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Learning by Doing

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Socratic Arts' proven learn-by-doing solutions influence change. From our insightful needs analyses to our innovative technologies, see what our decades of experience can do to help your people grow.

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Goal-based Scenario Tool

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Socratic Arts' Goal Based Scenario Tool helps you create learn-by-doing experiences guides by our decades of experience developing and deploying hundreds of courses to a wide range of learners.

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How will Cloud Based Schools Change our Education?

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How will Cloud Based Schools Change our Education?

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How will Cloud Based Schools Change our Education?

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National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS)

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What is the Teacher's Role in the Classroom?

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Teacher Colleges should be creating and making available experiences for student teachers, not courses. Teachers already within the Education system should have available to them a form of continuing education that helps them increase their skillsets as professionals. A part of this is private videotaping of classes for learning purposes only, (along the lines of Japanese yearly lesson critiquing by colleagues) and access to a mentor (not an inspector but more like a constructive criticism coach)
NB: The role of teachers in modern societies needs to change in accordance with changes in communication technologies. Much of this change has to do with movement from Sage on the Stage to Guide on the Side. There is also a movement of pedagogical expertise outside of the classroom into recorded media and software.  Some physical classrooms may have a supervisor rather than a teacher because teachers have already incorporated their expertise into  the recordable media and software read and used by students.
Note: Some teaching expertise  (Such as The Spalding Method) is proprietary and certification is obtained from Spalding Education International which is legally separate from the Teaching College certification.
The attached "Learning by Doing Plus Mentoring" lecture given in Dubai by Dr. Roger Schank is no longer available online at the same address. See Socratic Arts.

A lecture by Dr. Roger Schank

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"Teachers need to be trained to be more like counselors, offering help and guidance, and more like seminar facilitators, helping people express themselves and confront others with their ideas. As they cease to be information providers they should become what many of them wanted to be in the first place: trained mentors. They must learn to help in areas that are inherently human where children and adolescents really need help. How to get along with each other; how to communicate better; how to deal effectively with stress; how to function in a complex society."
Educational Technology: The Promise and The Myth by Roger C. Schank
Schank Learning Consultants, Inc. School of Computer Science
Carnegie Mellon University
June 25, 2001

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David Thornburg on the Evolving Classroom: Big Thinkers

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An ExTRA system should be built for student teachers to access.

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An organization's knowledge capital doesn't exist in documents. It exists in the experiences of its practitioners. ExTRA, Socratic Arts' unique knowledge management system - stores and retrieves digitally recorded stories of practitioners sharing war stories of their experiences.

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Using video to improve teaching -- and support teachers

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Using video to improve teaching -- and support teachers

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Using video to improve teaching -- and support teachers

SUBMITTED BY MICHAEL TRUCANO  ON TUE, 08/27/2013

Video can be used in many ways to assist professional development. One possibility is using video of a working student teacher together with coaching. There are some other uses of video that would be objected to in many societies and cultures.

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smile and say 'PISA!'

Much of the discussion related to how new technologies can be used in classrooms in low and middle income countries focuses on the use of PCs, desktops and tablets. Less discussed, I often find, is the strategic potential of various so-called peripheral devices, which are (in my experience) typically only considered within the context of how they can be used to enhance or extend the functionality of the 'main' computing devices available in schools.

Many education systems (for better or for worse) have specific 'hardware' budgets, and, when they are looking to tap these budgets to introduce more hardware into schools, in my experience they often look to buy more of what they already have, supplemented in places by things like interactive whiteboards, or networked printers, as a complement to what is already available in a school.

When talking with educational planners contemplating how to use funds specifically dedicated to purchase computer hardware, I often counsel them to think much more broadly about what they may wish to buy with these monies, within a larger context of discussing things like how such equipment can be utilized to meet larger educational objectives, what sorts of training and maintenance support may be needed, and how the use of this technology can complement other, non-technology-enabled activities in a classroom. As part of such discussions, I often find myself attempting in various ways to challenge policymakers and planners to think beyond their current models for technology use.

One general type of gadget that I only rarely hear discussed is so-called ' probeware', which refers to set of devices which are typically used in science classes to measure various things -- temperature, for example, or the pH level of soil, or the salinity of water. Despite the increasing emphasis in STEM subjects in many countries, and what is often a rhetorical linkage between the use of computers in schools and STEM topics, I rarely find that World Bank client countries are considering the widespread use of probeware in a strategic way as part of their discussions around ICT use in schools. That said, one suspects that such an interest is coming, especially once the big vendors direct more of their attentions to raising awareness among policymakers in such places (much like the interactive whiteboard vendors began to do a half-decade or so ago).

While probeware is a new type of peripheral for many education policymakers, there is another peripheral that policymakers are already quite familiar with, and which is already used in ad hoc ways in many schools, but which rarely seems to be considered at a system level for use in strategic ways. Once you have a critical mass of computers is in place, and in place of buying one additional PC, might it be worth considering (for example) utilizing video cameras instead? Video can be put to lots of productive uses (and some perhaps not-so-productive uses). Considering three concrete examples from around the world may shed some light on how video can be used to improve teaching -- and support teachers.

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A number of years ago the World Bank began supporting a study to examine teaching practices and activities in Indonesian classrooms. At the heart of this work has been the use of video to document what is actually happening in (a set of 100) classrooms across the country which participated in the 2007 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study ( TIMMS), the fourth iteration of a well-known global effort that takes place every four years. (Many people may be more familiar with a similar ongoing multi-country study, the Programme for International Student Assessment, or PISA.)

Back in 2010 the World Bank released the first results of this work.Inside Indonesia's Mathematics Classrooms : A TIMSS Video Study of Teaching Practices and Student Achievement utilized methodologies and approaches pioneered in earlier work in seven other countries in the hope of being able to draw useful insights based on comparisons with practices in other countries that could inform teacher reform efforts in that large Southeast Asian nation.

The decision to use video to document what was happening in classrooms was made after a careful consideration of a number of other, perhaps more 'traditional' approaches (e.g. teacher interviews, teacher questionnaires, live classroom observations) used by researchers to document and analyze what goes in inside schools. As the study authors note,

The video study approach provides many unique advantages for understanding classroom activity. Video study is [like live classroom observation] also an intrusive methodology, and some argue that it may be even more intrusive than live observation, especially when it is done in a community where video-taping is not common. But experience has shown that while students (and their teachers) may be distracted by the video-taping equipment in the beginning of the lesson, this distraction may lapse soon after the lesson begins; if video-taping is done in consecutive lessons, then the eﬀect of the presence of the camera is negligible from the second lesson onward. In this sense, videotaping may be less intrusive than live observation, especially if the latter involves more than one observer.

