# data[].attributes.body
While much research has taken place on the topic of speciation, many questions remain. Butlin et al. (2012) have determined 13 key speciation questions that they have categorized into three research areas: origin and build-up of reproductive isolation, genetics of speciation, and patterns of species diversity. Which of these research areas do you think is most important to focus on in future speciation studies and why?

Butlin, R., Debelle, A., Kerth, C., Snook, R.R., Beukeboom, L.W., Castillo Cajas, R.F., ... Schilthuizen, M. (2012). What do we need to know about speciation? Trends Ecol Evol, 27(1), 27-39. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.09.002

# data[].attributes.body
A Greenberg and Mooers ( 2017) study supports the idea that a correlation may exist between speciation and higher rates of extinction. Evidence supports that amphibians that have a more rapid, ongoing diversification process have a greater share of species threatened with extinction compared to more slowly diversifying groups. According to the article, how is this possible? Give an example of a species that displays higher rates of extinction due to rapid diversification.

Greenberg, A. & Mooers, A. (2017). Linking speciation to extinction: Diversification raises contemporary risk in amphibians. Evolution Letters, 1 (1).

# data[].attributes.body
Question 1: In the video on speciation (Bozeman Science, 2011) and several of the articles, prezygotic and postzygotic barriers are discussed. Using these resources, describe the difference between the types of barriers. Research and describe a species (preferably a local one for you) to show how it demonstrates one of these barriers.Bozeman Science. (2011, June 24). Speciation [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rlfNvoyijmo

# data[].attributes.body
Happen before the egg is fertilized. Types of pre-zygotic barriers include:
-Temporal
-Mechanical
-Behavioral

# data[].attributes.body
Happen after the egg is fertilized. Post-zygotic barriers can prevent the offspring from being viable or produce sterile offspring.

# data[].attributes.headline
Cat Ba Langur (Trachypithecus poliocephalus)

# data[].attributes.subject
Cat Ba Langur (Trachypithecus poliocephalus)

# data[].attributes.body
Pre-zygotic barriers: gene flow restricted by geographic isolation

# data[].attributes.body
Post-zygotic barriers: zygote mortality

# data[].attributes.body
Pre-zygotic barriers: behavioral isolation; different species of fireflies attract mates with different flashing patterns.

# data[].attributes.body
Firefly Communication

# data[].attributes.body
Post-zygotic barriers: sterile hybirds, such as mules or hybrid mice

# data[].attributes.headline
Fundulus heteroclitus and Fundulus grandis

# data[].attributes.subject
Fundulus heteroclitus and Fundulus grandis

# data[].attributes.body
These species of fish are capable of producing hybrids.  Pre-zygotic barriers influenced the lack of hybrids in regions where the two species have choice of mates.

# data[].attributes.body
Geographic pre-zygotic barriers cause sterile offspring in some distant regions of forests in Northwestern United States.

# data[].attributes.body
For many years, it was believed ligers (male lion/female tiger) and tigons (male tiger/female lion) always created sterile hybrids, a post-zygotic barrier. It has since been found females may be somewhat capable of reproducing.

# data[].attributes.headline
Gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) and Cope’s gray treefrog (Hyla chrysoscelis)

# data[].attributes.subject
Gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) and Cope’s gray treefrog (Hyla chrysoscelis)

# data[].attributes.body
Different mating calls, a behavioral barrier, prevents these two species of treefrogs from mating.

# data[].attributes.body
Geographic isolation led to two distinct beaver species, the American beaver and Eurasian beaver.

# data[].attributes.body
The novel environment of vernal pools have led to new species, such as the San Diego Mesa Mint. A reduction in vernal pools has led this species to become endangered.

# data[].attributes.body
Sexual selection based on colored lighting, a behavioral barrier, led to reproductive isolation in stickelbacks.

# data[].attributes.body
Hybrid rice is now used to increased yield per acre. Sterile males are used to prevent sexual reproduction and preserve the hybrid.

# data[].attributes.body
Eupomphini show high morphological variation but low species diversity due to historically high extinction rates and the resulting desertification.

# data[].attributes.body
Amblyopsis are highly specialized to live in dark places, such as caves, and have evolved with low/no pigment and no eyes. Lack of resources and nutrients in caves have led to low populations, and threat of extinction.

# data[].attributes.body
Close evolution with host plants leads to a high threat of extinction.

# data[].attributes.body
Humans can influence rapid evolution, such as how mosquitoes in the London Underground can no longer breed with mosquitoes above ground.

# data[].attributes.body
There are many “species concepts” that are used However, there are three most important “species concepts” currently in use - The Morphospecies Concept, The Biological Species Concept, and The Phylogenetic Species Concept (Freeman & Heron- Freeman, S. & Herron, J., 2007). Describe one of these concepts, including the advantages and disadvantages of it. Also, give an example of a type of organism/taxa that might be best defined by this concept and explain why. Pick one of the other 22 species concepts from the table and give a basic definition of it.

