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Black Tuesday/Stock Market Crash of 1929
Picture:
https://i1.wp.com/www.bookofdaystales.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/bt4.jpg
Business Cycle/Causes of the Great Depression:
Article:
https://www.economist.com/free-exchange/2011/12/13/lessons-of-the-1930s
President Roosevelt's New Deal/Plan for Ending the Great Depression:
Article:
https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/new-deal
The Dust Bowl:
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7Uwg8BT6qQ
The Rise of Totalitarianism in Europe in the 1930s
Article:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism
America's Involvement in WWII:
Video:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/rise-to-world-power/us-wwii/v/1945-end-of-world-war-ii

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The Civil War | Fort Sumter | Ken Burns | PBS

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The Civil War began at 4:30 am on April 12, 1861 at Ft. Sumter, Charleston, SC.

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The Emancipation Proclamation (article) | Khan Academy

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What was the significance of the Emancipation Proclamation?

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Plessy vs. Ferguson/End of Reconstruction

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Plessy vs. Ferguson/End of Reconstruction

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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Ten Percent Plan It allowed southern states back into the Union if ten percent of voters gave an oath of allegiance to the Union. It was part of his plan of Reconstruction. He wanted the Confederacy back into the Union and believed if the steps to re-enter the Union were lenient more of the South would support it and the war would end more quickly.

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Wounded Knee Massacre: A summary of the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890.

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The Long Walk of the Navajo | Peoples of Mesa Verde

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The forced removal of more than 8,500 Navajos, which began in January 1864 and lasted two months, came to be known as the ‘Long Walk.’

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The Second Industrial Revolution (includes the Bessemer Process)

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The Second Industrial Revolution (includes the Bessemer Process)

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Inventions: Lightbulb, Telephone, Automobile & Airplane

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Inventions: Lightbulb, Telephone, Automobile & Airplane

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The Industrial Revolution was a time in the 18th century when many important inventions were made. Many of these inventions made work easier and cheaper. As these inventions created new manufacturing and industry, many people also moved away from farms into cities. It was a time of very rapid change in the world.

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The beginnings of the American labor movement In the early years of the republic, efforts by tradesmen to create better conditions by refusing to work and trying to prevent others from working were considered criminal offenses. Journeymen boot-makers and shoe-makers were put on trial in Philadelphia in 1806 and convicted of criminal conspiracy. This set the standard attitude towards organized work disruptions until 1842, when the principle of criminal conspiracy was rejected by the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. The New York Workingmen's Party lasted only a short time, formed in 1829 and disappearing in 1830. However, it publicized a new goal, the reduction of daily time of labor to ten hours. Since the work week was still six days, this radical demand was for no more than sixty hours of work a week. In 1833, journeymen carpenters struck for higher wages and were supported by contributions from other tradesmen until their demands were met. Out of this combination arose the General Trades' Union of New York. The attitude of business was negative, as can be seen in this excerpt from an article in the New York Journal of Commerce^ in June of that year:

