sent ministers to France to work out a treaty. Three French diplomats offered to negotiate a pact if the United States would bribe Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord, the French foreign minister. This episode became known as the XYZ Affair, because the French diplomats were referred to by these initials instead of their names (see  XYZ Affair). The Americans ended the negotiations late in 1797.

The XYZ Affair caused great anger in the United States. People rallied to the cry of "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!" Congress began preparing for war with France. It established the Department of the Navy, ordered the construction of more warships, and summoned George Washington to command the Army. Neither nation declared war, but American and French ships fought many battles.

The Alien and Sedition Acts. The Federalists faced bitter criticism because of their opposition to France. Most of the criticism came from American citizens, but some of the critics were French. In 1798, the Federalists passed laws designed to limit this criticism. Two  Alien Acts gave the president authority to banish or imprison foreigners. The Sedition Act made it a crime to criticize the government, the president, or Congress. Adams never used the Alien Acts, but a number of journalists who supported Jefferson were arrested for violation of the Sedition Act. See  Alien and Sedition Acts.

These laws caused a storm of disapproval. Many people claimed they violated the guarantees of freedom of speech and of the press. Jefferson wrote the resolutions adopted by the Kentucky legislature declaring the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional (see Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions). Historians agree that the acts were unwise.

Adams and peace. Adams was still determined to keep peace. He again asked Talleyrand for a treaty. This time, Talleyrand was eager to negotiate, because he feared that the United States might join forces with Great Britain. Without consulting Congress, Adams sent a second commission to France. This act was the boldest of his career as president, and it lost him support in his own party. But he believed that avoiding war was the most important achievement of his administration.

Election of 1800. Hamilton strongly criticized Adams for not fighting France. This argument influenced many Federalist voters. The Democratic-Republicans denounced Adams for the Alien and Sedition Acts, and for hostility toward France. The Democratic-Republican presidential candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, received 73 electoral votes each. Adams received 65 electoral votes. Because Jefferson and Burr had tied, the House of Representatives chose the president. It selected Jefferson.

Late in 1800, the government had moved from Philadelphia to the new capital in Washington, D.C. Adams made appointments to government offices until his last day in office. One of his most important appointments was that of John Marshall as chief justice of the United States (see Marshall, John).

Life in the White House. President Adams moved into the White House just a few months before the end of his administration. In one of his first letters from the White House, John wrote to Abigail, “I pray Heaven to bestow the best of Blessings on this House and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise men ever rule under this roof.”

Original design for the White House

The unfinished Executive Mansion stood in isolated splendor amid a dismal, swampy landscape. Abigail Adams wrote to her sister: "As I expected to find it a new country, with houses scattered over a space of 10 miles, and trees and stumps in plenty with a castle of a house—so I found it." Only half a dozen rooms of the White House were finished. Mrs. Adams had to dry the laundry in the East Room, because no drying yard had been provided.

The unfinished condition of the White House made it hard to carry on official social functions. But John Adams and his wife worked to overcome their difficulties. As the first residents of the White House, they felt they should set a social tone appropriate to the home of the president. Mrs. Adams admired the courtly entertainments of Martha Washington and tried to follow her example.

Later yearsJohn Adams was nearly 66 years old when he left the White House. His defeat, and the death of his son Charles, grieved him so much that he refused to stay in Washington for Jefferson's inauguration. He hurried off for his home in Quincy on the morning of March 4, 1801. Adams devoted himself to farming, and to studying history, philosophy, and religion.After Jefferson left office, he and Adams renewed their friendship. These two great Americans from North and South had met in Congress in 1775. Their friendship cooled steadily after about 1790, because they differed on the meaning of the French Revolution. But they forgot their political quarrels after retiring from public life.By a remarkable coincidence, both men died on July 4, 1826. Adams died less than four months before his 91st birthday. His last words were: "Thomas Jefferson still survives." Adams was buried in Quincy, Massachusetts.

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Ford, Henry (1863-1947), was the leading manufacturer of American automobiles in the early 1900's. He established the Ford Motor Company, which revolutionized the automobile industry with its assembly line method of production. The savings from this technique helped Ford sell automobiles at a lower price than anyone else. From 1908 to 1927, more than half the cars sold in the United States were Fords.

Early life. Ford was born on July 30, 1863, on a farm in what is now Dearborn, Michigan. He became a machinist at the age of 16 and later worked as an engineer at a Detroit electric company. As a young man, Ford became interested in a new invention, automobiles. He built his first successful gasoline engine in 1893 and his first automobile in 1896.

Henry Ford Henry Ford makes an affordable automobile

Industrial accomplishments. In 1903, Ford organized the Ford Motor Company. Like other automobile companies, Ford produced only expensive cars. However, Ford soon began working to make a simple, sturdy car that large numbers of people would be able to afford. He achieved one of the first such cars with the Model T, which appeared in 1908. In 1909, Ford decided to produce only Model T's.

Priced from $825 to $1,000, the Model T was initially too expensive for many customers. To lower the price, Ford and his executives tried new ways to reduce production costs. For example, the company created an assembly line method in which conveyor belts brought automobile parts to workers. Each worker performed a particular task, such as adding or tightening a part. This system helped reduce the assembly time of a Ford automobile from about 12 1/2worker-hours in 1912 to about 1 1/2 worker-hours in 1914.

Ford Motor Company began to produce its own parts instead of buying them from independent suppliers at a higher price. Ford also shipped automobile parts, rather than assembled automobiles, to market areas, where assembly plants put the parts together. Parts cost less to ship than whole automobiles did. In addition, the company began to make its own glass and steel.

As the company's production costs fell, Ford passed much of the savings on to his customers. The price of a Model T touring car dropped to $550 in 1913, $440 in 1915, and $290 in 1924, putting the automobile within reach of the average family.

In 1914, Ford raised the minimum wage to $5 a day for his employees 22 years of age and over. This rate was more than twice what most wage earners received. Ford also reduced the workday from 9 to 8 hours. Workers flocked to Ford plants seeking jobs, and Ford could choose the hardest-working and smartest ones. To encourage productivity, Ford introduced a profit-sharing plan, which set aside part of the company's profits for its employees.

Ford Model T 1921

During the mid-1920's, Ford continued to produce the Model T even though its popularity had declined. Meanwhile, the General Motors Corporation (GM) gained an increasing share of the U.S. automobile market. GM offered a wide variety of models equipped with many luxuries. GM also introduced new designs yearly and advertised its cars as symbols of wealth and taste. Ford, however, continued to offer only basic transportation at a low cost. The Model T changed little from year to year, and from 1914 to 1925, it came in only one color, black.