The advantages of video study are many and make it an extremely powerful methodology for studying the instructional practices of teachers:

a. Different observers may focus on the same video as the basis of a shared analysis. This increases inter-rater reliability, and if the required level of reliability is not achieved initially, further training of observers may be conducted to increase the reliability.

b. The use of multiple cameras may allow different aspects of the classroom to be captured simultaneously, and synchronization and the use of a mixer will enable the diﬀerent aspects to be related to each other.

c. Since the videos are permanent records of classroom activities, multiple analyses may be performed. The videos may be analyzed repeatedly, at any time and in any place.

d. The videos may be paused, rewound, fast-forwarded, etc., for further analysis.

This approach used was not cheap (related costs are detailed in appendix 6 of this publication) and it required a fair amount of technical expertise to pull off successfully. Each of the five video study teams included two technical people: one to operate a camera to follow the actions of a teacher (a second stationary 'whole class' camera was used as well) and one to do on site editing of the results from the two cameras. A third person took notes. According to the study authors, doing things in this manner "cost significantly more than other methods of gathering data such as interviews, questionnaires or classroom observation", but the results have offered valuable insights to policymakers leading related teacher reform efforts at the Ministry of National Education.

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While this effort was on-going, another effort to document teacher activities in Indonesian classrooms using video was taking place, supported

how am I doing?
(and what do I look like when I am doing it?)

by USAID. This effort utilized video in a number of different ways, to different ends, than what was done with the TIMMS study. One component of this work (under the DBE2 project) focused on using low cost video to as part of classroom observations to support teacher self-analysis and reflection. Small, inexpensive (less than US$50) consumer grade video cameras (like the now-discontinued Flip cameras) were preferred because of their cost and ease of use (no technical training required). The resulting video may not have been of broadcast quality, but it was plenty good enough for the purposes of the project, which paired teachers with coaches to review video of how teachers conducted their lessons and interacted with students in their classrooms. This sort of low cost, low stakes (teachers were not formally 'graded', and video captured was not part of any sort of formal review of teacher capabilities by educational authorities) interaction with a peer to examine one's own teaching can be quite powerful.

I remember the first time I heard my voice recorded on an answering machine message. I swore that I didn't actually sound like that -- even though I had to concede that the other voices I heard did in fact sound exactly like what I heard on the tape! The same sort of phenomenon was experienced by many teachers in this project in Indonesia, who, by viewing how they looked and acted in the course of their normal classroom duties, were able to see their teaching from a new perspective, critically self-assessing their own individual 'performance' in the process. This method of catalyzing and enabling self-reflection has been used profitably in many other places (in addition to the United States, where such things have happened for quite [pdf] some [pdf] time, efforts of this sort have taken place in countries as diverse as Namibia, Macedonia and Liberia) as a tool for teachers themselves to improve their own teaching practices, both as a result of what they learned about themselves, and from interaction with peers who were also using video to analyze their own teaching.

For policymakers looking for ways to use ICTs to help improve teaching, utilizing low cost video cameras in this way can be a very cost-effective investment - especially when compared with many of the much more complicated and expensive approaches (buying all teachers a laptop, for example, or outfitting a new school computer lab) which are meant to achieve at least some similar sorts of objectives. This is not to say that such things are mutually exclusive, nor that programs to support laptops for teachers or school computer labs are misguided (although, at least for the last option, some skepticism might in some cases be in order). Rather, it is to suggest that computer- (or laptop- or tablet-) centric considerations of how to utilize information and communication technologies might preclude contemplation of some other useful approaches. In the case of low cost video recording, the fact that many low end feature phones (let alone smartphones!) already in the hands of teachers have basic video recording capability only adds to the potential feasibility of doing this sort of thing.

(Teacher self-analysis isn't the only thing you can do with low cost video cameras in classrooms to help support teachers, of course. The DBE2 project explored a whole suite of complementary activities and approaches which took advantage of the availability of cheap, easy-to-use handheld video recording devices, including virtual 'bug-in-the-ear' support, where a teacher with Bluetooth earpiece received live coaching advice in real time; two-way Skype-enabled co-teaching of classes; the posting of teacher videos for peer comment; and the creation of 'video portfolios' documenting the work of teacher coaches.)

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I once toured a school in Asia that was touted as doing 'transformative things with technology'. When visiting such showcase sites -- especially when accompanied by officials from government ministries -- I am under no illusion that what I am seeing is necessarily representative what is happening in other schools -- or indeed, representative of what happens in the school in question when an 'international visitor' and his/her official government minders are not around. Still, there is no substitute for experiencing things firsthand, however staged they may be.

On this particular occasion, I was talking with a very dynamic, and fast walking, schoolmaster. This fellow walked so quickly that we eventually left the rest of our official, and rather large, entourage behind. As we breezed by one open door I paused and, seeing a room with a bunch of computer monitors inside, stopped and asked what was in there.'This is actually our best use of technology', the schoolmaster said (I am paraphrasing here, as I will for the duration of this anecdote, the specifics of which are dulled a bit by time and my lack of fluency in the local language). 'I am not sure why it is not on your itinerary to see.' I asked to see it anyway and, as it was just the two of us at that point in the tour, we ducked in the room, which he was quite eager to show me. I saw about eight or so TV monitors lined up, each showing a live feed from a classroom in the school. 'This is the best teacher evaluation and support tool ever invented', I was told. 'Watch this.' And watch I did, as the schoolmaster pointed to a screen a flipped a switch. 'Stand up straight, and speak louder', he barked into a microphone. The teacher on the screen complied and continued teaching his class. After some additional back and forth, we moved to another screen (and classroom).

After listening to a history teacher lecture for a minute or two (none of which I understood), the schoolmaster interrupted, correcting her on what he told me was a factual error, and then instructing her (I was told) to relate a specific historical anecdote. In another classroom, a few students were directed to get up and say something in English, as'an international visitor is watching'. The principal asked me how good their English was, and said I should correct them if they made a mistake, as this was the only way they would learn. Rather uncomfortable with the whole situation, I spoke into the microphone and complimented the students, and their teacher, on the excellent quality of their spoken English. After watching this stuff for about fifteen minutes, by turns appalled and fascinated, our official entourage caught up with us and I saw my official ministry of education guide blanche when he saw what I was seeing. My impression then (and now, upon reflection) was that he had deliberately not wanted to show me this 'innovative' use of technology, out of fear that I would not be a big fan -- and would probably tell others about it (which I am obviously doing here, although I have not named the school, or indeed even the country).

good news -- you are being watched!