But according to our notions of the obligations of society, all combinations to compel others to give a higher price or take a lower one are not only inexpedient but at war with the order of things which the Creator has established for the general good, and therefore wicked. ...
The first crack in the judicial opposition to trade union actions came in Connecticut in 1836. In 1834, the Thompsonville Carpet Manufacturing Company sued some labor leaders for damages, asserting that by refusing to work and persuading others not to work, they were conspiring to the ruin the company. After two inconclusive trials, the defendants were acquitted after the jury was instructed that simply combining efforts to raise wages was not per se illegal. By 1836, the ten-hour work day was the norm for organized laborers along the Eastern seaboard. On federal government job sites, however, the daily schedule was still twelve hours. Starting in 1835, workers at the Brooklyn navy yard began to agitate for a ten-hour day, leading to a successful strike in 1836. Seeing this example, other federal workers pressed for the same consideration and in 1840, President Martin Van Buren made the ten-hour day standard for federal works. Legislative recognition of the needs of the American laborer began in the Commonwealth ofMassachusetts. The first Child Labor law (1836) was passed, whereby employment of children under the age of 15 was forbidden in incorporated factories, unless they had attended school for three months the prior year of their employment. The commonwealth's chief justice, Lemuel Shaw, ruled in the case of Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842), that a trade union was lawful and that its members were not collectively responsible for the illegal acts committed by individuals. Shaw also ruled that a strike for a Closed Shop was legal. As farmers' sons, discharged soldiers, and a new wave of immigrants hit the industrialized cities in America, new labor problems arose. Newly educated women, schooled by one of the seven new women's colleges or private boarding schools between 1861 and 1880, joined the overabundance of workers in practically every occupation (except for stevedoring and the building trades) and in nearly every profession (except for the police and the ministry). The government's willingness to intervene in dealing with poor working conditions in industrialized cities was greatly affected by the principles of laissez faire, which stated that "the functions of the state should be limited to internal police and foreign protection - noPublic Education, no limitation of hours of labor, no welfare legislation." Spencer, who published Social Statistics in 1865, also included the Darwinian principle of survival of the fittest to his dog-eat-dog ideology. Its effects included delays in factory inspections, passing laws limiting the number of hours worked, and laws prohibiting "sweatshops," where families lived and worked in one-room "homes." As the economy improved over the next few years, American labor took another direction: toward labor organizing. Several unions came into being, including theOrder of the Knights of Labor. Founded in 1869, the Knights' goal was to to increase negotiating powers by unionizing all American workers. The Knights of Labor, under the leadership of Pennsylvania machinist Terence V. Powderly, were essentially responsible for the Alien Contract Labor Law of 1885, which prohibited laborers immigrating to America who had a contract to perform work. Since the law contained no enforcement provisions, such as inspections or deportation, the States were unable to enforce it.Violence during the 1870s and '80s Driven by wage cuts and poor working conditions, violent outbreaks of strikes and a long series of battles occurred all over the country during the 1870s. In 1877, around the coal mining region of Mauch Chunk and Pottsville,Pennsylvania, a secret miners' association called the Molly Maguires, mostly comprising Irish Catholics, burned buildings, controlled county officials, and murdered bosses and supervisors who offended them. Finally, the murderers were apprehended and brought to trial. The hanging of 10 of those men in 1877, effectively broke up the "Mollies." Also in 1877, unorganized railroad workers struck because of a 10 percent wage cut, the second cut since thePanic of 1873. They brought to a screeching halt four Eastern rail trunk lines, which caused turmoil in every industrial center. In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Martinsburg, West Virginia; and Chicago, Illinois; the Great Strike of 1877 sparked battles between militia and the crowds. Only after federal soldiers were brought in, was ordered restored. By 1886, membership in the Knights of Labor had swollen to 700,000 workers and stood as a champion for the unskilled laborer. Unlike other labor unions, the Knights of Labor encouragedblacks to join, so that by 1886, approximately 60,000 blacks had become members. Blacks had been deemed unfit for manufacturing work, according to a "study" published by theManufacturers Record of Baltimore in 1893. Such conclusions made it difficult for blacks to enter the industrial labor market. The Knights of Labor participated in the famousHaymarket Square Riot of 1886 in Chicago, along with trade unions, socialist unions, and "anarchists," where workers fought for the eight-hour day, and where a bomb and subsequent shooting resulted in the deaths of eight policemen and injuries to 67 others. Eight anarchists were jailed, tried, and convicted of murder, of which four were hanged. Then, due to mismanagement of operations, membership within that organization began to decline. The American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) (now simply AFL) began that same year. The AFL was spearheaded bySamuel Gompers, a cigar maker by trade, who had learned of the economic struggles of the American laborer through conversations with cigar makers at the factory. Gompers led AFL member unions and individual workers into struggles for shorter hours and higher wages. At first, blacks were openly encouraged to join the AFL, until it was later seen that their explicit stand on race issues hampered the union's expansion. Thereafter, as long as a union did not include anything in their constitution regarding the exclusion members because of race, those unions were welcome to join the AFL. It was not until the Massachusetts' Ten-Hour Act (1874) went into effect that woman and child labor limits in