Ford finally introduced a new automobile design, the Model A, in 1927, after more than 15 million Model T's had been sold. In 1932, Ford introduced the first low-priced car with a  V-8 engine, a powerful engine that had eight cylinders arranged in a V-shaped pattern. By that time, however, GM had taken the lead from Ford Motor in U.S. auto sales. Ford Motor declined throughout the 1930's, and some people began to question Henry Ford's management skills. In 1945, Henry Ford II, one of Ford's grandsons, took over the company.

Political and charitable activities. Ford had long taken an interest in political affairs. In 1915, during World War I, he and about 170 other people traveled to Europe at his expense to seek peace. The group, which lacked approval by the U.S. government, failed to persuade the warring nations to settle their differences.

In 1918, the year the war ended, Ford ran as a Democrat for a Senate seat from Michigan. He lost the election and did not seek public office again, but he continued to speak on political issues. Ford was anti-Semitic (prejudiced against Jews). He published newspapers and books that attacked Jews. He also opposed labor unions. He fought attempts by the United Automobile Workers (UAW) to organize his employees.

Ford devoted much time and money to educational and charitable works. He established Greenfield Village and the Henry Ford Museum, both in Dearborn. The village is a group of restored historical buildings. The museum includes exhibits in science, industry, and art. In 1936, Ford and his son, Edsel, set up the Ford Foundation, one of the world's largest foundations, which gives grants for education, research, and development.

Ford wrote four books with author Samuel Crowther. They are My Life and Work(1922), Today and Tomorrow (1926), Edison As I Know Him (1930), and Moving Forward (1931). Ford died on April 7, 1947.

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Keller, Helen (1880-1968), is an outstanding example of a person who conquered physical disabilities. A serious illness, which her doctor called "acute congestion of the stomach and brain," destroyed her sight and hearing at the age of about 1 1/2. Because of this, she could not speak and was entirely shut off from the world. But she rose above her disabilities to gain international fame and to help disabled people live fuller lives.

For almost five years, she grew up, as she later said, "wild and unruly, giggling and chuckling to express pleasure; kicking, scratching, uttering the choked screams of the deaf-mute to indicate the opposite." Then Helen's father took her to Alexander Graham Bell. He advised Keller to write to the Perkins Institution for the Blind in Boston (now Perkins School for the Blind in Watertown, Massachusetts). Shortly before the child was 7, Anne Sullivan arrived from Boston to teach her. Sullivan had been nearly blind during childhood, but surgery in 1881 and 1887 partially restored her sight. She later married John A. Macy, but she remained with Helen Keller until her death. Then Mary Agnes "Polly" Thomson, who had been Keller's secretary, took Sullivan's place.

She learns to write. Sullivan was able to make contact with the girl's mind through the sense of touch. She used a manual alphabet by which she spelled out words on Helen's hand. Gradually, the child was able to connect words with objects. Once she understood, her progress was rapid. Within three years, she knew the alphabet and could read and write in braille.

She learns to speak. Until she was 10 years old, Keller could talk only with sign language. She decided she would learn to speak and took lessons from a teacher of the deaf. By the time she was 16, she could communicate well enough to go to preparatory school and to college. She chose Radcliffe, from which she graduated in 1904 with honors. Sullivan stayed with her through these years, interpreting lectures and class discussions for her.

She helps others. After college, Keller became concerned with the conditions of the blind and the deaf-blind. She became active on the staffs of the American Foundation for the Blind and of the American Foundation for Overseas Blind. She appeared before legislatures, gave lectures, and wrote many books and articles. She started the Helen Keller Endowment Fund and asked for funds from wealthy people.

Keller became especially interested in bettering conditions for the blind in developing and war-ravaged nations. An enthusiastic and untiring traveler, she lectured in their behalf in over 25 nations throughout the world. During World War II (1939-1945), Keller worked with soldiers who had been blinded in the war. Wherever she appeared, she brought new courage to blind people.

Keller received many awards of great distinction. They included the Chevalier's ribbon of the French Legion of Honor, the Alumni Achievement Award of Radcliffe College, and decorations from many governments.

Keller's books have been translated into more than 50 languages. They includeThe Story of My Life (1902); Optimism (1903); The World I Live In (1908); The Song of the Stone Wall (1910); Out of the Dark (1913); My Religion (1929); andMidstream: My Later Life (1930). Teacher (1955) tells of Sullivan. The motion picture Helen Keller in Her Story told the story of Keller's life. The play The Miracle Worker (1959) and its motion-picture adaptation (1962) described how Sullivan made contact with Keller through the sense of touch. Helen Adams Keller was born on June 27, 1880, in Tuscumbia, Alabama. She died on June 1, 1968.

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Wright brothers invented and built the first successful airplane. The brothers were Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-1948). On Dec. 17, 1903, they made the world's first controlled flight in a machine that was piloted, power driven, and heavier than air. They flew this airplane—called the  Flyer—near Kitty Hawk,North Carolina. With Orville at the controls, the plane flew 120 feet (37 meters) on the first flight. It stayed in the air 12 seconds. The brothers made three more flights that day. The longest, by Wilbur, was 852 feet (260 meters) in length and lasted 59 seconds.

For years afterward, most people knew nothing of the Wright brothers’ achievement. A few newspapers reported on the Wrights. But the stories were often inaccurate. Many people at the time doubted that flying machines could even exist.

In any case, the Wrights preferred to work quietly, perfecting their airplane and developing flight technique. By 1905, they had created a practical flying machine that could travel dozens of miles. Every modern airplane is based on the Wright brothers’ invention and the principles of flight they discovered.

Orville Wright

Early lifeWilbur was born April 16, 1867, on a farm 8 miles (13 kilometers) from New Castle, Indiana. Orville was born Aug. 19, 1871, in Dayton, Ohio. Their father was a bishop of the United Brethren Church. The boys attended high school. But neither received a diploma. Wilbur did not bother to attend graduation ceremonies. Orville took special subjects rather than a set course in his final year.The subject of mechanics fascinated the Wrights even as children. Their mother encouraged them to experiment and to learn as much as they could on their own. Orville started a printing business in 1889. He built his own press. The Wrights later launched a weekly paper, the  West Side News. Wilbur served as editor. He was age 25 and Orville 21 when they began to rent and sell  bicycles. Then they began to manufacture bikes. They assembled the machines in a room above their shop.

