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summary: slavery was big in Haiti up until the rebellion. Also, the slaves were called Maroons and they all gathered together and held a meeting. They elected their leaders named George PSO and Jean Francois Papillion. Slaves rebellion's grew to tens of thousand and they destroyed many plantations during the rebellion. Abolished slavery in 1794.

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summary: Pacifists and socialists were more vocal after Bolshevik seized power in Russia. General Ludendorff and Hindenburg basically ran Germany. Naval command decided to launch a huge assault against the allies without authorization. In early May, an army of over 30,000 soldiers in free call retook Munich. then later signed a treaty of Versailles.

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summary: Country was divided into many different countries under the influence of Austria. Ruler, Ferdinand was pressured to accept a liberal constitution by the local nobility but was later abolished as soon as he returned to Naples.. The pope decided to create reforms like to release political prisoners and creating a council of state to share power. Charles Albert started to first Italian war of unification.

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Italian 1848 Revolutions | 3 Minute History

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summary: in Paris set in motion an Italian conspiratorial movement in Modena. The moderate Liberals, most of them Carbonari, had demonstrated a readiness to compromise with the absolute monarchs. They had distrusted democrats and republicans who sought to achieve Italian unification by political revolution and force of arms.

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The July Revolution of 1830 in Paris set in motion an Italian conspiratorial movement in Modena and in other Emilian towns. Two Carbonari, Enrico Misley and Ciro Menotti, put their trust in the duke of Modena, Francis IV of Habsburg-Este, who was looking for an opportunity to expand his small state. But when Francis discovered that the Austrian police knew of the plot, he had Menotti and others arrested. Nevertheless, the revolt spread to the Romagna and to all parts of the Papal States except Lazio. For various reasons the provisional governments of the insurgent cities failed to organize for a common military defense and did not receive the hoped-for help of the French army. During March 1831 the Austrian army intervened and reestablished the status quo ante. The failure of the uprisings of 1831 suggests that the program of the Carbonari had run its course.

The moderate Liberals, most of them Carbonari, had demonstrated a readiness to compromise with the absolute monarchs. They had distrusted democrats and republicans who sought to achieve Italian unification by political revolution and force of arms. Among these were the Adelfi, a secret society of the followers of Filippo Buonarroti. Ultimately, the task of organizing new cadres of democratic and republican opponents of the restoration governments fell to Giuseppe Mazzini, scion of a bourgeois and Jacobin family of Genoa. Exiled in 1830 at the age of 25, Mazzini turned away from both Carboneria and Buonarrotism and established his own organization, Giovine Italia ( Young Italy). Republican and unionist, Mazzini's organization emphasized popular participation in the national struggle but eschewed Jacobin and social-revolutionary objectives. In 1833-34 the first abortive Mazzinian uprisings took place in Piedmont and Genoa. The latter was organized by Giuseppe Garibaldi, who then fled to France. In 1834 the Austrian police identified as many as 2,000 adherents of Young Italy in Lombardy. In 1836 Mazzini, who had established relationships with democratic revolutionaries in other countries and cofounded Giovine Europa (Young Europe), left Switzerland and settled in London.

Giuseppe Mazzini Courtesy of the Museo del Risorgimento, Milan

Conservative repression convinced the moderates of the futility of conspiracies with limited membership and of the necessity to educate the public about the need for change. Meanwhile, the peace imposed on Italy from 1831 to 1848 favoured economic development, which came in varying degrees everywhere except in the south. There the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies remained backward, and the growth of bourgeois landownership that resulted from the division of great aristocratic holdings did nothing to change the situation. Thus, the imbalance between north and south, to be felt even more strongly after unification, continued to increase. Meanwhile, Genoa, Turin, and Milan began to lay the foundation for becoming important European financial and industrial centres. Piedmontese and Lombard manufacturing and banking expanded rapidly. In Venetia important land-reclamation projects were completed, and in Tuscany banking and commerce flourished, especially via the port of Livorno. Throughout the country the construction of a railroad network beginning in the 1840s increased commerce and gave rise to subsidiary industries.