factories were adequately enforced. But aNew York act of 1883, which prohibited the manufacture of cigars in sweatshops, was overturned by the state's highest court, even though it had been sponsored by Theodore Roosevelt and signed by Governor Grover Cleveland. The court declared that government should not force workers to leave their homes to go to work and and also should not interfere with the profitable use of real estate, without any compensation for the public good. AnIllinois court struck down a statute limiting the number of hours worked by women in sweatshops as unconstitutional, stating that women were "sufficiently intelligent to make their own labor contracts in their own interest." During that time, the principles of laissez-faire still greatly affected the government's ability to intercede in labor disputes. TheSherman Antitrust Act of 1890, which authorized federal action against any "combination in the form of trusts or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade," was used as a blanket injunction against labor to break the current strike and others in the future. The Pullman Strike (1894) against the Great Northern Railway of Chicago, led by Eugene V. Debs, then president of the American Railway Union, was staged because of cuts in wages and continued high rents in company-owned housing. At the suggestion of Attorney General Richard Olney, President Cleveland ordered 2,500 federal troops to the strike zone and broke the strike within a week.Concentrations of wealth by 1900 Mass concentration of wealth through acquisitions, such as one withJ.P. Morgan to form the United States Steel Company in 1901, and the unbridled power of investment banking firms, led labor unrest to the doorstep of a population of one percent owning more national wealth than the other 99 percent. U.S. Steel swallowed up 213 manufacturing plants and transportation companies, 41 mines, 1,000 miles of railroad track, 112 ore boats and more, to become an employer of 170,000 workers alone. Between the years of 1897 and 1903, approximately half of America's families did not own property. And by 1900, 18 million of the 29 million made an annual wage of around $500, which was below the cost of living for a industrialized family of four, while ^Andrew Carnegie^ earned $23 million himself. Life expectancy for whites was 48 years and nonwhites was only 34. The work force included 1.75 million children under 15 and more than five million women, who sometimes worked for as low as 10 cents for a 10-hour day. Those conditions, the dehumanization of the American laborer in large, and impersonal factories, led to numrous revolts and uprisings. At the same time, minority workers began to take a more active role in the American labor movement. In 1900, at aBoston meeting of black businessmen, the National Negro Business League was organized. As their president, Booker T. Washington encouraged blacks in his publication, The Negro in Business, to start their own business enterprises and to frequent each others' establishments. By 1907, many local organizations were formed that joined the 320 branches of the Negro Business League. The proportion of British and Irish immigrants fell from 54 percent in 1870, to 18 percent in 1900. Immigration from Russia, Italy, and other southern European countries grew from .1 to 50 percent. By 1900, most of those foreign-born workers had settled in states north of theOhio and east of the Mississippi River. Because of the competition for work, wages were kept low, and the unions' ability to organize was hampered. Labor activistMother Jones assisted in the formation of the the next big industrial union, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), in 1905. The New York Women's Trade Union League and a local of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union achieved positive results while enduring three months of cold weather, police abuse, and harassment by scabs during the 1909 Uprising of Twenty Thousand strike over sweatshops in New York City. In 1913, attempts by Congress to limit immigration of illiterate workers, which was promoted by the unions, was vetoed by PresidentWilliam H. Taft, who wrote that illiteracy was not a test of character, since it is often due to a lack of opportunity. That same year, at the Paint Creek-Cabin Creek strike inWest Virginia during 1912-1913, workers violently struggled for improved working conditions. Jones organized a march with coal miners' children, which led to her arrest and later pardon. During the "Machine Gun Massacre" in a tent colony at Ludlow, Colorado (1914), strikers gained the attention of members of the House Mines and Mining Committee, as well as President Woodrow Wilson, who proposed that the union agree to a truce with the owners and to form a grievance committee at each mine. As laissez faire influence began to wane, legislation was put into effect to support the needs of American labor. Gompers noted that the Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) was "Labor's charter of freedom." The act included a section declaring that unions could not be considered unlawful combinationsper se and that strikes, boycotting, and picketing were not violations of federal law. The injunction - which was also used by President Cleveland to break up the Pullman Strike - could not be used in labor disputes by the federal courts. The Adamson Act of 1916 was initiated by President Wilson and proposed by Congress to avoid a nationwide railroad strike by four railroad unions. The act provided benefits, including the eight-hour day, to the railroad brotherhoods, while the Workers Compensation Act for Federal Employees was passed that same year. As part of PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt's 100-day relief legislation, the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 was designed to encourage collective bargaining for unions, set up maximum work hours and sometimes prices, establish minimum wage standards, and prohibit child labor in industry. Before the act was overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court, 4,000,000 unemployed people had been absorbed into industrial jobs. After the NRA was found unconstitutional, portions of the act were revived in theWagner Act (1935), which established a federally appointed National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). That board was authorized to address labor complaints by issuing "cease and desist" orders against "unfair practices" in labor relations. Although