# data[].attributes.body
“The wave of misinformation was so great that the authorities coined a word for it: “infodemic”.”

# data[].attributes.body
“Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that the COVID-19 epi-demic is going through an ‘infodemic’ (shorthand for information epi-demic) of misinformation”

# data[].attributes.body
“On March 28, in line with WHO, Antonio Guterres, the Secretary-General of United Nation, tweet that “Our common enemy is COVID19, but our enemy is also an ‘infodemic’ of misinformation” on his personal Twitter account”

# data[].attributes.body
hihiii

# data[].attributes.body
“Wardle and Derakhshan [76] noted that false information which is being shared uncon-sciously (not knowing that the information is whether correct or not) and without any purpose to make harm to anyone is called misinformation; “disinformation is false information and shared consciously to make harm intentionally”

# data[].attributes.body
“the previous authors also defined mal-information; which is authentic private information shared with the public to cause harm by creating hate speech and harassment”

# data[].attributes.body
“Therefore, the current study considered ‘misinformation’ as ‘umbrella term’ of general misinformation belief, conspiracy belief, and religious misinforma-tion belief.”

# data[].attributes.body
“The world faces an unprecedented public health problem, the COVID-19 pandemic. This respiratory disease was caused by SARS-CoV-2 in December 2019, in Wuhan, a chinese province of Hubei and it quickly reached worldwide proportions (Guo et al., 2020).”

# data[].attributes.body
“Misinformation, according to Scheufele and Krause [61], is incorrect information, the probable outcome of an accident.”

# data[].attributes.body
"Further, in a more specific manner, Chou et al. [13] defined health misinformation as “health-related claims of fact that is cur-rently false due to a lack of scientific evidence”. For this study purposes, however, the authors considered “misinformation” as a “mother-term” of both (mis and dis) –(i) inaccurate information shared unconsciously by be-lieving that the information is true, and –(ii) inaccurate information shared consciously."

# data[].attributes.body
“we conceived that the misinformation is false information that can be challenged with the best-available evidence pertaining to the COVID-19.”

# data[].attributes.body
“Fake news is any form of falsehood, including rumours, hoaxes, myths, conspiracy theories and other misleading or inaccurate (purposely or not) shared or published content.”

# data[].attributes.body
“Misinformation is defined as false information that is communicated without deliberate malice; disinformation is false information that is communicated with the intent to deceive”.

# data[].attributes.body
“The aim is to manipulate and mold public opinion. While a factual news story is created by a journalist, fake news is a product of both the writer and the audience, inasmuch as it only exists if it is perceived to be real.”

# data[].attributes.body
“In fact, a cross-sectional study conducted by Szmuda et al. through the use of validated readability tests applied on articles found on the Internet showed that online educational articles on Covid-19 provide information that is too difficult to be understood by the general population . This fatally helps (or even boosts) the spread of false information.”

# data[].attributes.body
“Fake news indubitably and perceivably affected health communication during the Covid-19 pandemic. What this study tried to achieve was to quantitively gauge the amount of fake news and to decipher the common patterns and mechanisms that underlie the tumultuous spread of fake news on social media.”

# data[].attributes.body
“ “Fake news” has inevitably and indubitably influenced health communication in the Covid-19 emergency and it is clear that it might continue to do so for the foreseeable future, contributing to social unrest and uneasiness.”

# data[].attributes.body
“During the Covid-19 pandemic, risk communication has often been ineffective, and from this perspective “fake news” has found fertile ground, both as a cause and a consequence of it. The aim of this study is to measure how much “fake news” and corresponding verified news have circulated in Italy in the period between 31 December 2019 and 30 April 2020, and to estimate the quality of informal and formal communication.”

# data[].attributes.body
“Therefore, “fake news” is an oxymoron that lends itself to undermining the credibility of the “real” news.”

# data[].attributes.body
“On the one hand, we must improve health and digital literacy—it has been demonstrated that a low level of health literacy brings people who have suspected symptoms related to Covid-19 to feel more stressed and depressed than people who have higher levels of health literacy [67], which also happens to medical students in terms of their fear for Covid-19.”

# data[].attributes.body
“An online survey conducted in Italy during the lockdown established the prevalence of psychiatric symptoms linked to the pandemic in the general population, such as anxiety and depression.”

# data[].attributes.body
“In such times, people can be prone to scapegoating; religion, ethnics, wealth, and gender can all become social dividers that can heighten the social unrest and uneasiness . The uneasiness and restlessness of the population have been enhanced by the restrictive and preventive measures, which can become a stressor in daily activities.”

# data[].attributes.body
“False information in messages has detracted from the evidence based precautions that the health service is promoting, such as social distancing and hand hygiene.”

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“This increases the likelihood that the message will be shared with family and friends.”

# data[].attributes.body
“misinformation swirling about COVID-19, its vaccines, stories of disinfectants as treatment, and false claims about it being spread by 5G mobile phone networks, all had the potential to endanger the public and had been linked to deaths overseas.”

# data[].attributes.body
“The spread of fake data could have a direct impact on people’s wellbeing.”

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“This population have greater risks for psychiatric pathologies and, therefore, in those especially with mood disorders such as depression, anxiety disorder and psychotic disorders, the fake news can be sources of suffering, intensifying previous symptoms or even functioning as triggers.”

# data[].attributes.body
“when exposed to a large amount of news, associated with the inability to discern quality information from false information, psychological distress increases, worsens pre-existing psychiatric conditions and increases feelings of negativity.”

# data[].attributes.body
“First of all, fake news can cause wrong public opinion orientation, which in turn causes social harm.”

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“There is little research on the possibility of the spread of misinformation, especially during the outbreak of infectious diseases that will endanger human health”

# data[].attributes.body
“Brennen et al. [12] pronounced that misinformation related to the pandemic produces deleterious effects on public health and action. Further, numerous researchers orated that social media is liable for proliferating misinformation about health or COVID-19”

# data[].attributes.body
“So it’s possible that the small effects of fake news we saw in our study could have bigger effects on people’s health."

# data[].attributes.body
“Some participants even developed false memories about the fake stories they had read (which we had also seen happen in some of our previous research).”

# data[].attributes.body
“We found that fake stories did seem to change people’s behaviour, but not dramatically so.”

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“the participants indicated how likely they were to act on the information over the next several months, such as drinking more coffee or downloading the contact-tracing app.”

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“It’s assumed that fake news has a negative effect on people’s behaviour. For example, it has been claimed that fake news might affect people’s willingness to wear a mask, get a vaccine or comply with other public health guidelines.”

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“Conspiracy theories and alternative facts find fertile ground on the Internet, feeding off the restlessness and helplessness of people, frustrated firstly because they could not foresee the disaster and secondly because they are unable to indicate the culprit of such tragedy.”

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“Some patients have been unwilling to take ibuprofen, leaving non-covid illnesses untreated. Other patients with serious, time sensitive non-covid illnesses—such as stroke—have had delayed presentations, with irreversible deficits because of concerns about contracting covid-19 in hospital.”

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“the global spread of online misinformation has the potential to erode foundational elements of modern civilisation across much of the developed and developing world”

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"The rise of mis- and disinformation can be seen as both challenge and opportunities for journalism to improve as a practice and institution.While it contributes to public distrust, it also provides opportunity for quality, ethical and responsible journalism to flourish and regain credibility. ”

# data[].attributes.body
“Digital technology and the age of information abundance is clearly going to be affected by the rise of disinformation and misinformation.”

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“Similar to the global trend in recent years, mainstream media in Thailand has faced a serious credibility challenge while the volume of false information online has exacerbated the problem by putting media outlets at risk for sharing disinformation and harming the public trust.”

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“evidence from past research suggests that some people share fake news frequently although they were aware about the falsity of the news, they shared [10]. In contrast, a recent research concluded that fake news awareness moderate fake news sharing.”

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“Since the beginning of the year we’ve seen a surge in fake news exploiting public fear and uncertainty  around the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic.”

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“Despite increasing concerns, the fact that flights from China were still allowed to land at the beginning of the epidemic has  exacerbated people's mistrust of the government in handling the crisis.”

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“During the current epidemic, fake news may impact social order, challenge the bottom line of law enforcement, induce panic or confrontation, and cause the situation to deteriorate; intangible, it affects frontline morale, confuses the information market, and may cause misjudgment of the situation and lengthen the fight against the epidemic(Apuke et al., 2020)”

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“The theory assumes that the more an individual rely on SNS platform, the easier it becomes for their conducts and beliefs to be influenced by the ‘opinion’ of others regarding specific issues.”

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“The concept of perceived herd assumes that information or message is perceived to be reliable when shared or accepted by many.”

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“We thus contend that the ideas or information relating to COVID-19 shared by individuals that are familiar to the users may cause them to trust the information, without necessarily verifying such information.”

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“Parasocial interaction refers to the degree or propensity of an individual to develop an emotional connection with a figure considered as a guide, or a role model.”

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“According to WHO data, the outbreak of COVID-19 was accompanied by a huge "infodemic", and it has already been observed in some countries such as China, Italy, Spain and Brazil that SM are potential propellers of fear and panic among its users, creating feelings of anguish and anxiety on an ongoing basis (Jones, 2020).”

# data[].attributes.body
“the propagation of misinformation on social media undermines the COVID-19 individual responses. Particularly, credibility evaluation of misinformation strongly predicts the COVID-19 individual responses with positive influences and religious misinformation beliefs as well as conspiracy beliefs and general misinformation beliefs come next and influence negatively.”

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“Surprisingly, we found that reading a warning had no effect on people’s responses to the fake stories. Governments should think about this when considering their fake news strategies: while the effect of fake news may be less than expected, the effect of any warning could also be low”.

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“people in that study were aware that they were taking part in research on fake news, which might have made them more suspicious of what they were viewing.”

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“According to a study that investigated the persistence of feelings, some individuals, especially those with lower cognitive abilities, may continue to foster negative feelings or express discomfort towards a certain topic even after disconfirmation of the false information.”

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10-10. “The spread of false information, or so-called “fake news”, in non-official communication can ultimately be considered a very disruptive and dangerous phenomenon that can profoundly undermine health and risk communication, particularly in an emergency, such as the one we are living through”