With the cat out of the proverbial bag, we talked about the use of video cameras in the classrooms in the school. The schoolmaster was totally convinced of the efficacy and power of video technology to improve teaching -- and indeed, to motivate teachers. 'As schoolmaster, I am responsible for overseeing and mentoring all of the teachers in my school', he said. 'The teachers like it when I can help them improve. I can't be in all of the classrooms but with this technology I can quickly monitor and support many teachers during the day.' I later talked with a few teachers about this use of video (which I just admit I found rather startling, to say the least, and certainly not something I would ever file under 'good practice'). Some sample comments: 'Schoolmaster ___ wants to support us in everything we do. The use of the video system helps us to become better teachers and make sure that we do not teach our students incorrect things or teach in ineffective ways.' and: 'It is my duty to teach correctly. When I do not do so, our students may not do well on the exams and then that would not be fair.'

My strong sense at the time was that such statements were, for the most part, genuine, especially when they were expressed by the younger teachers. Opinion wasn't universal -- one of the more senior teachers, if memory serves, said something similar, but his manner suggested to me that he didn't entirely believe what he was saying, but that he knew what he was expected to say when talking about this sort of thing with a visitor. Generally speaking, however, this practice was seen to be a good thing. (The fact that the schoolmaster seemed to be quite popular among the teachers probably didn't hurt.)

When I was teaching, I most certainly would not have been happy being observed in this manner, and especially not if I would be corrected in front of my students in such an immediate and public way. I mentioned this, and commented that the use of technology in this manner may not in fact be 'transformative', as the school's use of new technologies had been described to me. In contrast, many people might say that it supported existing pedagogical paradigms, and so was the exact opposite of 'transformative'. (Left unsaid, out of respect for my hosts and a recognition that making such comments might serve more to make me feel somehow 'superior' than to help improve things in some tangible way, was my belief and hope that many 'traditional' teaching practices should be changed, and that introducing new technologies could be one trigger to help change them.) I was told in response that I did not understand the situation. The fact that the schoolmaster could monitor and support teachers in this manner was indeed 'transformative' for the way teachers conducted their lessons, and that this transformation was indeed a positive thing. Fair enough (I guess).

It *is* true, I should probably add, that we had observed via the closed circuit video system a teacher reading a newspaper at his desk.'Stop reading the newspaper and start teaching', the schoolmaster had commanded via the intercom, and the teacher had immediately popped up and started lecturing to the class. 'Teacher ___ is lazy', the schoolmaster told me. 'He is always reading the newspaper when he should be teaching. It is important that I motivate him to become a better teacher so that the students learn and can pass their tests.'

My intention in relating this anecdote here about the use of video in one particular school is not to criticize what I observed.

I have told this story to many different audiences in many different countries over the years, and have seen it -- not surprisingly -- heavily criticized in some quarters (by educational researchers in the United States, for example, and by teachers in Germany).

I have also seen it celebrated. After relating this story in meetings in one Southeast Asian country, for example, I was asked by school principals what it would cost for them to set up such a system in their schools (and if the World Bank could help them do so!). One education minister from another part of the world even told me that it was one of the best uses of technology in a school setting that he had ever heard about.

Rather, it is to highlight the fact that the adoption of new technologies in schools is, at least in my experience, not always as immediately 'transformative' in ways that some of the most impassioned educational technology advocates may desire, as such adoption is almost always constrained (or in some cases, enabled) by preexisting social norms and pedagogical traditions. (Such a statement may seem so obvious that it does not even need to be made, but in my experience in working with the use of educational technologies, it is quite often worth repeating some things that may at times be considered 'blatantly obvious' to outsiders or newcomers to the field, especially where the 'insiders' are so entranced with the technology themselves that larger perspectives fade into the distance.)

That said, the more technology is put directly into the hands of students and teachers themselves, the greater the likelihood that some of them will find novel (perhaps even subversive) uses for such technology that are indeed transformative -- in a good way. Whether the benefits of doing this outweigh the costs will depend on the context.

Rigging up expensive closed circuit television systems is, perhaps, one potential way to utilize video to help teachers improve their teaching. Bringing in trained videographers to record teachers in their classrooms, and having the results analyzed by external evaluators, is another. (It should be noted that certain [pdf] schemes of this sort may be lightning rods for controversy.) Giving teachers low cost video cameras so that they can film themselves teaching -- and then review the footage themselves, possibly together with their peers in informal settings -- is still another option. Some approaches to using video to improve teaching, and support teachers, can cost a lot. Others: not so much. The results can be different too.

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A final question: This morning I read a recent post by Mary Burns on the GPE blog, If We 'Text' It, Will They Learn?, which explores how mobile phones can deployed to support teacher professional development, especially in low income countries. In the blog post, a quite useful chart lists various 'features' of mobile phones, how these features can support teacher learning, and then provides a few related real-world examples. The final feature listed is 'video', and mention is made that "teachers can share video examples of a procedure they are trying out in class" and "teachers can view video examples of desired practice". However, I find it interesting that no concrete examples are listed of projects that actually are doing these things. Anecdotally there is of course evidence of this happening in ad hoc ways in certain places (including, for what it's worth, within the context of the DBE project in Indonesia), but I am unaware of any project that is seeking to use phones systematically in this manner. If anyone knows of examples, please feel free to add them in the comments section below. I would love to be able to cite such practical examples when discussing with education policymakers the potential to use video to support teachers in schools. Once, when I seemed to make some progress in this regard, I was told in response that, while this seemed like an interesting idea, the ministry of education had already purchased digital cameras for use in schools in a previous project. Many had been stolen, however, and so the finance ministry would be leery of any new project that sought to purchase lots more of them. That's unfortunate, I replied. But have you considered the fact that many of your teachers already have video cameras in their classrooms? They are built into their phones. Perhaps you might consider a small pilot project using the technology that some teachers already have, know how to use, and will ensure will not be stolen, as a way to demonstrate proof-of-concept, both to yourselves and the ministry of finance, in a very low cost way?