strongly attacked by American business owners, the board received strong support from the Supreme Court, which, in case after case, sustained its existence.The labor movement during the Depression The emergence of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (C.I.O.), came as a result of worker's impatience with Sam Gompers' cautious policies. Hundreds of thousands of unskilled and semi-skilled laborers signed up with the only union they felt had their interests in mind. By midsummer 1937, membership grew to an estimated 4,000,000 in the CIO Under the dynamic leadership ofJohn L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers (UMW), the CIO unionized industries that had previously been opposed to it, such as the steel, automobile, textile, and public utilities. Black workers also were encouraged to organize and participate in the membership of the CIO. Lewis ordered a series of strikes directed at securing the closed shop, establishing the CIO's exclusive right to represent workers in collective bargaining, and to defend his newly favored sit-down strike tactic. In a sit-down strike, workers took possession of a premise and then refused to leave until demands were met. In March 1937, General Motors and Republican Steel contested the new sit-down's legality, calling for theMichigan courts to rescue their properties by ordering injunctions against sit-down protesters. Those actions caused a further rise in tension between the workers and factory owners, until Governor Frank Murphy's intervention successfully prevented widespread violence in the automobile industries. Congress passed theFair Labor Standards Act (1938), with the objective of the "elimination of labor conditions detrimental to the maintenance of the minimum standards of living necessary for health, efficiency, and well being of workers." Touted by President Roosevelt as "the most far-reaching, far-sighted program for the benefit of workers ever adopted," the act eventually provided for the maximum work week of 40 hours and minimum wage of 40 cents an hour by 1945. Nearly 700,000 workers, including organized blacks, were affected by the wage increase. Some 13 million more workers were ultimately affected by the hours provision, although the act did not affect blacks working in the agricultural and domestic fields.Labor after World War II Post-World War II America brought new challenges to labor as production needs sharply decreased and overtime hours dried up. Instead of lowering wages following the war, companies reduced overtime hours, which had the effect of a 50 percent decrease in take-home pay. At the same time, Congress lifted the wartime Price Controls on basic commodities, which brought about price increases of 25 percent, causing "real wages" to decline by 12 percent in one year. Renewed strikes for higher wages in the coal, automobile, steel, electric appliance, and railroad industries provoked a strong anti-union reaction from the public, which felt the unions had become arrogant and thankless for the favors received during theNew Deal administrations. Upon election of a Republican majority in both houses of Congress, theTaft-Hartley Act (1947) was passed over Democratic President Harry Truman's veto. That anti-labor backlash act outlawed the closed shop, made unions liable for damages caused by breaches of contract, required a 60-day "cooling off period" before striking, forbade unions from making political contributions or extracting excessive dues, and required elected union officials to take an oath stating they were not Communists. Outraged by the bill, Lewis and other labor leaders complained that the bill meant "slavery" and "fascism" to workers, which did not prove to be the case.The good life of the 1950s During the 1950s, life was good for the average American when "Middle American" values and prosperity saw the decline of unionism in the country. The American laborer worked fewer than 40 hours per week, while most received annual two-week vacations and had twice the income to spend as they had during the nation's previous economic boom time in the lateTwenties. The domestic place of women continued to be encouraged, but it was not until the 1960s that alternatives became attractive.Tumultuous times of the 1960s American labor unions were hurt by many problems during the 1960s, including migration of many industries into the anti-union southern states, the rapid expansion of the middle class, and internal corruption by some of the larger unions, such as the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Between 1955 and 1968, the percentage of unionized workers in non-agricultural employment declined from 33 to 28 percent. Union membership only slightly increased during a time when large corporations exercised greater influence in the stock market, military defense spending, increased prices on goods, thus promoting inflation and decision making concerning production, wages, and technical change. Catering to the needs of their workforce, and to the expansion of their own wealth and power, those large corporations invested from $4 billion to $100 billion in 1965 in pension funds in the stock market. Once a great adversary of corporations, the labor unions were virtually complacent concerning the actions of big business. Large unions used their clout to advance their own goals over those of their workers. After 1965, those well-organized unions, led by such leaders as Jimmy Hoffa andGeorge Meany, tended to fragment the political parties, embattle the Congress, and to stymie Congress's efforts to heal the nation's racial, ethnic, and urban divisions.Influx of immigrants in the 1970s and '80s The economic gap widened between black and white workers, with 31 percent of blacks in poverty and 40 percent of teenage blacks unemployed in certain areas, during the late 1970s. Modern immigrants during the 1980s - from such countries as Mexico, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, and India - steadily climbed the economic ladder by accepting low-paying jobs that non-immigrant Americans were disinclined to take. That phenomenon put an added strain on American labor. Women continued to move into the work world, so that by 1987, 55 percent of women worked outside the home, while only 40 percent did so in 1966. Women's rights activists fought for improvements in working conditions, including better provisions for maternity leave, increased public funding for day care, and legislation for child-care costs to be made tax deductible.