Wilbur Wright

Gliding experimentsAfter reading about the death of glider pioneer Otto Lilienthal in 1896, the brothers became interested in flying. They began studying the subject in 1899. They soon became familiar with all the scientific knowledge of aeronautics then available. The most important problem to solve, they thought, was how to control an airplane in flight. In 1899, the brothers built a kite to test ideas for control. Then they decided to build a full-sized glider.Gliding experimentsEarly gliders. The Wrights experimented with gliders on a narrow strip of sand called 🤬 🤬 Hills near Kitty Hawk. In 1900, they tested their first glider. It measured 16 feet (5 meters) from wing tip to wing tip.The brothers returned to Kitty Hawk in 1901 with a larger glider. They showed that they could control the craft’s balance from side to side by tilting the tips of the right and left wings at different angles to the wind. But their wings did not generate enough lifting force.

Orville Wright pilots glider

Piloted glider. The Wrights concluded that all published tables of air pressures on curved surfaces must be wrong. They set up a 6-foot (1.8-meter) long wind tunnel in their shop. The brothers tested more than 200 model wings in the tunnel. From the test results, the brothers created the first reliable tables of air pressures on curved surfaces. These tables made it possible to design wings that would produce enough lift to support a person’s weight.

The brothers built a third glider and took it to Kitty Hawk in the summer of 1902. With this glider, they solved most of the problems of balance and control in flight. They made nearly 1,000 piloted glides. On some glides, they covered distances of more than 600 feet (180 meters). Their basic patent, applied for in 1903, relates to the control system on the 1902 glider.

Invention of the airplaneBy the end of 1903, the Wrights had built a powered flying machine for less than $2,000—about the cost of a new car in 1903. It had wings about 40 1/2 feet (12 meters) long. It weighed about 750 pounds (340 kilograms) with the pilot. The Wrights designed and built their own lightweight gasoline engine for the airplane.First powered flights. On Dec. 17, 1903, the Wrights made four successful flights at Kitty Hawk. Their glider experiments had proved the airplane's design and control system to be sound. The brothers had also become skilled pilots. Their understanding of flight physics and their piloting ability set them apart from most others who tried—and failed—to fly powered airplanes.Further experiments. The Wrights continued their experiments at a field near their hometown of Dayton in 1904 and 1905. In 1904, they made 105 flights. The longest two flights lasted five minutes each.The brothers continued to change and improve the design of their flying machine. Then, on Oct. 5, 1905, the machine flew 24.2 miles (38.9 kilometers) in 38 minutes 3 seconds. The Wrights finally believed they had a practical flying machine they could sell.

Promoting airplane technologyWhen the Wrights first offered their machine to the U.S. government, they were not taken seriously. But by 1908, they had a contract with the U.S. Department of War for the first military airplane. They also had buyers in Europe. Meanwhile, the brothers resumed experimental flights near Kitty Hawk. Their newest machines could carry two people. Newspapers reported the flights at great length, but not always accurately.Immediately after these test flights, Wilbur went to France. He made flights to altitudes of 300 feet (90 meters) and more. The flights captivated thousands of people in France. Wilbur made a deal with a French company to construct his machine there.Exhibitions and accident. While Wilbur was in France, Orville made successful flights in the United States. On the morning of Sept. 9, 1908, he made 57 complete circles at an altitude of 120 feet (37 meters) over the drill field at Fort Myer, Virginia. He remained in the air for 1 hour 2 minutes. He set several records the same day.On September 17, however, disaster struck. While Orville was flying at 75 feet (23 meters), a blade of the right-hand propeller struck and loosened a wire of the rear rudder. The wire coiled around the blade and snapped it across the middle. The machine became difficult to control and plunged to the ground. Orville suffered a broken thigh and two broken ribs. His passenger, Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge, suffered a fractured skull. Selfridge died within three hours.This accident was the most serious in the Wright brothers' career. Orville reappeared at Fort Myer the next year, fully recovered. He completed official tests with no sign of nervousness.When Wilbur returned to the United States, he made demonstration flights from Governors Island in New York City. He flew around the Statue of Liberty, up to Grant's Tomb in northern Manhattan, and back.Wright Company. In August 1909, the Wrights reached a contract with some wealthy men in Germany. They formed the German-Wright Company. Later that year, they formed the Wright Company in New York City to manufacture airplanes. The brothers earned some money from their companies. But they were troubled by imitators, infringements on their patents, conflicting claims, and lawsuits.In 1910, the Wrights established a flying school. Students at the school included such famous aviators as Henry H. "Hap" Arnold, Walter Brookins, and Marjorie Stinson. The Wright brothers also formed their own team of exhibition pilots. The team demonstrated their airplane all over the country.

Later life and legacyWilbur died of typhoid fever on May 30, 1912. He died just as the airplane was beginning to make great advances. Orville worked on alone. In 1913, Orville won an aviation award called the Collier Trophy. He won the trophy for developing a device called an  automatic stabilizer that helps airplanes keep balance. Orville sold his interest in the Wright Company and retired in 1915.Orville continued work on the development of aviation in his own shop, the Wright Aeronautical Laboratory. In 1929, he received the first Daniel Guggenheim Medal, an aeronautics award, for his and Wilbur's contributions to flight. Orville died on Jan. 30, 1948.Wilbur was elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans in New York City in 1955. Orville was elected in 1965. They were the first two individuals named to the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1962.Orville had sent the brothers’ original plane flown near Kitty Hawk to the Science Museum in  London in 1928. The Science Museum returned the plane to the United States in 1948. It is now in the National Air and Space Museum inWashington, D.C. The 🤬 🤬 Hills Monument National Memorial in North Carolina became the Wright Brothers National Memorial in 1953.

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PebbleGo's first Spanish language module! Translated by a team of Spanish language professionals, each article features both Spanish text and read-aloud audio recorded by professional voice over artists.

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The election of a Republican president in 1860 provoked the Southern states of the United States to secede from the Union. The break led to four tragic years of civil war. In this time ofgrave crisis it at first seemed unfortunate that the American people had not chosen a more experienced leader. Yet the tall, awkward man from Illinois who took the presidential oath proved equal to his enormous responsibilities. Gradually, as the war progressed, Abraham Lincoln placed the mark of his greatness upon American history. He guided the nation through the perils of war to peace and reunion. He struck the fatal blow at slavery. And he reaffirmed the dignity of free people in language of simple beauty.