Note: The image at the top of this blog post of two African students using an inexpensive Flip camera ("smile and say 'PISA!'") comes from Erik Hersman. Discovered using the Creative Commons search tool, it comes via Flickr and is used according to the terms of its Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (CC BY 2). Those not familiar with Hersman's work may wish to check out Afrigadget, a great website he founded that is "dedicated to showcasing African ingenuity". The second image is a screenshot of the cover of the World Bank publication "Inside Indonesia's Mathematics Classrooms : A TIMSS Video Study of Teaching Practices and Student Achievement", which is available via the World Bank's Open Knowledge Repository. The third image ("how am I doing? (and what do I look like when I am doing it?)") is of a classroom supported under the Decentralized Basic Education project in Indonesia. It was located via a blog post on the USAID website, New Teaching Methods and Resources Transform Indonesian School. As it comes from USAID, it is in the public domain. (USAID, by the way, maintains a small repository of its public domain images for free download.) The last image of a sign in German noting that an area is under video surveillance ("good news -- you are being watched!") comes from the Wikipedian Warmito (actually a married couple) via Wikimedia Commons and is used according to the terms of its Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Many thanks to Mary Burns of EDC (whose book Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models and Methods is an invaluable source of practical examples of how ICTs can be used to support teacher professional development) for related background information and insights.

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Using video to improve teaching -- and support teachers

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smile and say 'PISA!' Much of the discussion related to how new technologies can be used in classrooms in low and middle income countries focuses on the use of PCs, desktops and tablets.

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SOLE (Self Organized Learning Environment 

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SOLE (Self Organized Learning Environment 

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Mr. Mitra says he has no intention of doing away with teachers at 5:30/7:

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Sugata Mitra reflects on his research, his critics and on the future of learning

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Denise Scott Brown

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Web of Stories - Life Stories of Remarkable People

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Robert Venturi & Denise Scott Brown - Learning by doing; how to run studios (Part 1) (58/118)

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Denise Scott Brown

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Web of Stories - Life Stories of Remarkable People

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Robert Venturi & Denise Scott Brown - Learning by doing; how to run studios (Part 2) (59/118)

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See the eduScrum Guide as well.
(http://eduscrum.nl/en/file/CKFiles/The_eduScrum_Guide_EN_1.2.pdf)

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De officiele eduScrum website., Homepage

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"The primary mission of AMTA is to provide quality professional development for teachers of STEM courses. Most PD occurs in summer workshops of 2-3 weeks duration that thoroughly treat the pedagogy and content for a middle school, high school, or introductory college STEM course."

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AMTA typically provides (and strongly recommends) workshops that are at least three weeks in duration. We believe that in order for teachers to truly transform their practice, they must have the opportunity to practice the interactive engagement techniques crucial to the successful implementation of Modeling Instruction in the classroom.

Two-week workshops can also be effective, provided academic year follow-up support is available. Professional development experiences that are shorter in duration are not considered Modeling Workshops. Such "Modeling Lite" or "Introduction to Modeling" type sessions afford participants the chance to explore aspects of modeling instruction. However, we believe they provide teachers neither sufficient time to develop a deep understanding of the pedagogy nor the opportunity to practice the listening and questioning skills that allow one to successfully implement the approach.

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Modeling Workshops and Distance Learning Courses

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AMTA typically provides (and strongly recommends) workshops that are at least three weeks in duration. We believe that in order for teachers to truly transform their practice, they must have the opportunity to practice the interactive engagement techniques crucial to the successful implementation of Modeling Instruction in the classroom.

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Use of video and mentoring

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With Teaching Channel Teams your teachers can collaborate deeply around video to improve their practice and lift student achievement. Watch the video to learn how Teams works.

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A few decades ago I heard about Japanese teacher yearly lesson revision and peer critiquing.

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"My teachers stood in the front and talked," she says. "And that was it."

To help the teachers at O'Keeffe learn how to do inquiry-based teaching, she gave them training. Lots of training. She set up workshops and sent them to professional development days.

But, it wasn't working. She and her administrative team would visit classrooms, hoping to see all this great inquiry-based teaching. What they saw instead were a lot of teachers standing at the front of the room, talking. The teachers were learning about inquiry-based teaching at the workshops, but they didn't know how to actually do it when they got back to their classrooms. So they fell back on what they remembered about how their teachers taught, says Bankhead.

This is a common complaint about the traditional approach to teacher professional development in the United States. Teachers go to workshops and professional development days where they might get great new ideas about teaching. But when they get back to their classrooms and try to put those ideas into practice, all kinds of questions come up. And the expert who led the workshop isn't there to help. Often, there's no one to turn to for help.

Teachers in the United States have been expected to go into their classrooms, shut their doors, and figure things out on their own.

Bankhead and her administrative team realized the typical American approach wasn't going to work if they wanted to dramatically change teaching at their school. One of the O'Keeffe assistant principals had recently learned about an approach to professional development called "lesson study" in a class taught by a Japanese professor. They decided to get in touch with the professor, see if he could help them.
Bringing Lesson Study to Chicago
Akihiko Takahashi is a professor of math education at DePaul University. Before that, he was an elementary school teacher in Japan. He first came to the United States in the early 1990s looking for all the great approaches to teaching math that he and his colleagues in Japan had learned about from American researchers. When he couldn't find these approaches being used in classrooms, he soon realized why: There was no lesson study in the United States.

Lesson study is a form of professional development Japanese teachers use to help them improve and to incorporate new ideas and methods into their teaching.

"If there's no lesson study," Takahashi says, "how can teachers learn how to improve instruction?"

Here's how lesson study works.

A group of teachers comes together and identifies a teaching problem they want to solve. Maybe their students are struggling with adding fractions.

Next, the teachers do some research on why students struggle with adding fractions. They read the latest education literature and look at lessons other teachers have tried. Typically they have an "outside adviser." This person is usually an expert or researcher who does not work at the school but who's invited to advise the group and help them with things like identifying articles and studies to read.

After they've done the research, the teachers design a lesson plan together. The lesson plan is like their hypothesis: If we teach this lesson in this way, we think students will understand fractions better.

Then, one of the teachers teaches the lesson to students, and the other teachers in the group observe. Often other teachers in the school will come watch, and sometimes educators from other schools too. It's called a public research lesson.

During the public research lesson, the observers don't focus on the teacher; they focus on the students. How are the students reacting to the lesson? What are they understanding or misunderstanding? The purpose is to improve the lesson, not to critique the teacher.