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The beginnings of the American labor movement In the early years of the republic, efforts by tradesmen to create better conditions by refusing to work and trying to prevent others from working were considered criminal offenses. Journeymen boot-makers and shoe-makers were put on trial in Philadelphia in 1806 and convicted of criminal conspiracy.

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American Imerilasiam (The Spanish-American War)

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American Imerilasiam (The Spanish-American War)

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American Imperialism: The Spanish-American War | DPLA

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The Digital Public Library of America brings together the riches of America’s libraries, archives, and museums, and makes them freely available to the world.

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Political Corruption and Progressive Government Reform

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Political Corruption and Progressive Government Reform

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The period of US history from the 1890s to the 1920s is usually referred to as the Progressive Era, an era of intense social and political reform aimed at making progress toward a better society.

Progressive Era reformers sought to harness the power of the federal government to eliminate unethical and unfair business practices, reduce corruption, and counteract the negative social effects of industrialization.

During the Progressive Era, protections for workers and consumers were strengthened, and women finally achieved the right to vote.

The problems of industrialization

The ideology and politics of progressivism

The worldview of Progressive reformers was based on certain key assumptions. The first was that human nature could be improved through the enlightened application of regulations, incentives, and punishments. The second key assumption was that the power of the federal government could be harnessed to improve the individual and transform society. These two assumptions were not shared by political conservatives, who tended to believe that human nature was unchanging, and that the federal government should remain limited in size and scope.

Some of the most famous Progressive reformers were Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in Chicago to help immigrants adapt to life in the United States; Ida Tarbell, a "muckraker" who exposed the corrupt business practices of Standard Oil and became an early pioneer of investigative journalism; and Presidents Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt, who both expanded the power of the federal government to impose regulations on private industry and implement protections for workers, consumers, and the natural environment.

Progressive reformers successfully influenced the passage of much substantive legislation, including several amendments to the US Constitution. The Sixteenth Amendment established a federal income tax, the Seventeenth Amendment allowed for the direct election of Senators, the Eighteenth Amendment prohibited sales of alcohol, and the Nineteenth Amendment guaranteed women the right to vote.

The dark side of progressivism

Though Progressive reformers achieved many noteworthy goals during this period, they also promoted discriminatory policies and espoused intolerant ideas. The Wilson administration, for instance, despite its embrace of modernity and progress, pursued a racial agenda that culminated in the segregation of the federal government. The years of Wilson's presidency (1913-1921) witnessed a revival of the Ku Klux Klan and a viciously racist backlash against the economic and political gains of African Americans in the post-Reconstruction period.

In line with their view of human nature as capable of being engineered and manipulated, many Progressive reformers advocated selective breeding, or eugenics. Eugenics was considered "the science of better breeding" and aimed to improve the genetic quality of the human population through policies that would encourage the more "desirable" elements of society to have more children while preventing "undesirables" from reproducing. Eugenics was based on a racial and class hierarchy that placed white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants at the top. Lower classes, ethnic minorities, recent immigrants, the mentally ill, and the developmentally disabled all occupied lower rungs on this hierarchy. In 1907, the United States became the first country to pass a compulsory sterilization law.

The genocidal policies of Nazi Germany ultimately discredited the "science" of eugenics, but not before over 60,000 American men and women were forcibly sterilized to prevent them from having children.

What do you think?

How would you describe the Progressive worldview? Do you agree with the ideological assumptions of progressivism?

What were the most impressive achievements of Progressive reformers?

Overall, were the effects of progressivism more harmful or beneficial to American society?

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The Progressive Era (Progressive movement) (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Women's Rights (Temperance and Suffrage)

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Women's Rights (Temperance and Suffrage)

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Women's Rights

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Pin by Wanda Holloway on Posters/Etc | Pinterest | Suffrage Movement, Suffragette and Women

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This Pin was discovered by Wanda Holloway. Discover (and save!) your own Pins on Pinterest.

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Women's Temperance

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The Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand

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The Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand

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The Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand -
Picture:
https://www.ducksters.com/history/world_war_i/assassination_franz_ferdinand.jpg
Techonolgy of WWI (including the trench warfare) -
Article: https://www.ncpedia.org/wwi-technology-and-weapons-war
America's role in WWI (Entering the war/fighting in France) -
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y59wErqg4Xg
How was peace estlabished at the end of WWI?
Article:
https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/treaty-of-versailles-1
The Rise of the Automobile
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=3&v=N74dCyHbGUg
The 18th Ammendment
Article:
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-was-cause-repal-eighteenth-amendment-by-315901

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Techonolgy of WWI (including trench warfare)

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Techonolgy of WWI (including trench warfare)

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by A. Torrey McLean
Reprinted with permission from Tar Heel Junior Historian, Spring 1993.
Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History

See also: WWI: Life on the Western Front

One of the saddest facts about World War I is that millions died needlessly because military and civilian leaders were slow to adapt their old-fashioned strategies and tactics to the new weapons of 1914. New technology made war more horrible and more complex than ever before. The United States and other countries felt the effects of the war for years afterwards.

The popular image of World War I is soldiers in muddy trenches and dugouts, living miserably until the next attack. This is basically correct. Technological developments in engineering, metallurgy, chemistry, and optics had produced weapons deadlier than anything known before. The power of defensive weapons made winning the war on the western front all but impossible for either side.

When attacks were ordered, Allied soldiers went "over the top," climbing out of their trenches and crossing no-man's-land to reach enemy trenches. They had to cut through belts of barbed wire before they could use rifles, bayonets, pistols, and hand grenades to capture enemy positions. A victory usually meant they had seized only a few hundred yards of shell-torn earth at a terrible cost in lives. Wounded men often lay helpless in the open until they died. Those lucky enough to be rescued still faced horrible sanitary conditions before they could be taken to proper medical facilities. Between attacks,the snipers, artillery, and poison gas caused misery and death.