Economic revival made it more difficult for governments to tighten police control. In Milan, Carlo Cattaneo's journal, Il politecnico ("The Polytechnic"), founded in 1839, argued that the progress of science and technology necessary to fuel economic growth depended upon government reforms. In the same year, a congress of Italian scientists held its first annual meeting in Pisa. Through 1847 each subsequent meeting assumed a markedly more nationalistic character. Thus, conditions became more favourable for moderates to realize their programs of increasing public education and abolishing censorship and police surveillance. In the cause of economic unification they endeavoured to standardize tolls and trade practices and to increase cultural exchange among the Italian states. They also sought to achieve representative institutions compatible with Italian traditions and with Roman Catholicism.

Vincenzo Gioberti, the most important exponent of liberal Catholicism, envisioned a new and positive role for the temporal power of the papacy. His Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani (1843; "On the Moral and Civil Primacy of Italians") affirmed the idea of progress as the return of the material to the spiritual, of man to God. Because such progress could be realized only through the mediation of the church, Gioberti advocated an Italian federation free from Austrian hegemony and under the nominal presidency of the pope. His ideas were influential among the clergy and most Catholic intellectuals. Under different formulations, this new papalist movement was advanced by Cesare Balbo, Niccolò Tommaseo, and Antonio Rosmini-Serbati.

In the early 1840s, renewed Mazzinian attempts at armed rebellion were ruthlessly suppressed. Among these was the Calabrian expedition of 1844, organized by the Venetian Bandiera brothers and seven of their companions, who were captured and executed by the Bourbon regime. These violent acts of suppression increased the esteem that governments and the general public felt for the moderate opposition. The election of Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti as Pope Pius IX in 1846 augured well for the Papal States; his nomination derived from anti-Austrian feeling in the Curia. In the beginning of his reign, he showed liberal sympathies and granted amnesty to political prisoners. He gradually removed the most reactionary prelates from important government posts, permitted the publication of political periodicals, and finally, in 1847, established a council of state. Although only advisory, the council gave the laity a voice in the affairs of state. Influenced by the pope's liberalism, rulers elsewhere in Italy introduced reforms. Especially important was the Tuscan press law of 1847, by which Grand Duke Leopold II removed most forms of political censorship. The reforms encouraged extremism, however, and the reactionary powers of Europe became convinced that the stability of Italy was in jeopardy. In July 1847 Austrian troops occupied the papal city of Ferrara. This intervention stimulated cooperation among Italian rulers, including Charles Albert of Savoy, whose relations with Austria had been particularly strained. While the rulers discussed reforms-especially the formation of an all-Italian customs union-and the measures needed to cope with famine in several regions, the populace began to stir.

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Italy - The rebellions of 1831 and their aftermath

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Italy - Italy - The rebellions of 1831 and their aftermath: The July Revolution of 1830 in Paris set in motion an Italian conspiratorial movement in Modena and in other Emilian towns. Two Carbonari, Enrico Misley and Ciro Menotti, put their trust in the duke of Modena, Francis IV of Habsburg-Este, who was looking for an opportunity to expand his small state.

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summary: In 1791, a slave revolt erupted on the French colony, and Toussaint-Louverture, a former slave, took control of the rebels. in 1795 they made peace with revolutionary France following its abolishment of slavery. Toussaint became governor-general of the colony and in 1801 conquered the Spanish portion of island, freeing the slaves there.

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Two months after his defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's colonial forces, Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaims the independence of Saint-Domingue, renaming it Haiti after its original Arawak name.

In 1791, a revolt erupted on the French colony, and Toussaint Louverture, a formerly enslaved man, took control of the rebels. Gifted with natural military genius, Toussaint organized an effective guerrilla war against the island's colonial population. He found able generals in two other formerly enslaved men, Dessalines and Henri Christophe, and in 1795 he made peace with revolutionary France following its abolishment of slavery. Toussaint became governor-general of the colony and in 1801 conquered the Spanish portion of island, freeing the enslaved peoples there.

In January 1802, an invasion force ordered by Napoleon landed on Saint-Domingue, and after several months of furious fighting, Toussaint agreed to a cease-fire. He retired to his plantation but in 1803 was arrested and taken to a dungeon in the French Alps, where he was tortured and died in April.