In the United States, we tend to think that improving education is about improving teachers - recruiting better ones, firing bad ones.

But the Japanese think about improving teaching. It's a very different idea, says James Hiebert, an education researcher at the University of Delaware who has written about lesson study.

"Everything we do in the U.S. is focused on the effectiveness of the individual," Hiebert says. "Is this teacher effective? Not, are the methods they're using effective, and could they use other methods?"

Hiebert says to improve education in the United States, we need to shift from thinking about how to improve teachers to thinking about how to improve teaching. Lesson study is one way to do that, he says.
Lesson Study at O'Keeffe
Akihiko Takahashi now helps run an organization called Lesson Study Alliance that helps American teachers, mostly in Chicago, learn lesson study. One of the schools is O'Keeffe.

I visited O'Keeffe in January 2015 to talk with teachers about their experience with lesson study and to see a public research lesson.

One of the first things to understand about lesson study is that it's a long process, kind of the opposite of the one-day workshop American teachers are used to. Teachers come together to identify a problem they want to solve. Then they spend months doing research and planning a lesson.

I spent most of my time at O'Keeffe with a group of three teachers who had been working together as part of a lesson study group since the previous summer. Angela Flores and Melissa Warner teach third grade. Wanna Allen teaches fourth grade math and science.

When they first came together to identify the teaching problem they wanted to solve, they had several things on their mind. One, they knew the overall goal for the school was for teachers to work on inquiry-based teaching. Two, they were thinking about the Common Core. That's a set of new education standards that lay out what kids should know and be able to do in each grade. Teachers at O'Keeffe - and across the country - are still figuring out how to teach the standards. Lesson study, they thought, would be a good way to do that.

"I'd rather struggle together than struggle by myself," says Flores. She liked the idea of lesson study right away.

Flores, Warner and Allen decided to plan a math lesson that would focus on the third grade Common Core math standards for geometry. They noticed that kids often struggled with understanding how to find the area of a shape. Memorizing the formula "length times width" wasn't a problem for many of them, but they didn't seem to understand what the formula meant. If they were asked to find the area of an odd shape - a parallelogram or a few rectangles put together - kids often had no idea where to begin.

It took months of planning and consultation to come up with a lesson plan.

"It's a lot of meeting after school," says Warner.

That gets a laugh from her colleagues. They don't get paid for this extra time. Their principal, Bankhead, does arrange for subs to come in occasionally to free them up for planning. But for the most part, doing lesson study requires teachers to be willing to work at night and on weekends.

"The pay is in the results," says Allen. "You're getting better as a teacher."

Warner says lesson study has helped her think about teaching in a new way.

"It was about me before," she says. "It was like, these are the things I'm going to teach you, and this is my end result."

She was more focused on whether kids could demonstrate what they'd learned on an assignment or a test. She was less aware of how kids were actually learning.

Lesson study helps you "get into new habits as a thinker, and as an instructor," Warner says. "And I see such a difference in my kids because of it. I feel like in the past, if my kids got an unfamiliar problem, they would just shut down, not know what to do. Now everyone's creating a solution, and then we're ready to talk about it."

Lesson study is a welcome change from the old way of doing professional development, Warner says. It's no longer "you going back to your classroom and stumbling around with an idea."

Now, she says, there's someone to give you feedback and say, try it this way.

"It's turned my practice around."
Results
Teachers at O'Keeffe haven't been doing lesson study long enough to know what kind of impact it's having on student learning. Other schools in Chicago that have been doing lesson study have seen test score growth, but there's no way to know for sure whether that's because of lesson study.

There is some evidence that lesson study improves teaching. A recent review of research on professional development in the United States looked at 643 studies on approaches to improving math teaching. Only two of the approaches were found to have positive effects on students' math proficiency. One of them was lesson study.

Jasmine Bankhead, the principal at O'Keeffe, believes lesson study is working at her school.

"I'm seeing much better teaching, and there's an attitude in the building that we're all in this together," she says. "That's what we needed here. I know that as I plan and budget that I have to make room for this type of collaboration in my school, so that my teachers can continue to grow."

Catherine Lewis, an American researcher who has been helping teachers in the United States learn lesson study for 15 years, says she recently asked one of the teachers she'd been working with, what's the biggest change with lesson study?

She says the teacher told her, "The talk around the water cooler has really changed. We used to hide it when we had a failure. And everybody has failures in teaching. But we used to hide them. And now, we're perfectly comfortable saying, 'You know, I don't have a good way of teaching division with remainders. What do you do? Can I come see it in your classroom?'"

It's hard to know how many teachers in the United States are doing lesson study. There's no official count. Lewis estimates thousands of teachers are doing it.

There's even a whole state that's trying it: Florida, which got a federal grant in 2010 to encourage its schools to adopt lesson study.

But lesson study can be challenging in American schools. There are practical challenges, like finding time for teachers to plan together and watch each other teach. Japanese teachers have this kind of time built into their work schedule.

And there are cultural challenges. The organizing principle behind Japanese lesson study is that the best ideas for improving education come from teachers. It's a bottom up kind of approach.

In the United States, education improvement tends to be top-down.

"The American approach has been to write and distribute reform documents and ask teachers to implement those recommendations," says Hiebert.

Lesson study flips the script. It's one of the reasons so many American teachers who try lesson study like it. But it's also why lesson study can be a fragile enterprise in the United States. There are plenty of stories about educators who start lesson study, then a new principal comes in with a different idea about how to do things, and lesson study falls apart.

Another challenge for lesson study in American schools is the fact that it's a long and intensive process.

"We are so addicted to quick fixes," says Hiebert. "If it doesn't fix things in two years, it's not worth it."

We have this attitude about teachers too, he says. Research shows that teachers in the United States improve the most early in their careers, but after about three to five years in the classroom, they're about a s good as they're going to get. If you're not a great teacher after a few years, you might as well quit or be fired. That's the thinking in the United States anyway.

But in Japan, you're not considered an expert teacher until you've been in the classroom for at least 10 years. The Japanese take teacher learning seriously, Hiebert says. They believe teachers will improve if they work in a system that values improvement.

The United States needs that kind of system, he says.

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'Lesson Study' Technique: What Teachers Can Learn From One Another

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"My teachers stood in the front and talked," she says. "And that was it." To help the teachers at O'Keeffe learn how to do inquiry-based teaching, she gave them training. Lots of training. She set up workshops and sent them to professional development days. But, it wasn't working.