Death came to Lincoln with dramatic violence before his work was done. But death only hastened his elevation to a place beside George Washington in the memory and gratitude ofhis country.

Early Years

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a crude log cabin near present-day Hodgenville, Kentucky. His parents, who already had a little daughter named Sarah, were hardworking, uneducated pioneers. They probably saw nothing unusual about their son, except that he grew unusually fast. Thomas Lincoln, Abraham's father, was a man of ordinary abilities. His ambition apparently did not extend beyond owning a good farm. Of Abraham's mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln, little is known. She and her two small children experienced the usual hardships and few pleasures of pioneer life.

In December 1816, the Lincolns packed their belongings and moved about 100 miles (160 kilometers) to southwestern Indiana. They spent part of that winter living in a rough shelter with an open side. A forest full of wild game surrounded their lonely new home. Lincoln later remembered watching for bears and listening at night to a "panther's scream." Once he shot a turkey. But from then on, he never killed another animal.

In the spring, Abraham, now 8 years old, began to help his father in the hard daily labor ofpioneering. They had to clear the land of trees, plant crops, build a permanent cabin, and split rails for fences. Lincoln became skillful in the use of the ax. But he never cared much for hunting and fishing. He acquired no love for the life of a farmer. It seemed to be all heavy toil with small reward.

The saddest days of Lincoln's childhood came in 1818, when his mother died. Lincoln's life was changed forever. The following year Thomas Lincoln married Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow with three children of her own. A deep bond of friendship grew between the boy and his stepmother. She would live to see him become president. But his beloved sister, Sarah, would not. She died in 1828 following childbirth.

Much of Lincoln's learning was the practical kind that boys picked up from their work and play in a backwoods community. He attended school, in his own words, "by littles." By this he meant only occasionally and for just a few weeks at a time. But he soon knew more than his parents about reading, writing, and arithmetic.

School was probably what was known as a "blab school." Pupils studied their lessons aloud, and the noise could be heard some distance away. Lincoln later said that his total schooling did not amount to more than one year. But he read whatever books he could find. At home there was the Bible, and he walked long distances to borrow books like Robinson Crusoe, Aesop's Fables, and Weems's Life of Washington. In the process, Lincoln not only educated himself but became a master of the English language.

Young Man in Illinois

In 1830 the Lincolns moved again, this time to Illinois. They traveled in ox-drawn wagons, with Abraham as one of the drivers. They built a cabin near Decatur. Dissatisfied there, Thomas Lincoln moved a year later to Coles County. But this time his son did not go along. Abraham Lincoln was now 22 years old. He stood 6 feet 4 inches (193 centimeters) tall, an astonishing height for a man of his time. He was thin but physically strong. He still had no definite ambition but was ready to start life on his own.

A few years earlier, Lincoln had made a trip to New Orleans as a hired hand on a Mississippi River flatboat. Now, in the spring of 1831, he undertook a similar journey down the Mississippi. On his return he became a storekeeper in New Salem, Illinois. His friendliness, honesty, and talent for storytelling soon made him a popular local figure. He decided to enter politics. In March 1832 he announced his candidacy for the state legislature.

At this point the Black Hawk War, an Indian war, began in northern Illinois. Lincoln volunteered and served for three months, first as the elected captain of his own company, then as a private under other commanders. But he engaged in no actual fighting. Back home by July, he had only a few weeks for his political campaign. Election day brought defeat. However, Lincoln was encouraged by the fact that he had run 8th in a field of 13 candidates.

Lincoln and a partner then opened a store in New Salem. Lincoln also became the village postmaster. The store was a failure, so he took up surveying to earn a living and pay his debts.

State Legislator and Lawyer

In 1834 the 24-year-old Lincoln ran once more for the state legislature. This time he was successful. Illinois voters would re-elect him for three more terms. It was also in 1834 that Lincoln began to study law. Here again he educated himself, reading borrowed law books in his spare time, and he passed the bar examination two years later. Soon after, he moved to Springfield, the new state capital, where he began his law practice.

For the next 24 years, with one brief interruption, Lincoln practiced law in Springfield. He did not grow wealthy but always earned a comfortable living. Fair and conscientious, he gave clients a feeling of confidence. His greatest asset in court was the ability to go directly to the heart of a matter. Long before the presidential election of 1860, Lincoln had become one ofthe most distinguished lawyers in Illinois.

In 1844, Lincoln began his lasting partnership with William H. Herndon. Although ten years younger than Lincoln, Herndon proved to be an excellent choice. The two worked well together in both law and politics. Herndon's biography of his famous partner, known as Herndon's Lincoln, written many years later, is one of the classics of Lincoln literature.

Husband and Father

A famous legend tells of a romance Lincoln had with a young woman named Ann Rutledge, whom he met in New Salem. Lincoln was deeply saddened when Ann died in 1835. But there is no reliable evidence that they were ever in love with each other.

Later on in Springfield, Lincoln met Mary Todd. She came from a prominent family in Kentucky.Mary was a popular girl in local society—attractive, high-spirited, and intelligent, but somewhat temperamental. They became engaged in 1840. But Lincoln then suffered a long period ofdoubt and melancholy, so he broke off their engagement. They later reconciled and were married on November 4, 1842.

Mary Todd Lincoln was a loyal and supportive wife who encouraged her husband's ambitions.Their marriage had its difficulties, but on the whole they were happy together. In 1844, Lincoln bought a house, which still stands at Eighth and Jackson streets in Springfield. There the Lincolns lived until they departed for Washington, D.C., in 1861.

Four children, all boys, were born to them. Lincoln was a loving and indulgent parent, but his frequent absences from home on his law practice placed the upbringing of the boys largely in Mary's hands. Robert, the oldest, later served as a secretary of war under two presidents.Edward (Eddie) died at the age of 4. William (Willie) died in the White House when he was 11.Thomas, nicknamed Tad, survived his father but died in 1871 at the age of 18.

Congressman

In the Illinois legislature, Lincoln became a member of the Whig Party. Its most prominent national leaders then were Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and Senator Daniel Webster ofMassachusetts. Lincoln's major interest at this time was the promotion of better transportation facilities for his state. He soon advanced to the front rank of Illinois Whigs. By 1842 he had emerged as a candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives. Two other men claimed the party's nomination, however, and Lincoln had to wait his turn. Finally, in 1846, he was elected to a seat in Congress.