Soon after Toussaint's arrest, Napoleon announced his intention to reintroduce slavery on Haiti, and Dessalines led a new revolt against French rule. With the aid of the British, the rebels scored a major victory against the French force there, and on November 9, 1803, colonial authorities surrendered. In 1804, General Dessalines assumed dictatorial power, and Haiti became the second independent nation in the Americas. Later that year, Dessalines proclaimed himself Emperor Jacques I. He was killed putting down a revolt two years later.

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Haitian independence proclaimed | January 1, 1804 | HISTORY

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Two months after his defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's colonial forces, Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaims the independence of Saint-Domingue, renaming it Haiti after its original Arawak name. In 1791, a revolt erupted on the French colony, and Toussaint Louverture, a formerly enslaved man, took control of the rebels.

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summary: The 1848-1849 Revolutions in Germany were part of the wider Revolutions that broke out in many European countries. Though the revolution failed, it managed to become a stepping stone in the unification of Germany that would happen later on. Interestingly, his brother William I would later unite Germany and become the first German Emperor.

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Key Facts & Summary

The 1848-1849 Revolutions in Germany were part of the wider Revolutions that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire.

The revolutions stressed the idea of pan-Germanism, it demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the independent states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire.

The revolutionaries sought different ideals, the working class wanted radical improvements to their working conditions while the middle class were committed to liberal principles.

As the middle class and working class split, the conservative aristocracy defeated them.

Some liberals were forced into exile to escape persecution, they became known as the Forty-Eighters, immigrating to the United States.

The groundwork of the 1848 uprising was laid as early as the Hambacher Fest of 1832, when public unrest began to grow in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship.

The Hambacher Fest is also noteworthy for the Republicans adopting the black-red-gold colors used on today's national flag of Germany as a symbol of the Republican movement and of the unity among the German-speaking people.

The revolutionaries in Germany became inspired by the events in France. Prior to the March Revolution in Germany, in France there also occurred a revolution named the February Revolution, in which the French people successfully overthrew the monarchy.

Though the revolution failed, it managed to become a stepping stone in the unification of Germany that would happen later on.

Among the previous specified reasons for the failure of the revolution, another factor could be considered: Fredrick William IV's refusal to accept the crown from the hands of the common people. Interestingly, his brother William I would later unite Germany and become the first German Emperor.

Prologue

To understand the uprisings in Germany also called the March Revolutions or Märzrevolution, we must first take into consideration the events that happened before. After the Napoleonic Era, the Germanic states had emerged with a new consciousness and governmental structure. The ideas from the French Revolution and the Enlightenment had crossed over due to the French armies.

After the removal of the French troops from Germanic soil, it was apparent that the German people would be required to reorganize the kingdoms and consolidate themselves. Out of the 300 separate German kingdoms that existed before Napoleon, all were beyond hope of restoring the previous governments that had been disbanded.As a response to this chaos, the Germans created a German Confederation of 35 princely states and 4 independent cities.

The strongest state of this confederation was Prussia which had substantial influence. A weak Federal Diet was formed in Frankfurt that was composed of all the states. Its main purpose was securing common foreign policy, beneficial in a way to the entire confederation. An important role of the Diet was to help encourage cooperation between the states, in an effort to secure economic prosperity. The Germanic people felt that the confederation was the first step on the path leading to the unification of Germany, and it was.

A unified Germany was one of the chief demands of the nationalists who shared many views with the liberals. It could better secure personal liberties and protect them. It would also enable for many in the middle class, an increased trade and more equitable trade abroad. Despite the benefits of this good cause, the people found themselves swept through a new wave of conservatism. The new representative government was a front for the aristocracy and the Kaiser, Frederick William IV, who held the real power. In the new confederation Prussian Junkers and other nobles had no desire to see the Kaiser lose any of his authority, for that would mean losing it themselves since they depended on him.

Another major influence came over German policy from outside the confederation. Klemens von Metternich, the foreign minister of the Austrian Empire. Metternich supported conservatism and abhorred liberalism, spending a good deal of his time trying to stop its development. He was able to influence legislation within the confederation, which would silence the middle class liberals.