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Escuela Nueva - Education model (brief description)

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This a brief explanation of the Escuela Nueva model, as well as the work done by Fundación Escuela Nueva.

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This method makes use of untrained people as apprentices to a Master teacher

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At Bridge, we're committed to hands-on learning for every child and utilising wireless technology to deliver great results. We support teachers, tailor lessons and leverage cutting edge innovation and technology to provide families with great schools and high-quality education.

Below are some examples we've developed to help us:

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At Bridge, we're committed to hands-on learning for every child and utilising wireless technology to deliver great results. We support teachers, tailor lessons and leverage cutting edge innovation and technology to provide families with great schools and high-quality education. Below are some examples we've developed to help us:

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This is "How Teachers Can Learn" by The Learning Exchange (1) on Vimeo, the home for high quality videos and the people who love them.

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I'm a little concerned about perpetuating the Victorian era model of teaching with desks in rows, but this is along the right direction. However, 'sage on the stage' is obsolete for students that can read

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Virtual Reality Classroom Trains Teachers

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Ideas That Work, http://www.ideasthatwork.com.au, has developed the What Works for LLN online library, http://www.ideasthatwork.com.au/what-works-for-lln, of free LLN training and professional development videos. There are 25 videos in the What Works for LLN library: 1. Why is Language, Literacy and Numeracy so important? 2.

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Want to Help Someone? Shut Up and Listen!

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Want to Help Someone? Shut Up and Listen!

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This speech by a former aid worker is a bit rude but correct. The speech is on how to help people in general as a kind of mentor or consultant. The emphasis is on business rather than teaching but it applies to Teachers helping students and prospective students as well. The view is echoed by the former professor, Dr. Roger Schank who wrote on his Web Homepage that "Learning occurs when someone wants to learn, not when someone wants to teach."
Teachers need to heed the words of both of these men.

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Ernesto Sirolli: Want to help someone? Shut up and listen!

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When most well-intentioned aid workers hear of a problem they think they can fix, they go to work. This, Ernesto Sirolli suggests, is naïve. In this funny and impassioned talk, he proposes that the first step is to listen to the people you're trying to help, and tap into their own entrepreneurial spirit.

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What is the Escuela Nueva Activa® model?

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Professors are on the bottom of the list when it comes to the role of educators. In many respects Granny Cloud Mediators rate higher as pedagogical assistants.
"As a professor of 35 years, I always knew that I didn't care much about undergraduates. I hoped maybe someone else did. The reason I didn't care about them is pretty much the same reason that most professors at research universities don't care about them. It's not our/their job. No, really. It isn't."
- Dr. Roger Schank, PhD.
http://www.rogerschank.com/from-professor-to-business-owner-why

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Memoir of the late Professor Edwin T. Jaynes

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Memoir of the late Professor Edwin T. Jaynes

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"In my opinion, the University science teaching profession is an
honorable and socially necessary one; and no good teacher needs to apologize if he does not also turn out volumes of research. Indeed, the quality of our education today determines the quality of our research tomorrow."
- Edwin T. Jaynes

"But it required a few years before I perceived what a science teacher's job really is.
The goal should be, not to implant in the student's mind every fact that the teacher knows now; but rather to implant a way of thinking that will enable the student, in the future, to learn in one year what the teacher learned in two years. Only in that way can we continue to advance from one generation to the next."

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What We're Learning from Online Education

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What We're Learning from Online Education

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Daphne Koller: What we're learning from online education

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Daphne Koller is enticing top universities to put their most intriguing courses online for free -- not just as a service, but as a way to research how people learn. With Coursera (cofounded by Andrew Ng), each keystroke, quiz, peer-to-peer discussion and self-graded assignment builds an unprecedented pool of data on how knowledge is processed.

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Learning Web App Development by Semmy Purewal (O'Reilly). Copyright 2014 Semmy Purewal, 978-1-449-37019-0 Preface pg. xi-xii
"... there's a pretty large gap between practical, everyday software engineering and programming as taught by computer science departments at colleges and universities." pg. xi

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TabLab is transforming learning in rural schools.

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TeachUNITED provides tablet technology and teacher training to transform the world's rural schools for the fraction of the cost of a traditional computer lab.

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Design thinking is a mindset. It is the confidence that everyone can be part of creating a more desirable future, and a process to take action when faced with a difficult challenge. That kind of optimism is well needed in education.

Classrooms and schools across the world are facing design challenges every single day, from teacher feedback systems to daily schedules. Wherever they fall on the spectrum of scale - the challenges educators are confronted with are real, complex, and varied. And as such, they require new perspectives, new tools, and new approaches. Design thinking is one of them.

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Design thinking is a mindset. It is the confidence that everyone can be part of creating a more desirable future, and a process to take action when faced with a difficult challenge. That kind of optimism is well needed in education.

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From the Campfire to the Holodeck: How Place Matters in Education

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This module was initially developed by Betty Blecha and currently is coordinated by Beth Haynes . The module was refined and enhanced by Mark McBride, Teresa Riley, Katherine Rowell, KimMarie McGoldrick, Mark Maier, and Scott Simkins.

To view this video please enable JavaScript, and consider upgrading to a web browser that supports HTML5 video
Barry Keating's class conducts a stock market simulation.

What are Instructional Simulations?

When students use a model of behavior to gain a better understanding of that behavior, they are doing a simulation. For example:

When students are assigned roles as buyers and sellers of some good and asked to strike deals to exchange the good, they are learning about market behavior by simulating a market.

When students take on the roles of party delegates to a political convention and run the model convention, they are learning about the election process by simulating a political convention.

When students create an electric circuit with an online program, they are learning about physics theory by simulating an actual physical set-up.

Students often use simulations to make predictions about the social, economic, or natural world. Learn more about simulations
Why Teach with Simulations?

Instructional simulations have the potential to engage students in "deep learning" that empowers understanding as opposed to "surface learning" that requires only memorization. Deep learning means that students:

Learn scientific methods including

the importance of model building.

the relationships among variables in a model or models.

data issues, probability and sampling theory.

how to use a model to predict outcomes.

Learn to reflect on and extend knowledge by

actively engaging in student-student or instructor-student conversations needed to conduct a simulation.

tranfering knowledge to new problems and situations.

understanding and refining their own though processes.

seeing social processes and social interactions in action.