Lincoln's congressional term began in December 1847, when the Mexican War was nearing its conclusion. Soon after taking his seat, he joined the Whig attack upon the war policy ofPresident James K. Polk, a Democrat. Lincoln also introduced a bill for the gradual emancipation, or freeing, of slaves in the District of Columbia, but it got nowhere. He was careful and hardworking, but on the whole, his two years as a congressman were undistinguished.

Lincoln's criticism of the Mexican War was unpopular in Illinois, and he was not renominated for Congress. He then campaigned for Zachary Taylor, a fellow Whig, in his race for the presidency, helping Taylor win election in 1848. Offered the governorship of the Oregon Territory as a reward, Lincoln declined the appointment and resumed the practice of law. His political career had apparently reached a dead end.

The Republican Party

Several years went by, and then in 1854 came a decisive turn of events. Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, one of the leaders of the Democratic Party, secured passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The measure created the two new federal territories of Kansas and Nebraska and left it up to the people there to decide whether to permit or exclude slavery, a doctrine known as popular sovereignty. The measure set aside the Missouri Compromise, which had limited the expansion of slavery.

Throughout the North there were angry protests against the Kansas-Nebraska Act from many Democrats and from most Whigs, including Lincoln. He had long considered slavery morally wrong, yet he respected the constitutional rights of slaveholders. If slavery could just be prevented from expanding, Lincoln reasoned, it might eventually die away in the Southern states. To such hopes the Kansas-Nebraska Act was a serious blow.

Those opposed to slavery's expansion began to form a political alliance. Lincoln became a leader of this "anti-Nebraska" movement in Illinois. In 1856, with the Whig Party breaking up, he helped organize the various anti-Nebraska groups into the Republican Party of Illinois. At the Republican National Convention in June 1856, Lincoln received strong support for the vice presidency. Although he did not win the nomination, he campaigned vigorously for the new party's presidential candidate, John C. Frémont, who was defeated by Democrat James Buchanan.

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates

In 1858, Illinois Republicans nominated Lincoln to run for the U.S. Senate seat then held by Stephen Douglas. In accepting the nomination, Lincoln made his famous House Divided speech. "A house divided against itself cannot stand," he said. "I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free." Lincoln believed that, in time, slavery would have to end.

The high points of the campaign were a series of debates between the candidates, held in seven Illinois cities and towns. Of the two men, Douglas was far better known at the time. He was a national figure, while Lincoln was little known outside his own state.

Underlying the debates was the momentous issue of slavery. Both men emphasized their basic principles. Lincoln's was that slavery was wrong because it denied men the rights stated in the Declaration of Independence. He stressed the point, however, that he did not intend to interfere with slavery in the states where it legally existed but that he opposed its expansion.Douglas' position was that democratic self-government, as expressed in his policy of popular sovereignty, was more important than slavery itself.

Large crowds attended the debates, and newspapers all over the country reported on the campaign. The election itself was very close, but Douglas emerged as the winner. Lincoln's reaction was that, politically, he would now be forgotten. In this he was to be proved wrong.See Stephen A. Douglas, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the Missouri Compromise.

The Presidental Campaign of 1860

In spite of his own feeling, the defeat did not hurt Lincoln politically. The debates with Douglas had brought him national attention, and before long he was being mentioned as a presidential prospect. During the next two years he gained further recognition by making speeches in many states. The climax of his efforts was an address delivered in February 1860, at Cooper Union in New York City. When the Republican National Convention met in Chicago in May 1860, Lincoln had more support than any other candidate except the favorite, William H. Seward ofNew York. Seward took the lead in the first round of balloting, but then Lincoln pulled almost even, and on the third ballot he was nominated for the presidency. (Lincoln would later appoint Seward to his cabinet as secretary of state.)

Meanwhile, the Democrats were split over the slavery issue. The Northern Democrats nominated Douglas. The Southerners chose John C. Breckinridge. Still another candidate, John Bell, was put forward by a remnant of the Whigs called the Constitutional Union Party. Thus Lincoln had three opponents in the race. Following the custom of the time, he did no active campaigning himself but directed strategy quietly from Springfield.

Out of the South came ominous warnings that Lincoln's election would mean the end of the Union. At the polls on November 6, only about 40 percent of the ballots were cast for Lincoln.But since most of them were concentrated in the heavily populated free states, he won a clear majority of the electoral votes. The Republican Party had elected its first president.

Secession and Civil War

South Carolina promptly seceded from the Union, in December 1860. When efforts at compromise failed, six other Southern states followed its example. Together they formed the Confederate States of America. All this happened before Lincoln became president on March 4, 1861. In his inaugural address he pleaded for harmony and insisted that the Union could not be dissolved. He hoped for a peaceful solution but was prepared to risk war rather than see the nation permanently divided.

The critical spot was Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. This was one of the few places within the Confederacy still held by Federal troops. Lincoln, proceeding cautiously, planned to send supplies but not reinforcements to the garrison there. Early in the morning ofApril 12, however, Southerners opened fire on the fort and soon forced its surrender. Lincoln immediately proclaimed a blockade of the Confederacy and issued a call for volunteers to suppress the rebellion. This provoked the secession of four more Southern states. As spring gave way to summer, both sides were preparing hastily for war.

War President

From the beginning, Lincoln understood the essential nature of the Civil War better than most of his generals. The Confederacy could gain independence merely by defending itself successfully. However, the Union forces had to conquer the enemy in order to win. Most of the material advantages were with the North. It had greater manpower, wealth, and industrial strength. Lincoln's task was to mobilize Northern superiority and make it effective on the battlefield. He favored pressing forward on several fronts to prevent the Confederates from concentrating their defenses. He also believed that the primary aim of Union strategy should be the destruction of Southern armies rather than the capture of Southern cities like Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital. In the early part of the war, however, Lincoln was unable to find a general capable of maintaining an offensive against the great Confederate general Robert E. Lee.

The Battle of Bull Run in July 1861 was only the first of many Union defeats and disappointments on the Virginia front. More successful in the West, Union forces captured New Orleans and were gaining control of the lower Mississippi. At the end of 1862, however, the war was obviously still far from over.

Although military affairs occupied much of his attention, Lincoln had many other presidential duties to perform. On the whole he was content to allow his cabinet members a free hand in the administration of their departments. Among the important pieces of legislation that he signed were the Homestead Act, which provided free land in the West to settlers; the Pacific Railway Act; and the National Banking Act. His economic policies encouraged the rapid growth of the Union.