Freeman & Heron- Freeman, S. & Herron, J. (2007). Evolutionary Analysis 4th Ed. Speciation, pp 605 - 633.

Mayden, R. L. (2002). On biological species, species concepts and individuation in the natural world. FISH AND FISHERIES, 3(3), 171–196. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.miamioh.edu/10.1046/j.1467-2979.2002.00086.x

# data[].attributes.headline
The 3 Major Species Concepts and their advantages and disadvantages

# data[].attributes.subject
The 3 Major Species Concepts and their advantages and disadvantages

# data[].attributes.body
Comparison chart from Freeman, S., Quillin, K., & Allison, L. (2013). Chapter 27: Speciation, Biological Science (pp.1416). Pearson Education, Limited.

# data[].attributes.body
Morphological concept studies the similarities and differences of morphology characters among different species. One example is to compare a human hand, bat wing, and whale flippers.

# data[].attributes.body
There is debate about whether or not the green sea turtle and black turtle are separate species or the same. It was believed that due to morphological reasons they are separate, but molecular evidence shows they may be the same.

# data[].attributes.body
The morphology of their vertebrae led scientists to the realization that armadillos, sloths, and anteaters are related.

# data[].attributes.body
Xenarthrans

# data[].attributes.body
Although Western and Eastern meadowlarks look very similar and have overlapping ranges, their differing mating calls prevent interbreeding between the two species.

# data[].attributes.body
Mittelbach et al. (2007) suggested the presence of a latitudinal diversity gradient that is evident by the higher degree of biodiversity in tropical ecosystems closer to the equator than in temperate ecosystems farther from it. He argues that this could be a result of the larger size and advanced age of tropical climates, allowing species more time and space to diversify than in temperate climates. As a result, it is likely that many species of animals are descendants of tropical species that diversified as they moved farther away from the equator. Think of a species in your area that you believe could be a descendant of a tropical species and describe their similarities and differences.

Mittelbach, G.G., Schemske, D.W., Cornell, H.V., Allen, A.P., Brown, J.M., Bush, M.B., Harrison, S.P., Hurlbert, A.H., Knowlton, N., Lessios, H.A., McCain, C.M., McCune, A.R., McDade, L.A., McPeek, M.A., Near, T.J., Price, T.D., Ricklefs, E., Roy, K., Sax, D.F., Schluter, D., Sobel, J.M. & Turelli, M. (2007). Evolution and the latitudinal diversity gradient: speciation, extinction and biogeography. Ecology Letters, 10, 315-331.

# data[].attributes.body
North American cougars most likely evolved from South American cougar ancestors that moved north about 10,000 years ago.

# data[].attributes.body
Polar bears evolved about 4,000 years as a specialized species that fills an ecological niche.

# data[].attributes.body
Changing climates are causing polar bears to move south. Their territories are now overlapping with grizzly bears, leading to hybrids known as grolar bears or pizzly bears.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Although polar bears and grizzly bears aren't all that similar and are definitely separate species, they can interbreed and create fertile offspring in the wild. Hank brings us the story of these misfit bears, which he likes to call grolar bears. Like SciShow?

# data[].attributes.body
The nine-banded armadillo is the only North American armadillo out of 21 armadillo species. Nine-banded armadillos are very similar to the giant armadillo, a tropical species, but the giant armadillo is much larger in size.

# data[].attributes.body
Armadillos evolved from a glyptodont ancestor, doedicurus.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
CHEW ON THIS: The nine-banded armadillo is a land mammal. Once in a while, however, he has to cross a small body of water. He has two very unique methods of doing this. Method one is floating on the surface. The armadillo can literally inflate his intestines with air, creating the buoyancy he needs to [...]

# data[].attributes.body
While there are many species of hylid frogs found in South America, gray treefrogs are the only hylid frog found as far north as Canada.

# data[].attributes.headline
Origin and build-up of reproductive isolation

# data[].attributes.subject
Origin and build-up of reproductive isolation

# data[].attributes.headline
Importance of patterns of species diversity

# data[].attributes.subject
Importance of patterns of species diversity

# data[].attributes.body
It was argued that patterns of species diversity will be the most important to study in the future due the link between speciation and biodiversity, as well as how they connect to anthropogenic changes.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Human Impacts on Biodiversity | Ecology and Environment | Biology | FuseSchool

# data[].attributes.headline
Importance of origin and build-up of reproductive isolation

# data[].attributes.subject
Importance of origin and build-up of reproductive isolation

# data[].attributes.body
It was argued that understanding the causes and effects of reproductive isolation could lead to the design of better conservation efforts to protect resources and biodiversity.

# data[].attributes.body
The genetic species concept (GSC) focuses on genetic isolation rather than reproductive isolation. It is cheaper and faster alternative. GSC can lead to prioritization of conservation efforts, such as with forest and savanna elephants in Africa.

# data[].attributes.body
London Underground Mosquito

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The London Underground May Have Its Own Subspecies Of Mosquito