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Aristotle- 384-322 BC
Tutored By Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great, scientist and philosopher (also a bit of a racist)
Notable works: From poetics to science to philosophy and understanding the heavens. It's hard to summarise but most his work built the foundations of western society.

Plato- 427-347 BC (Approx)
One of the most influential western philosophers and well known for his progression mathematics, also a student of Socrates.
Notable works: His work "The Republic" is responsible for most of today's western ideas of maths,logic and love and how to best live a happy life.

Socrates- 470-399 BC
The father of western Philosophy in the sense that he created its foundations. Also he might not even exist!
Notable works: Inventing pedagogy, a teaching method used to this day, and contributing much to the fields of ethics as well creating Socratic irony and the Socratic method.

Epicurus- 347-270 BC
A philosopher concerned about making people live lives of happiness without suffering and also one of the first to start question the importance of religious beliefs and if they are necessary.
Notable works: Invention of Epicureanism.

Confucius- 551-479 BC
His teachings built on the golden principle of "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." (sorry Jesus) Love and self discipline was paramount in his philosophy which lead to great danger on his part.
Notable works: Founded Confucianism

Lao Tzu
The father of Taoism, which is viewed either or both philosophically or religiously, which involves being one with the Tao; the tao being the path i.e. life itself.
Notale works: Founder of Taoism

Siddhartha Gautama
Otherwise known as Buddha is the founder of buddhism and all its philosophies.
Notable works: Founder of Buddhism

Sun Tzu 544-496 BC
General and philosopher Sun tzu was Known for his understanding of war.
Notable works: "The art of war."

Rene Descartes 1596-1650 AD
Like a lot oh philosophers he was also a mathematician, his philosophies focused on the contemplation of the nature of existence leading to his famous quote "I think; therefore I am."
Notable works: Meditations on first philosophy.

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The Trolley Problem- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOpf6KcWYyw
Similar to "The ticking time bomb."
Questions: utilitarianism

The ship of Theseus- The ship of Theseus was constantly repaired, as soon as a piece of wood started to rot it was replaced, to the point that the entire boat was made of different wood to the wood that was used to build it in the first place. Is the ship still Theseus' ship?
Questions: Identity, labels.

The life you can save- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGczdp0SE0c&list=PLLiykcLllCgPE0q9BiMexLFj-1rq9GUwX&index=9
Questions: Why are people not charitable?

Kant's Axe- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x_uUEaeqFog&list=PLLiykcLllCgPE0q9BiMexLFj-1rq9GUwX&index=10
Questions: Ethics of lying.

Infinite Monkey theorem- The theory states that a monkey hitting keys at random on a typewriter keyboard for an infinite amount of time will almost surely type a given text, such as the complete works of William Shakespeare.
Questions: Probabilities and infinity.

The Chinese room- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TryOC83PH1g
Questions: Is A.I. intelligent.

Schrödinger's Cat-  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d1tn56vWU_g
Questions: Perception and reality (Maybe animal cruelty)

Brain in a vat- Basically a modern version of Rene Descartes' "Evil demon" it goes a bit like this: A mad scientist removes a persons brain, sticks it in a vat, connect its neurons by wires to a supercomputer which would provide electrical impulses identical to those the brain normally receives. The mad scientist then proceeds to make the computer simulate reality with said set-up. Could the person (brain) tell its a brain in a vat?
Questions: Essence of reality

Prisoner’s Dilemma- "Essentially what happens in "The Dark knight" ferry scene. Though a little more complex.
Questions: Importance of information.

Knowledge argument- Mary is a brilliant scientist who is, for whatever reason, forced to investigate the world from a black and white room via a black and white television monitor. She specializes in the neurophysiology of vision and acquires, let us suppose, all the physical information there is to obtain about what goes on when we see ripe tomatoes, or the sky, and use terms like ‘red’, ‘blue’, and so on. She discovers, for example, just which wavelength combinations from the sky stimulate the retina, and exactly how this produces via the central nervous system the contraction of the vocal cords and expulsion of air from the lungs that results in the uttering of the sentence ‘The sky is blue’. [...] What will happen when Mary is released from her black and white room or is given a color television monitor? Will she learn anything or not? - Wikepedia
Questions: Objectivity and perception

Plato's cave- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RWOpQXTltA
A watered down version as it's quite complex.
Questions: Experiences and suffering in context with perception.

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Ataraxia- Ataraxia is a Greek term used by Pyrrho and Epicurus for a lucid state of robust tranquility, characterized by ongoing freedom from distress and worry.

Metaphysics-the branch of philosophy that deals with the first principles of things, including abstract concepts such as being, knowing, identity, time, and space.

microcosm- A representation of something on a much smaller scale. Microcosm means “small world,” and in the thought of the Renaissance, it was applied specifically to human beings, who were considered to be small-scale models of the universe, with all its variety and contradiction. (Compare macrocosm.)

quintessential- representing the most perfect or typical example of a quality or class.

Socratic Irony- a pose of ignorance assumed in order to entice others into making statements that can then be challenged.

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Determinism- the doctrine that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will. Some philosophers have taken determinism to imply that individual human beings have no free will and cannot be held morally responsible for their actions.

Utilitarianism- the doctrine that actions are right if they are useful or for the benefit of a majority.

Nihilism- Nihilism is the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated. It is often associated with extreme pessimism and a radical skepticism that condemns existence. A true nihilist would believe in nothing, have no loyalties, and no purpose other than, perhaps, an impulse to destroy.

Existentialism- Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try to make rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe.

Secular Humanism- The philosophy or life stance of secular humanism (alternatively known by some adherents as Humanism, specifically with a capital H to distinguish it from other forms of humanism) embraces human reason, ethics, and philosophical naturalism while specifically rejecting religious dogma, supernaturalism, pseudoscience, and superstition as the bases of morality and decision making.

Rationalism- The theory that reason rather than experience is the foundation of certainty in knowledge.

Hedonism- Hedonism is a school of thought that argues that pleasure is the primary or most important intrinsic good. A hedonist strives to maximize net pleasure (pleasure minus pain).

Epicureanism- Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus, founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention.

Stoicism- The school taught that virtue, the highest good, is based on knowledge; the wise live in harmony with the divine Reason (also identified with Fate and Providence) that governs nature, and are indifferent to the vicissitudes of fortune and to pleasure and pain.

Empiricism- Empiricism is the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience).

Absurdism- Absurdism is a philosophical stance embracing a wide range of relativist perspectives, which implies that the efforts of humanity to find or absolutely define, limit, express or exclude the inherent meanings of anything, including human existence, are absurd because the qualities of communicable information available to the human mind, and relationships within Reality makes any certainty about such impossible.