Emancipation

Despite his own strong antislavery feelings, Lincoln insisted at first that the purpose of the war was to save the Union, not to destroy slavery. But pressure from abolitionists, who demanded an immediate end to slavery, steadily increased, and the president decided that emancipation could be justified as a military measure to weaken the enemy. It would also make the Northern cause more noble in the eyes of the world. After announcing his intention in September 1862, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863.

Since it applied only to the areas still under Confederate control, the proclamation did not actually free blacks from bondage. Yet it was a symbol and a commitment that changed the nature of the war. From then on, everyone knew that a Northern victory would mean the end of slavery. Emancipation became complete and final with the 13th Amendment to the Constitution. Approved by Congress at Lincoln's urging, it was not ratified by a sufficient number of states until after his death. (See Emancipation Proclamation.)

Toward Victory

The responsibilities of his office and the mounting toll of battle casualties weighed heavily on Lincoln's spirit. For relaxation he swapped jokes, read books of humor, and went to the theater. In his more serious moments, however, he turned to Shakespeare and the Bible.Pondering the causes of the war, Lincoln came to believe that it was a divine punishment of all Americans for the sin of slavery.

The turning point of the war came in early July 1863. Lee's army, attempting a second invasion of the North, was defeated at the battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania. At the same time, General Ulysses S. Grant captured Vicksburg, the last important Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River.

Later that same year Lincoln helped dedicate the military cemetery at Gettysburg. His memorable address of only a few hundred words summoned the nation to complete the great task in which so many men had given "the last full measure of devotion…." (See Gettysburg Address.)

Early in 1864, Lincoln promoted Grant to the command of all Union armies. Grant then began the hard, bloody work of driving Lee back toward Richmond. At the same time, General William T. Sherman launched an invasion of Georgia. When his troops occupied Atlanta in September 1864, the war entered its final phase.

Meanwhile, the time for another presidential election had arrived. Lincoln, although opposed by some dissatisfied Republicans, won renomination without much trouble. The Democrats chose General George B. McClellan as their candidate, with a platform demanding immediate peace.For a time Lincoln despaired of victory, but Sherman's progress in Georgia helped his cause.Union soldiers voted overwhelmingly for Lincoln, and he was re-elected.

The Last Full Measure

As the Union armies pressed forward, Lincoln gave increasing attention to the problem ofrestoring peace when victory was achieved. It must be done, he said in his second inaugural address, "With malice toward none; with charity for all…." Desiring the speedy "reconstruction" of a united republic, he set forth a simple plan. Ten percent of the voters in a Confederate state, if they took an oath of allegiance to the United States, could organize a government and resume their old place in the federal union. By 1865 several states were putting the plan into operation. But strong opposition had developed in Congress. Many Republicans believed that such generosity was unrealistic. They felt that there should be more punishment for Southern traitors and more protection for freed slaves. The whole question of Reconstruction remained unsettled at the time of Lincoln's death.

On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. Throughout the North there were joyful celebrations. Five nights later, Lincoln and Mary attended a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington. There he was shot by John Wilkes Booth, an actor devoted to the Confederate cause.

Lincoln never regained consciousness and died the next morning, April 15. Booth escaped to Virginia but was later trapped by Union soldiers and killed. (See John Wilkes Booth.)

While the news of the assassination sped across the country, Vice President Andrew Johnson hastily took the oath of office as president. The war had ended, but the war leader had fallen.A crowd of mourners gathered at each railway station as the funeral train rolled westward toward the Illinois prairie, to Springfield, where Abraham Lincoln was buried.

It was a tragic ending but also a triumphant one, for Lincoln left behind a nation reunited and a people set free.

Don E. Fehrenbacher

Stanford University

Author

Prelude to Greatness: Lincoln in the 1850's

Reviewed by

Gabor S. Boritt

Author

The Lincoln Enigma: The Changing Faces of an American Icon

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Americans pay tribute to a leader’s legacy.

For many Americans, Martin Luther King Jr. Day isn’t just a "day off" from school or work. They will make it a "day on" and participate in community service projects in honor of Martin Luther King Jr. Day.

Library of Congress

The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King addresses a group of followers.

A Great Leader

King (1929-1968) was a famous civil rights leader. When King was growing up, the South was segregated, or separated by race. Black people did not have the same rights as white people. Under the law, they were not allowed to attend the same schools as white people and had to sit in the back seats of buses. Black people also had to use separate restrooms and drinking fountains.

When King was older, he worked to change those unjust laws. During the 1950s and 1960s, he gave speeches and organized peaceful marches and protests. Beginning in 1955, King led the famous Montgomery bus boycott. For 381 days, African Americans boycotted, or refused to use, public buses in the Alabama city. A year later, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregation on buses was illegal.

King gained national attention from the boycott and, in 1963, delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. He told a crowd of more than 200,000 people in Washington, D.C., that his dream was for all people to be treated fairly and equally under the law. As a result of his work, civil rights laws were passed. Those laws protect the rights of all Americans.

A Day of Service

Many people celebrate King’s legacy on Martin Luther King Jr. Day with parades and other events. The legacy of a leader is something he or she has accomplished that would benefit future generations. For King, that meant making the world a better place. Thousands more honor King by cleaning parks, volunteering at homeless shelters, and participating in other community service projects.

"Everybody can be great because everybody can serve," King once said. By taking part in community service projects, Americans are able to keep this leader’s dream alive.

A Civil Rights Hero: Martin Luther King Jr.

January 15, 1929:

Born in Atlanta, Georgia

August 28, 1963:

Delivers his "I Have a Dream" speech in Washington, D.C.

December 10, 1964:

Becomes the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize

April 4, 1968:

Is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee

January 20, 1986:

Martin Luther King Jr. Day first Observed as a national holiday

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Here\'s a educational videos for students watch this educational video for children with a Rosa Parks Biography. Delivering cartoons for kids this is a free cartoon online for schools, youth groups and more.\n\n-~-~~-~~~-~~-~-\nPlease watch: \

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Watch this cartoon for children introducing them to a few fun facts about Benjamin Franklin and learn with our cartoon network. Benjamin Franklin did so many great things in his life including helping out with the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and more.

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Here\'s everything you need to know about John Adams, the second President of the United States, in just 60 seconds. \n\nExplore the full Presidents collection on PBS LearningMedia: http://to.pbs.org/presidentslm and on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/user/60secondpresidents?sub_confirmation=1\n\n60-Second Presidents is a collaboration between PBS LearningMedia and PBS Digital Studios, and is produced by Kornhaber Brown.