The sparks of revolution

After a minor demonstration by students in Wartburg against the conservative movement, Metternich had the German Confederation issue the Karlsbad Decrees in 1819. All of these decrees implemented censorship in universities, press and it enabled the power of search and seizure of property. Public demonstrations and wearing of clothes with nationalist colors were also prohibited. Metternich's attempts to block out the ideas of liberalism, nationalism and socialism were intense, but were not completely effective.

From exile in England, Karl Marx was working to put the plight of the German workers into a social and historical context. He was joined in this endeavor by Frederick Engels and in 1848, the year of the revolution, Marx and Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto which portrayed the workers as a united proletariat who were seen as a commodity to the bourgeoisie:
"... in the same proportion is the proletariat, the modern working class, developed, a class of laborers, who live only so long as they find work, and, who find work only so long as their labor increases capital"
The work of Marx and Engels brought the movement of the working class into perspective and put upon it a goal to be reached, namely a revolution into a classless communist system. Ideas that existed before 1848, but it was The Communist Manifesto that put into print what many had been saying for a long time. Another element to be considered in the decades before the 1848 revolution was the demographic state of the working class. They made up the majority of the population in the Germanic lands and any successful revolution hinged on their participation and actions.

In 1815 up till 1848, Germany saw a tremendous growth in industries accompanied by a population explosion, similar to that of France. The increasing numbers of rural laborers moved from the countryside into the cities to find jobs in newly created industries. The early industrial revolution was associated with great hardships and the German confederation was not spared its growing pains. Fourteen hour days were common, as were unsafe working conditions. Abuse of women's labor and the use of child labor were also widespread. For all the work and sacrifice that these people went through they still struggled to obtain a basic subsistence. In the years before 1848 one third of the working class was in poverty.

This type of existence left the working class little time to consider the ideological pros and cons of the government, but eager to find some sort of relief. Tension mounted between the classes and ideological groups in the years approaching 1848. Liberals were being frustrated in their attempts to give rise to their ideas to create a freer state that would allow for political and economic freedom. Workers were still struggling to survive and in many cases remained in poverty. Two events set off this growing unrest.

Starting from 1846 until 1849 there was a downward turn in the business cycle, many new businesses failed and workers lost their merger paying jobs. To intensify this, a major harvest failure from 1845 to 1847 swept across Europe thus widespread hunger was rampant throughout the confederation and beyond.

The German Revolutions of 1848

This led to crowds forming in the streets and demanding reforms, but they were met with violence. The conservative rulers, fearful of the growing unrest, began to use serious force against the crowds. The crowds were directed by members of the middle class but the fighting was done by those of the lower class and students. Berlin was noted as having bloody streets because of the fighting, barricades made of cobblestones turned the streets into fortresses.

Fredrick William IV wanted to stop the fights. He appeared sympathetic to the movement since he promised a constitution but ultimately, changed his mind which ultimately fueled the bloodshed. He was pushed by his brother William I to at least attend the funerals of the street fighters who were killed and wore the colors of the nationalist and liberal movement. The middle and working class united under a common goal, to remove the conservative elite, but each class had different reasons for doing this. The middle class liberals saw the chaos of the revolution as an opportunity to unite Germany and realize their liberal ideology. The Kaiser and all the aristocrats fled from the major cities to safer locations.

Under the gaze of "Germania" - a painting dedicated to symbolize the national unity of Germany - national elections were quickly held in a parliament that established to be located in Frankfurt.
The ones chosen to go to the Frankfurt Parliament were in most part members of the middle class, yet a larger percentage of the delegates were college professors or other similarly educated men.
The parliament met on the 18th of May 1848 with great excitement that began to wane after time passed and little was accomplished.

Although the delegates were educated men, they had little political experience. Settling issues proved to be difficult which slowed down an already long process. Nationalist feeling caused endlessly debated topics such as whether to include Austria into the new Germany. Austria was a collection of many different ethnicities and the Frankfurt Parliament was concerned about the ten million ethnic Germans who lived there.