Learn more about teaching with simulations

How to Teach with Simulations

Effectiveness instructional simulations require:

Instructor preparation.The good news is that instructional simulations can be very effective in stimulating student understanding. The bad news is that many simulations require intensive lesson preparation.

Active student participation. The learning effectiveness of instructional simulation rests on actively engaging students in problem solving.

Post-simulation discussion. Students need sufficient time to reflect on the simulation results.

Learn how to teach with simulations

Examples of Teaching with Simulations

A good way to learn about instructional simulations for your courses is to go to the examples pages.

See examples of simulations

References

The References page includes both general and discipline specific papers, books, and articles about using instructional simulations in undergraduate education.

Browse the list of references

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This module was initially developed by Betty Blecha and currently is coordinated by Beth Haynes . The module was refined and enhanced by Mark McBride, Teresa Riley, Katherine Rowell, KimMarie McGoldrick, Mark ...

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This teaches an obsolete method of teaching but the idea of creating experiences is there.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzgohf_CeDA

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Teach Live - Students perfect teaching skills in virtual classroom

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Students perfect teaching skills in virtual classroom December 5, 2014 - Faculty/Staff News, Featured News, School of Education, Student News inShare Education majors are getting real word teaching experience thanks in part to TeachLivE™, a mixed-reality simulation lab that supports teacher practice in classroom management.

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Simulation of a Teacher Parent Conference

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The University of Central Florida has developed one of the most innovative approaches to teacher preparation in the nation. In collaboration with the university's Institute for Simulation and Training, professors at UCF's College of Education developed the TLE TeachLivE™ project to enable teaching candidates and veteran instructors to sharpen their classroom skills.

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The role of teachers has changed.

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managed training services running training like a business

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Established in 1981, NIIT (www.niit.com) offers Managed Training Services (MTS) to market-leading companies in 40 countries. Our comprehensive suite of Managed Training Services includes custom Curriculum Design and Content Development, Learning Administration, Learning Delivery, Strategic Sourcing, Learning Technology, and Advisory Services.

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Gaming: The Future's Language; Richard Duke; SAGE Publications, 1974

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Gaming: the future's language; Richard D. Duke; SAGE Publications, 1974; ISBN 0-470-22405-3; reproduced in facsimile. This work is licensed under a Creative Co...

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This is a video that Mursion created for the Digital Now conference May 8-10.

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Our Approach - Delphian School, Oregon's Premiere International Day and Boarding School

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Study Trouble? Difficulty Learning and Retaining Things? - Scientology Handbook

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In all your schooling, did anyone ever teach you how to study something? This technology provides an understanding of the basics of learning and supplies exact ways to overcome all the pitfalls one can encounter during study.

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Supervised Courserooms and books (based on H.G. Wells and L. Ron Hubbard)

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Supervised Courserooms and books (based on H.G. Wells and L. Ron Hubbard)

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It is clear from what Mr. Wells wrote in 1921 that lectures should have become obsolete many decades and even centuries earlier than they have. Even in the 1980's a physics lecturer stated that he assigned his students one textbook while composing his lectures using a completely different textbook. For several decades now the technology has existed to remove lecturing from education altogether as an inefficient method of instruction. See the following article by Roger Schank (https://oeb-insights.com/tag/roger-schank/)
Mr. Hubbard set up Supervised Courserooms from the 1950's that were based primarily on books, but also recorded lectures (audio) with printed transcripts and  films. However, with the coming of computers and digital/analog electronic simulators, books and the transmission model of education have become obsolete as the primary tools of education. The role of teacher is no longer sage on the stage but guide on the side.

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The Salvaging of Civilization, by H.G. Wells, free ebook

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Training to Survive the Hazard called Education by Joseph Agassi

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Training to Survive the Hazard called Education by Joseph Agassi

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Pedagogical content knowledge is a necessity for a great Math teacher but that mathematical pedagogical content knowledge is not necessary for all teachers to know. Every teacher should have pedagogical content knowledge within their area of expertise but they may not be working in front of a class but more behind the scenes as pedagogical experts. E.g. assisting with the design of Khan Academy Learning Paths and the Exercise Software. Also, with the design and production of very short remedial videos or text that will be accessed by students.

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Supervised Courserooms in Churches of Scientology

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Supervised Courserooms in Churches of Scientology

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During his research, L. Ron Hubbard made many advances in how best to educate people and these are applied in training services ministered by the Church. He isolated the fundamentals of learning and codified these into a technology of study. Study Technology is a separate field in itself, with application to any subject of learning. It is used in all Scientology training but is equally useful in the study of any subject.

Among elements unique to Scientology course rooms is the Course Supervisor, an expert in the technology of study, adept at locating and handling any barriers or obstacles to understanding which one might encounter.

The Supervisor does not lecture, nor in any way add his own rendition of the subject. This point is important because the results obtained in Scientology come only from closely following the technology exactly as written by Mr. Hubbard. The subject has already been researched, tested and well-proven as workable in application. Verbal renditions passed on from teacher to student would inevitably contain alterations from the original, however unintentional, until Scientology's efficacy would be lost. This is why considerable attention is paid to ensuring that a student receives only the pure rendition as written or spoken by L. Ron Hubbard himself.

Instead, the Supervisor helps the individual to grasp the materials, always stressing understanding and application. This method of education has been found to enable individuals to understand more and be far better able to use what they have learned than traditional methods of instruction.

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During his research, L. Ron Hubbard made many advances in how best to educate people and these are applied in training services ministered by the Church. He isolated the fundamentals of learning and codified these into a technology of study. Study Technology is a separate field in itself, with application to any subject of learning.

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Study Technology Developed by L. Ron Hubbard

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Study Technology Developed by L. Ron Hubbard

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L. Ron Hubbard: Study Technology - Study Tech

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L. Ron Hubbard: Study Technology (Study Tech) for effective learning and education.

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Mr. L. Ron Hubbard wrote and spoke a great deal about education. The education system that he developed for Scientology Auditors involves supervised courserooms, recorded media content, peer coaching and roleplay for practical drills. Applied Scholastics is the main promotional agency for the secular application of Mr. Hubbard's system. Mr. Hubbard's system is also used by Delphian school.
There is much more to the system than is contained in the Scientology Handbook booklet entitled "The Technology of Study" (http://www.volunteerministers.org/bookstore/study.html).