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Susan B. Anthony is known in history as a leader in the women\'s suffrage movement. In this Susan B. Anthony Video for Kids Selena & Bird learn about her life with a mini bio on the school hologram machine.

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Celebrating Black History watch this cartoon for kids on Jackie Robinson. Jackie Robinson was the 1st African American to play Major League Baseball.

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In our Harriet Tubman Mini Biography watch a quick cartoon/video lesson on the Underground Railroad & Civil War Icon.

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Celebrate Black History Month with a mini biography on Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. for kids. Here\'s a cool way to start the conversation for elementary school, junior & high school students on an iconic Civil Rights Leader. \n\nDon\'t forget to SUBSCRIBE, LIKE, COMMENT AND SHARE!!!!\n\nFollow us online at:\nhttp://www.facebook.com/fresbergcartoon\nhttp://www.twitter.com/fresbergcartoon\nhttp://www.instagram.com/fresbergcartoon\nhttp://www.pinterest.com/fresbergcartoon\n\nVoice Actor:\nDon Franklin (Jeremiah)\n\nAnimated by Don Franklin\nWritten by Earl F.

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Here\'s a biography on Abraham Lincoln talking about history for kids. Our cartoon looks at the life of the 16th President, so fun on our Cartoon Network with Educational Videos for Students.\n\nOfficial Website: http://www.fresbergcartoon.com\nYoutube Channel: http://www.youtube.com/fresbergcartoon\nFacebook: http://www.facebook.com/fresbergcartoon\nFacebook: http://www.twitter.com/fresbergcartoon\n\n-~-~~-~~~-~~-~-\nPlease watch: \

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Frederick Douglass was a African American leader and an impact on slavery, the civil war and black history.

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Come hang out with us as we bring cartoons on Youtube for kids. In this Educational Cartoon watch this biography for Children and Women\'s History Month on Helen Keller.\n\nOfficial Website: http://www.fresbergcartoon.com\nYoutube Channel: http://www.youtube.com/fresbergcartoon\nFacebook: http://www.facebook.com/fresbergcartoon\nFacebook: http://www.twitter.com/fresbergcartoon\n\n-~-~~-~~~-~~-~-\nPlease watch: \

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Made for The Smithsonian Video Contest in 2014, The True Story of the Midnight Ride of Paul Revere is Stephen\'s second short animated short.

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Watch a Henry Ford biography for Children with famous inventors. Teaching about Henry ford for Kids in history, we talk about the man behind the Ford Motor company with free cartoons. This video/cartoon is great for sharing in elementary school, in after school programs and more.

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Paul Revere’s Ride by Henry Wadsworth LongfellowListen my children and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, On the eighteenth of April, in Seventy-five; Hardly a man is now alive Who remembers that famous day and year…A hurry of hoofs in a village street, A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark, And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet: That was all! And yet, through the gloom and the light, The fate of a nation was riding that night; And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight, Kindled the land into flame with its heat. He has left the village and mounted the steep….It was two by the village clock, When he came to the bridge in Concord town. He heard the bleating of the flock, And the twitter of birds among the trees, And felt the breath of the morning breeze Blowing over the meadow brown. And one was safe and asleep in his bed Who at the bridge would be first to fall, Who that day would be lying dead, Pierced by a British musket-ball.You know the rest. In the books you have read, How the British Regulars fired and fled,-- How the farmers gave them ball for ball, From behind each fence and farm-yard wall, Chasing the red-coats down the lane, Then crossing the fields to emerge again Under the trees at the turn of the road, And only pausing to fire and load.

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Paul Revere’s Ride by Henry Wadsworth LongfellowListen my children and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere, On the eighteenth of April, in Seventy-five; Hardly a man is now alive Who remembers that famous day and year…A hurry of hoofs in a village street, A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark, And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet: That was all! And yet, through the gloom and the light, The fate of a nation was riding that night; And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight, Kindled the land into flame with its heat. He has left the village and mounted the steep….It was two by the village clock, When he came to the bridge in Concord town. He heard the bleating of the flock, And the twitter of birds among the trees, And felt the breath of the morning breeze Blowing over the meadow brown. And one was safe and asleep in his bed Who at the bridge would be first to fall, Who that day would be lying dead, Pierced by a British musket-ball.You know the rest. In the books you have read, How the British Regulars fired and fled,-- How the farmers gave them ball for ball, From behind each fence and farm-yard wall, Chasing the red-coats down the lane, Then crossing the fields to emerge again Under the trees at the turn of the road, And only pausing to fire and load.

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On April 19, 1775, the American Revolution began. Before the first shots of war were fired, Paul Revere left Boston under a cloak of darkness. He rode his horse to nearby Lexington. Two leaders of the revolution, John Hancock and Samuel Adams, were hiding there. Adams had organized the Boston Tea Party. Hancock would eventually become the first signer of the Declaration of Independence. The British felt that they could squelch the revolution if they could capture these men. Revere was able to warn Hancock and Adams, and both men escaped before the British arrived.

As he galloped across the countryside to Lexington, Revere called out to any colonists that could hear him. He warned them that British soldiers were coming. The colonists had a militia. These troops could be ready in case of any sort of attack. They were called minutemen because they could prepare so quickly. Minutemen came from farms all over the countryside and gathered together in Lexington. The minutemen lined up and waited for the British to arrive in their red uniforms. The Redcoats came and the men stood facing each other for a few moments. No one moved. Then, the air burst with noise. A shot was fired. No one knows who fired first, but the war started. Shots resounded back and forth. Later, that first shot would be nicknamed the “shot heard ‘round the world.” The whole world was watching. They wanted to see what would happen to the colonies as they tried to battle one of the greatest countries in the world.

Years later, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote a poem about Paul Revere’s famous ride. The details of Longfellow’s poem are not completely accurate. Longfellow wanted to arouse patriotism rather than record history.

Read the excerpts below from this famous poem. How do they make you feel?

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'History in Five: Sally Ride, America's First Woman in Space' on ViewPure

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Learn more about Sally Ride at http://books.simonandschuster.com/Sally-Ride/Lynn-Sherr/9781476725765?mcd=vd_youtube_book Veteran ABC News and 20/20 reporter Lynn Sherr tells you five incredible things you should know about Sally Ride, America\'s first woman in space.