Airplanes, products of the new technology, were primarily made of canvas, wood, and wire. At first they were used only to observe enemy troops. As their effectiveness became apparent, both sides shot planes down with artillery from the ground and with rifles, pistols, and machine guns from other planes. In 1916, the Germans armed planes with machine guns that could fire forward without shooting off the fighters' propellers. The Allies soon armed their airplanes the same way, and war in the air became a deadly business. These light, highly maneuverable fighter planes attacked each other in wild air battles called dogfights. Pilots who were shot down often remained trapped in their falling, burning planes, for they had no parachutes. Airmen at the front did not often live long. Germany also used its fleet of huge dirigibles, or zeppelins, and large bomber planes to drop bombs on British and French cities. Britain retaliated by bombing German cities.

Back on the ground, the tank proved to be the answer to stalemate in the trenches. This British invention used American-designed caterpillar tracks to move the armored vehicle equipped with machine guns and sometimes light cannon. Tanks worked effectively on firm, dry ground, in spite of their slow speed, mechanical problems, and vulnerability to artillery. Able to crush barbed wire and cross trenches, tanks moved forward through machine gun fire and often terrified German soldiers with their unstoppable approach.

Chemical warfare first appeared when the Germans used poison gas during a surprise attack in Flanders, Belgium, in 1915. At first, gas was just released from large cylinders and carried by the wind into nearby enemy lines. Later, phosgene and other gases were loaded into artillery shells and shot into enemy trenches. The Germans used this weapon the most, realizing that enemy soldiers wearing gas masks did not fight as well. All sides used gas frequently by 1918. Its use was a frightening development that caused its victims a great deal of suffering, if not death.

Both sides used a variety of big guns on the western front, ranging from huge naval guns mounted on railroad cars to short-range trench mortars. The result was a war in which soldiers near the front were seldom safe from artillery bombardment. The Germans used super-long-range artillery to shell Paris from almost eighty miles away. Artillery shell blasts created vast, cratered, moonlike landscapes where beautiful fields and woods had once stood.

Perhaps the most significant technological advance during World War I was the improvement of the machine gun, a weapon originally developed by an American, Hiram Maxim. The Germans recognized its military potential and had large numbers ready to use in 1914. They also developed air-cooled machine guns for airplanes and improved those used on the ground, making them lighter and easier to move. The weapon's full potential was demonstrated on the Somme battlefield in July 1916 when German machine guns killed or wounded almost 60,000 British soldiers in only one day.

At sea, submarines attacked ships far from port. In order to locate and sink German U-boats, British scientists developed underwater listening devices and underwater explosives called depth charges. Warships became faster and more powerful than ever before and used newly invented radios to communicate effectively. The British naval blockade of Germany, which was made possible by developments in naval technology, brought a total war to civilians. The blockade caused a famine that finally brought about the collapse of Germany and its allies in late 1918. Starvation and malnutrition continued to take the lives of German adults and children for years after the war.

The firing stopped on November 11, 1918, but modern war technology had changed the course of civilization. Millions had been killed, gassed, maimed, or starved. Famine and disease continued to rage through central Europe, taking countless lives. Because of rapid technological advances in every area, the nature of warfare had changed forever, affecting soldiers, airmen, sailors, and civilians alike.
A. Torrey McLean, a former United States Army officer who served in Vietnam, studied World War I for more than thirty years, personally interviewing a number of World War I veterans.

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by A. Torrey McLean Reprinted with permission from Tar Heel Junior Historian, Spring 1993. Tar Heel Junior Historian Association, NC Museum of History See also: WWI: Life on the Western Front One of the saddest facts about World War I is that millions died needlessly because military and civilian leaders were slow to adapt their old-fashioned strategies and tactics to the new weapons of 1914.

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America's role in WWI (Entering the war/fighting in France)

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America's role in WWI (Entering the war/fighting in France)

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America in World War I: Crash Course US History #30

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Second Industrial Revolution  (including Bessemer Process)
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aW0HJ42Tilg
Inventions:
Article:
http://www.softschools.com/timelines/industrial_revolution_timeline/40/
The Rise of Big Buisness
Picture:
http://player.slideplayer.com/79/13166231/slides/slide_1.jpg
The Rise of the Labor Movement
Article:
https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1678.html
Chapters 20 - 22:
American Imperilasiam (The Spanish-American War
Article:
https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/american-imperialism-the-spanish-american-war
Immigration and the Growth of Cities
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=titegSf7jgY
Political Corruption and Progressive Government Reform
Article:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/rise-to-world-power/age-of-empire/a/the-progressive-era
Women's Rights
Picture 1:
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/308426274466883301/
Picture 2:
https://worldhistory.us/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/temperance-movement-produces-womens-suffrage-leaders.jpg