Method One Word Clearing
Student Hat
Course Supervisor Course
Supervisor Drills
Student Points System
Student Point Sheet
Pink Sheet

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Free Independent Training Cheeksheets | iScientology

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We have set up, by necessity, an Independent Scientology course room, not affiliated with DM's because we want to practice Scientology and due to DM's

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Course Supervisor Course based on the writings of L. Ron Hubbard

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Course Supervisor Course based on the writings of L. Ron Hubbard

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WISE - World Institute of Scientology Enterprises

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There are 26 Hubbard management courses you can deliver in your business with WISE membership. Anyone in your workforce, regardless of prior familiarity with the Hubbard management system, can quickly grasp the materials on these courses and become a trained and fully effective manager or employee

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This is a proprietary teaching method and certification must be obtained outside of traditional teaching colleges.

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Welcome to Spalding Education International

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Up the Down Staircase is a novel written by Bel Kaufman, published in 1964, which spent 64 weeks on The New York Times Best Seller list. In 1967 it was released as a film starring Sandy Dennis, Patrick Bedford, and Eileen Heckart.

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Chinwe H. Ikpeze

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College Courses vs. Spalding -- Which Teaches How to Teach Reading Better?

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1921- Mass Published Books as High Tech (obsolete in 2017)

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1921- Mass Published Books as High Tech (obsolete in 2017)

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"And now let me come to the second problem we opened up in connection with college education—the problem of its extension.

Can we extend it over most or all of a modern population?

I don't think we can, if we are to see it in terms of college buildings, class rooms, tutors, professors and the like. Here again, just as in the case of schooling, we have to raise the neglected problem—neglected so far as education goes—of economy of effort; and we have to look once more at the new facilities that our educational institutions have so far refused to utilize. Our European colleges and universities have a long and honourable tradition that again owes much to the educational methods of the Roman Empire and the Hellenic world. This tradition was already highly developed before the days of printing from movable type, and long before the days when maps or illustrations were printed. The higher education, therefore, was still, as it was in the Stone Age, largely vocal. And the absence of paper and so forth, rendering notebooks costly and rare, made a large amount of memorizing necessary. For that reason the mediæval university teacher was always dividing his subject into firstly and secondly and fourthly and sixthly and so on, so that the student could afterwards tick off and reproduce the points on his fingers—a sort of thumb and finger method of thought—still to be found in perfection in the discourses of that eminent Catholic apologist, Mr. Hilaire Belloc. It is a method that destroys all sense of proportion between the headings; main considerations and secondary and tertiary points get all catalogued off as equivalent numbers, but it was a mnemonic necessity of those vanished days.

And they have by no means completely vanished. We still use the lecture as the normal basis of instruction in our colleges, we still hear discourses in the firstly, secondly and thirdly form, and we still prefer even a second-rate professor on the spot to the printed word of the ablest teacher at a distance. Most of us who have been through college courses can recall the distress of hearing a dull and inadequate view of a subject being laboriously unfolded in a long series of tedious lectures, in spite of the existence of full and competent text-books. And here again it would seem that the time has come to centralize our best teaching, to create a new sort of wide teaching professor who will teach not in one college but in many, and to direct the local professor to the more suitable task of ensuring by a commentary, by organized critical work, and so forth, that the text-book is duly read, discussed and compared with the kindred books in the college library.

This means that the great teaching professors will not lecture, or that they will lecture only to try over their treatment of a subject before an intelligent audience as a prelude to publication. They may perhaps visit the colleges under their influence, but their basis instrument of instruction will be not a course of lectures but a book. They will carry out the dictum of Carlyle that the modern university is a university of books.

Now the frank recognition of the book and not the lecture as the substantial basis of instruction opens up a large and interesting range of possibilities. It releases the process of learning from its old servitude to place and to time. It is no longer necessary for the student to go to a particular room, at a particular hour, to hear the golden words drop from the lips of a particular teacher. The young man who reads at eleven o'clock in the morning in luxurious rooms in Trinity College, Cambridge, will have no very marked advantage over another young man, employed during the day, who reads at eleven o'clock at night in a bed-sitting-room in Glasgow. The former, you will say, may get commentary and discussion, but there is no particular reason why the latter should not form some sort of reading society with his fellows, and discuss the question with them in the dinner hour and on the way to the works. Nor is there any reason why he should not get tutorial help as a university extension from the general educational organization, as good in quality as any other tutorial help.And this release of the essentials of a college education from limitations of locality and time brought about by modern conditions, not only makes it unnecessary for a man to come "up" to college to be educated, but abolishes the idea that his educational effort comes to an end when he goes "down." Attendance at college no longer justifies a claim to education; inability to enter a college is no longer an excuse for illiteracy.

I do not think that our educational and university authorities realize how far the college stage of education has already escaped from the local limitations of colleges; they do not understand what a great and growing volume of adolescent learning and thought, of college education in the highest and best sense of the word, goes on outside the walls of colleges altogether; and on the other they do not grasp the significant fact that, thanks to the high organization of sports and amusements and social life in our more prosperous universities, a great proportion of the youngsters who come in to their colleges never get the realities of a college education at all, and go out into the world again as shallow and uneducated as they came in. And this failure to grasp the great change in educational conditions brought about, for the most part, in the last half-century, accounts for the fact that when we think of any extension of higher education in the modern community we are all too apt to think of it as a great proliferation of expensive, pretentious college buildings and a great multiplication of little teaching professorships, and a further segregation of so many hundreds or thousands of our adolescents from the general community, when as a matter of fact the reality of education has ceased to lie in that direction at all. The modern task is not to multiply teachers but to exalt and intensify exceptionally good teachers, to recognize their close relationship with the work of university research—which it is their business to digest and interpret—and to secure the production and wide distribution of books throughout the community." The Salvaging of Civilization, 1921 by H.G. Wells, Ch: 7 College, Newspaper and Book

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Winner of the 2019 Global Teacher Prize

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What is wrong with the education system - Part 1

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What is wrong with the education system - Part 1

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A conversation on what is wrong with the education system. This video could be used as an example of using technology to connect a student teacher with an experienced mentor.

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What's wrong with the education system part 1

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What is wrong with the education system - Part 2

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What is wrong with the education system - Part 2

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A continuation of a conversation with Dr. Roger Schank, PhD.

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What's wrong with the education system part 2

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What is wrong with the education system - Part 3

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What is wrong with the education system - Part 3

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How to fix the education system

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What's wrong with the education system part 3

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2019 AMTA-Modeling Instruction Promo Video

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Learning to Teach in Practice: Finland's Teacher Training Schools