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Sally Ride always loved science and sports. In high school, she thought about becoming a tennis player. Her love of science won out, however. Ride went to college and studied physics, a branch of science.

In 1978, Ride saw an ad in a newspaper for an exciting job: astronaut! The position was at NASA, the United States government agency that runs the country’s space program. Eight thousand college students applied. Only twenty-five were accepted. Sally Ride was one of them.

While training at NASA, Ride helped develop a robotic arm to use in space. She went on her first space shuttle trip on June 18, 1983. She was the first American woman to travel in space. Flying on a rocket was dangerous and difficult. It took courage to fly into space. But when Sally Ride returned to Earth from her six-day shuttle trip, she said, “It was the most fun I’ll ever have in my life.”

Ride left NASA in 1987 to teach science. She later started her own company, Sally Ride Science. She wanted to excite girls and boys about working as scientists.

Sally Ride’s courage and dedication to science inspired people around the world.

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'Biography of Alexander Graham Bell for Children: Famous Inventors for Kids - FreeSchool' on ViewPure

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Alexander Graham Bell went down in history as the inventor of the telephone. He was born in Scotland in 1847, emigrated to Canada, then moved to the United States and became an American citizen.

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George Washington is regarded as the Father of Our Country. He guided America and helped it evolve into the nation that it is today. Before becoming President, Washington led the Continental Army to victory, winning American independence from Britain during the Revolutionary War. After the war ended, he was a key player at the convention that drafted the United States Constitution. Finally, as President, Washington’s leadership solved many problems. It showed people that the Constitution could work to govern a new nation.

America was a very different place back in Washington’s time. The nation was small and weak. There were only 11 states in the U.S. when Washington took office. When he left after two terms there were 16. The country only stretched as far as the Mississippi River. Most people farmed and struggled to make a living. Many children never went to school. Most adults could not read or write. Communication and transportation were slow and difficult. It took days for Washington to travel the distance covered in a couple of hours by car today.

Most Americans loved Washington for the way he handled hardship. As a general, he lost many battles and suffered greatly. Washington never gave up, even during the bitter winters when he and his troops had barely enough food or supplies to survive. Washington’s officers admired his loyalty and strength so much that they wanted to make him king. Washington refused.

Today, George Washington is honored in many ways. His face adorns America’s dollar bill and its quarter. Both Washington state and our nation’s capitol, Washington, D.C., are named after the first President. The bridge that stretches across the Hudson River from New Jersey to New York is named the George Washington Bridge. It is located exactly where Washington crossed the Hudson with his troops to defeat British forces. Perhaps one of Washington’s officers expressed America’s feelings about Washington best: “He was first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.”

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Alexander Graham Bell was in his laboratory, working on a device that would allow people to talk to one another through wires, even when they were not in the same room, or even the same city. Today, we take for granted that we can communicate in real time with people around the corner and around the globe. But in the 1870’s, when Bell was experimenting with his new project, such an idea was like a fantasy.

On March 10, 1876, that fantasy came to life. It is unclear what exactly unfolded that day, but one story says that while working on his voice transmitter, Bell accidentally knocked over a bottle of transmitting fluid, burning his skin. Instinctively, he called out to his assistant, Thomas Watson, to come help: “Mr. Watson. Come here. I want to see you.”

Watson heard those words and was startled. They had come crackling across the earpiece of what the two inventors had labeled the telephone. The experiment was successful. It was the first telephone call.

Alexander Graham Bell’s interest in communications devices traced back to his childhood in Edinburgh, Scotland. He was born on March 3, 1847 to a father who was an expert in speech production and a mother who was a gifted pianist despite being profoundly deaf. The perseverance and success of his mother in the face of such adversity taught young Alexander that problems were surmountable and that he could help people to overcome them.

From a young age, Alexander’s curiosity propelled him to find solutions to problems. When he was 12 years old, he came up with his first invention. While playing in a grain mill with a friend, he was frustrated by the lengthy time it took to remove the husk from the wheat grain. He went home, thought about it, and created a gadget that used rotating paddles and nail brushes to strip the husk off the grain. It was the first of dozens of varied devices that Bell would invent.

Bell’s curiosity and ingenuity were nurtured by his grandfather, a teacher of speech and elocution. When Bell was 15 years old, he went to live with and care for his grandfather, who was aging and ailing. The two grew very close, and the grandfather encouraged Alexander to pursue his inventive streak.

In 1870, the Bell family’s life changed rather abruptly when they moved to Canada. Bell’s two older brothers had died of tuberculosis, and Alexander’s health had been failing, too. His parents were convinced that America would be a healthier environment and moved, first to Ontario, Canada, then to Boston. Bell thrived. His health improved. Eventually, he began to tutor deaf students in Boston.

The parents of two of his students were excited by Bell’s idea to invent a device that transmitted multiple signals over a single wire. One of the parents learned, however, that another inventor, Elisha Gray, was working on a very similar project at the same time. To encourage Bell and to help rush his work along, the parent hired an electrician by the name of Thomas Watson to be Bell’s assistant. He hoped that between Bell’s clever ideas and Watson’s practical skills, the two men would succeed quickly. However, instead of focusing on a multiple-signal transmission device, Bell and Watson focused much of their time on a device to transmit the human voice over wires. To protect their experiment, Bell and Watson’s voice-transmitting device was registered with the United States patent office. Lewis Latimer, another inventor, helped Bell by drafting the drawings of the device for the patent. The patent was well timed: Gray attempted to file for his own “telephone” the very same day, but he was turned away because the idea was already protected and owned by Bell and his supporters.

On that March morning in 1876, Bell’s dream was achieved when the words “Mr. Watson. Come here. I want to see you” traveled from the room Bell was in to the room Watson was in across telephone wires. The two men took their incredible telephone device on the road, demonstrating its proficiency in city after city. The year after his telephone came to life, Bell married Mabel Hubbard, one of the deaf students whose fathers supported Bell’s dream of inventing the telephone.

Bell was challenged dozens of times in lawsuits by people trying to discredit his patent, especially by other inventors who claimed to have invented the telephone before him. He won every time. Bell created the Bell Telephone Company, and in the first 10 years of its existence, telephone ownership in the United States grew to more than 150,000 people. Bell improved the device over the years. For example, he added a microphone that amplified the voice. He also went on to invent and patent many other devices that would have pleased his mother because of the way they helped people to solve problems.

When Bell died on August 2, 1922 in Nova Scotia, Canada, the entire telephone system was shut down for one minute in tribute to the man who revolutionized communications