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Fort Sumter:
Video: https://www.pbs.org/video/the-civil-war-the-civil-war-fort-sumter/
Emancipation Proclamation:
Article: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/civil-war-era/slavery-and-the-civil-war/a/the-emancipation-proclamation
Appomattox Courthouse:
Article: https://www.britannica.com/place/Appomattox-Court-House/media/30727/8522
Battle of Gettysburg:
Picture: https://i.4pcdn.org/tv/1502824768757.jpg
Ten Percent Plan:
Article: https://mstartzman.pbworks.com/w/page/33540683/Ten%20Percent%20Plan%20%28first%29
Wade Davis Bill:
Article: https://www.humanitiestexas.org/archives/digital-repository/wade-davis-bill-1864
13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments: Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXcNlKrbKW4
Plessy vs. Ferguson/End of Reconstruction
Picture: http://images.huffingtonpost.com/2014-09-27-separate_but_equal_.jpg
The Gold Rush
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r03DKbVhfvU
Homestead and Morrill Acts
Homestead Act Picture: http://ushistoryscene.com/article/1862-homestead-act/
Morrill Act Picture: https://blog.ed.gov/2012/07/closing-the-morrill-act-gap/
Long Walk
Article: http://www.crowcanyon.org/educationproducts/peoples_mesa_verde/historic_long_walk.asp
Massacre at Wounded Knee:
Article: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wounded-Knee-Massacre

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How was peace estlabished at the end of World War I?

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How was peace estlabished at the end of World War I?

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The Fourteen Points

In a speech to Congress in January 1918, Wilson laid out his idealistic vision for the world after World War I, which was at the time sometimes referred to as "the war to end all wars."

In addition to specific territorial settlements based on an Allied victory, Wilson's so-called Fourteen Points emphasized the need for national self-determination for Europe's different ethnic populations.

Wilson also proposed the founding of a "general association of nations" that would mediate international disputes and foster cooperation between different nations in the hopes of preventing war on such a large scale in the future. This organization eventually became known as the League of Nations.

When German leaders signed the armistice ending hostilities in World War I on November 11, 1918, they believed Wilson's vision would form the basis for any future peace treaty. This would not prove to be the case.

Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Peace Conference opened on January 18, 1919, a date that was significant in that it marked the anniversary of the coronation of German Emperor Wilhelm I, which took place in the Palace of Versailles at the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.

Prussian victory in that conflict had resulted in Germany's unification and its seizure of Alsace and Lorraine provinces from France. In 1919, France and its prime minister, Georges Clemenceau, had not forgotten the humiliating loss and intended to avenge it in the new peace agreement.

Treaty of Versailles Terms

The " Big Four" leaders of the victorious Western nations-Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France and, to a lesser extent, Vittorio Orlando of Italy-dominated the peace negotiations in Paris. Germany and the other defeated powers-Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey-were not represented at the Paris Peace Conference. Also absent was Russia, which had fought as one of the Allied powers until 1917, when, following the Russian Revolution, the country's new Bolshevik government concluded a separate peace with Germany and withdrew from the conflict.

The Big Four themselves had competing objectives in Paris: Clemenceau's main goal was to protect France from yet another attack by Germany. He sought heavy reparations from Germany as a way of limiting German economic recovery after the war and minimizing this possibility.

Lloyd George, on the other hand, saw the rebuilding of Germany as a priority in order to reestablish the nation as a strong trading partner for Great Britain. For his part, Orlando wanted to expand Italy's influence and shape it into a major power that could hold its own alongside the other great nations.

Wilson opposed Italian territorial demands, as well as previously existing arrangements regarding territory between the other Allies; instead, he wanted to create a new world order along the lines of his Fourteen Points. The other leaders saw Wilson as too naive and idealistic, and his principles were difficult to translate into policy.

In the end, the European Allies imposed harsh peace terms on Germany, forcing the nation to surrender around 10 percent of its territory and all of its overseas possessions. Other key provisions of the Treaty of Versailles called for the demilitarization and occupation of the Rhineland, limited Germany's army and navy, forbade it to maintain an air force, and required it to conduct war crimes trials against Kaiser Wilhelm II and other leaders for their aggression.

Most importantly, Article 231 of the treaty, better known as the " war guilt clause," forced Germany to accept full responsibility for starting World War I and pay enormous reparations for Allied war losses.

How Did the Treaty of Versailles Lead to World War II?

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, sparking the outbreak of the war. Though the treaty included a covenant creating the League of Nations, an international organization aimed at preserving peace, the harsh terms imposed on Germany helped ensure that peace would not last for long.