Two factions were created, the ones that supported Großdeutschland or Greater Germany, and the ones who opposed them Kleindeutschland, or Smaller Germany. Members of the Kleindeutschland were most probably influenced by the works of Johann Herder who capitalized the fact that a nation is formed by a common history, culture, tradition and language. Or by the works of Johann Fichte, like his book "Addresses to the German Nation" that advocated German nationalism in reaction to the French occupation. Members of Großdeutschland wanted to include Austria with all the other ethnicities, while members of Kleindeutschland wanted to include only Prussia together with the other 38 states of the German Confederation.

After eleven months the parliament reached a decision to unite Germany with a constitution in a Kleindeutschland fashion under the rule of the Prussian King, Fredrick William IV.
The middle class was not opposed to a monarchy and in fact welcomed a Kaiser as long as it was limited by a constitution and an elected assembly. They still needed a monarch in order to successfully unite Germany. Fredrick William IV, declined this offer since it came from the hands of common people, he would have accepted the crown if it came from hands of the nobility.
Soon afterwards, in March 1849 Kaiser William sent troops back into Berlin and ended the fighting. The rest of the revolutions began to lose steam and sputter out. The working class provided little resistance to the return of the monarchy.

The final end of the revolts occurred in Baden where insurgents under Lorenz Brentano and Ludwik Mireroslawski were defeated by the Prussian troops on July 23, 1849.

Aftermath

The failure of these revolutions came from a series of factors. Oppression left many liberals bitter and ready for a change. They wanted a voice in the government that they felt they deserved.
As much as they desired this, they couldn't do anything without the support of the working class, to provide fighting force. The working class sought a way out of poverty.

The nobility and even the middle class did little to help the workers. By the time of the revolution, the workers were desperate for any type of relief, even if it was from the liberals. Most of the working class was made of conservatives who did not want to see the government changed drastically. These sentiments can be found in the comments of General Mieroslawski, a Polish officer hired by the revolutionary army in Baden. The historian, Robert Priscilla, comments on Mieroslawski's feelings towards the revolution:
"Among the conditions that he blamed for his failure at arms was that neither the citizens nor soldier knew what they were fighting for. They stood for no exact revolutionary aims, and were inclined to interpret "freedom" in a way that meant fulfilling their own whims."

Even if the nationalism ideal failed in this revolution, the abolition of serfdom was a success. This would later help in the unification of Germany.

Bibliography:

[1.] Davis Randers-Pehrson, Justine (1999). Germans and the Revolution of 1848-1849. New German-American Studies/Neue Deutsch-Amerikanische Studien. New York: Peter Lang.
[2.] Vick, Brian E. (2002). Defining Germany: The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity
[3.] Herwing, Holger H. (1994). Hammer or Anvil? Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company, pg. 80.
[4.] Sheeham, James J. "Liberalism and Society in Germany, 1815-48" The Journal of Modern History, 45/ 4 (1973): 583-604.
[5.] Ramsland, Clement and Borditch, John (1957) Voices of the Industrial Revolution. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pg. 162.
[6.] Sheehan, James J. (1978) German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press pg. 57.
[7.] Robertson, Priscilla (1952). Revolutions of 1848: A Social History

Image sources:

[1.] https://i.pinimg.com/originals/42/8c/70/428c70422f050b03341db049de4f683b.gif
[2.] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_IV_of_Prussia#/media/File:Friedrich_Wilhelm_IV_of_Prussia_(1847).jpg
[3.] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Confederation#/media/File:Prince_Metternich_by_Lawrence.jpeg
[4.] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto#/media/File:Communist-manifesto.png
[5.] http://www.burdosclassroom.org/worldhistorywiki/images/c/cd/Urban_slum.jpg
[6.] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849#/media/File:Maerz1848_berlin.jpg
[7.] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania_(St._Paul%27s_Church,_Frankfurt_am_Main)#/media/File:Zeitgen%C3%B6ssige_Lithografie_der_Nationalversammlung_in_der_Paulskirche.jpg
[8.] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849#/media/File:Berlin.Brandenburger_Tor.History_001.jpg
[9.] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848#/media/File:Rundgem%C3%A4lde_Europa_1849.jpg

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1848 Revolutions in Germany | School History

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The 1848-1849 Revolutions in Germany were part of the wider Revolutions that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire.