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male sex hormone

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female sex hormone

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solubility due to polarity of aldehydes and ketones

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solubility due to polarity of aldehydes and ketones

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Due to the polarity of the carbonyl group, the oxygen atom of the aldehyde or ketone engages in hydrogen bonding with a water molecule.

The solubility of aldehydes and ketones are therefore about the same as that of alcohols and ethers. Formaldehyde (HCHO), acetaldehyde (CH3CHO), and acetone ((CH3)2CO) are soluble in water. As the carbon chain increases in length, solubility in water decreases.

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aldehydes and ketones are seen very commonly in nature. they are usually bonded with other functional groups.
- ketones specifically are found in human bodies.
they show up in many important hormones such as progesterone (a female sex hormone) and testosterone (a male sex hormone)
The ketone functionality also shows up in the anti-inflammatory steroid, Cortison.
this shows how subtle differences in structure can cause drastic changes in biological activity.
-aldehydes and ketones are famous for its fragrance and odors, specifically the scent they produce.
eg: formaldehydes: disinfectant
benzaldehyde: almond oil
heptanone: blue cheese

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=positional, chain, geometric
Condensations of cyanoacetate with aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes give (E)-product

E isomers: the higher priority groups are on opposite sides of the double bond.
Z isomers: the higher priority groups are on the same side of the double bond.

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Partial reduction of an ester using  diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAH, or DIBAL-H) gives aldehyde

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Partial reduction of an ester using  diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAH, or DIBAL-H) gives aldehyde

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Important laboratory-scale method of aldehyde synthesis, and mechanistically related processes also occur in biological pathways. The reaction is normally carried out at  (dry-ice temperature, -78oC in toluene solution.

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Oxidation of primary alcohols using DMP gives aldehyde

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Oxidation of primary alcohols using DMP gives aldehyde

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The reaction is often carried out using the Dess–Martin periodinane reagent in dichloromethane solvent at room temperature:

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DMP (Dess-Martin Periodinane) Oxidation and Mechanism of Primary Alcohols

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further oxidation of aldehydes and ketones.

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further oxidation of aldehydes and ketones.

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upon first oxidation of aldehydes, it will give a hydrate. when hydrates are further oxidised, the end result would give a carboxylic acid.
-for benzaldehydes, first oxidation with cyanide ion will turn it into a tetrahedral intermediate that is protonated by  hydrogen cyanide to give a cyanohydrin product plus regenerated cyanide ion.

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Formation of hemiacetals and hemiketals (video) | Khan Academy

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How aldehydes (or ketones) react with alcohols to form hemiacetals (or hemiketals).

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Formation of hydrates (video) | Khan Academy

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How ketones and aldehydes react with water to form hydrates.

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Khan academy (n.d.) Unit: Aldehydes and Ketones https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/aldehydes-ketones

Jim C (2020) Oxidation of Aldehydes and Ketones
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Aldehydes_and_Ketones/Reactivity_of_Aldehydes_and_Ketones/Oxidation_of_Aldehydes_and_Ketones

McMurry: Organic Chemistry, 9th edition. Aldehydes and Ketones https://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/evo/index.html?eISBN=9781305084414&id=37380118&snapshotId=136806&

Anon, 2019. Interesting Aldehydes and Ketones
https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/30581

Anon, 2020. Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones
https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/16050

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Organic compounds who have a carbonyl group(C=O).  The functional group of an aldehyde consist of carbon, hydrogen and an alkyl group. The functional group of a ketone consist of 2 different alkyl groups flanking an oxygen molecule.

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oxidation and reduction of ketones and aldehydes

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oxidation and reduction of ketones and aldehydes

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aldehydes are protonated because of the hydrogen hence making it easier for them to be oxidised.
ketones are more inert to oxidation reactions. however it can be oxidised still, but require certain conditons such as a strong OA (H2O, hot alkaline KMnO4, NaOH). the strong oxidising agent breaks the c=c bond into 2 cooh

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Oxidation of primary alcohols

Partial reduction of esters

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oxidation (forming of hemiacetals and hemiketals):
hemiacetals (RH)
1. aldehyde/ketone +OH < hemiacetal (1 R, 1 H, 1 R"O, 1 OH)
2. aldehyde&OH(oxo alcohol) +OH > cyclic hemiacetal

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hydration( forming of hydrates):
1. formaldehyde+H2O > hydrate(2 OH, 2 H)
2. acetone+H2O < hydrate (2 OH, 2 R)
3.acetaldehyde+ H2O > hydrate (2 OH, 1 H, 1 R)

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experiment to identify ketones and aldehydes. (similar to benedict & fehling: cu(ii) ions and tollen test: agno3. (all the strong OA)

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experiment to identify ketones and aldehydes. (similar to benedict & fehling: cu(ii) ions and tollen test: agno3. (all the strong OA)

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- acidified potassium dichromate
presence of aldehydes will change the solution from orange to green. ( this is due to the reduction of orange dichromate(vi)  ions to green chronium (iii) ions. the aldehyde is then oxidised to become carboxylic acid. )
1/2 : Cr2O2−7+14H++6e−→2Cr3++7H2O(3)
1/2 : RCHO+H2O→RCOOH+2H++2e−
final  2RCHO+Cr2O2−7+8H+→3RCOOH+2Cr3++4H2O