Germans were furious about the treaty, seeing it as a diktat, or dictated peace; they bitterly resented the sole blame of war being placed at their feet. The nation's burden of reparations eventually topped 132 billion gold Reichsmarks, the equivalent of some $33 billion, a sum so great that no one expected Germany to be able to pay in full; in fact, economists like John Maynard Keynes predicted the European economy would collapse if it did.

Keynes was not the only prominent critic of the Treaty of Versailles: The French military leader Ferdinand Foch refused to attend the signing ceremony, as he thought the treaty didn't do enough to secure against a future German threat, while the U.S. Congress failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, and later concluded a separate peace with Germany. The United States would never join the short-lived League of Nations.

November Criminals

In the years following the Treaty of Versailles, many ordinary Germans believed they had been betrayed by the "November Criminals," those leaders who signed the treaty and formed the post-war government.

Radical right-wing political forces-especially the National Socialist Workers' Party, or the Nazis-would gain support in the 1920s and '30s by promising to reverse the humiliation of the Versailles Treaty.

With the onset of the Great Depression after 1929, economic unrest destabilized the already vulnerable Weimar Republic government in Germany, setting the stage for Nazi leader Adolf Hitler's fateful rise to power in 1933.

Sources

The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles. U.S. Department of State: Office of the Historian.
"The Treaty of Versailles: An Uneasy Peace," WBUR.org (excerpt from Michael Neiberg, The Treaty of Versailles: A Concise History), August 13, 2017.
Treaty of Versailles. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
The Treaty of Versailles, 1919. Chateau de Versailles.

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Treaty of Versailles: Definition, Terms, Dates & WWI - HISTORY

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The Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919 and set harsh terms for Germany's surrender to Allied powers after World War I, setting the stage for World War II.

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Black Tuesday/Stock Market Crash of 1929

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Black Tuesday/Stock Market Crash of 1929

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Business Cycle/Causes of the Great Depression

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Business Cycle/Causes of the Great Depression

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Is the decline of manufacturing to blame for today’s economic troubles?

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President Roosevelt's New Deal/Plan for Ending the Great Depression

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President Roosevelt's New Deal/Plan for Ending the Great Depression

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New Deal - Programs, Social Security & FDR

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The New Deal was a series of programs and projects instituted during the Great Depression by President Franklin D. Roosevelt that aimed to restore prosperity to Americans. A Second New Deal was put in place shortly thereafter as a way to continue the country’s economic recovery.

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The Rise of Totalitarianism in Europe in the 1930s

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The Rise of Totalitarianism in Europe in the 1930s

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General characteristics of totalitarianism

In the broadest sense, totalitarianism is characterized by strong central rule that attempts to control and direct all aspects of individual life through coercion and repression. Historical examples of such centralized totalitarian rule include the Mauryan dynasty of India (c. 321-c. 185 bce), the Qin dynasty of China (221-207 bce), and the reign of Zulu chief Shaka (c. 1816-28). Nazi Germany (1933-45) and the Soviet Union during the Stalin era (1924-53) were the first examples of decentralized or popular totalitarianism, in which the state achieved overwhelming popular support for its leadership. That support was not spontaneous: its genesis depended on a charismatic leader, and it was made possible only by modern developments in communication and transportation.

Totalitarianism is often distinguished from dictatorship, despotism, or tyranny by its supplanting of all political institutions with new ones and its sweeping away of all legal, social, and political traditions. The totalitarian state pursues some special goal, such as industrialization or conquest, to the exclusion of all others. All resources are directed toward its attainment, regardless of the cost. Whatever might further the goal is supported; whatever might foil the goal is rejected. This obsession spawns an ideology that explains everything in terms of the goal, rationalizing all obstacles that may arise and all forces that may contend with the state. The resulting popular support permits the state the widest latitude of action of any form of government. Any dissent is branded evil, and internal political differences are not permitted. Because pursuit of the goal is the only ideological foundation for the totalitarian state, achievement of the goal can never be acknowledged.

Under totalitarian rule, traditional social institutions and organizations are discouraged and suppressed. Thus, the social fabric is weakened and people become more amenable to absorption into a single, unified movement. Participation in approved public organizations is at first encouraged and then required. Old religious and social ties are supplanted by artificial ties to the state and its ideology. As pluralism and individualism diminish, most of the people embrace the totalitarian state's ideology. The infinite diversity among individuals blurs, replaced by a mass conformity (or at least acquiescence) to the beliefs and behaviour sanctioned by the state.

Large-scale organized violence becomes permissible and sometimes necessary under totalitarian rule, justified by the overriding commitment to the state ideology and pursuit of the state's goal. In Nazi Germany and Stalin's Soviet Union, whole classes of people, such as the Jews and the kulaks (wealthy peasant farmers) respectively, were singled out for persecution and extinction. In each case the persecuted were linked with some external enemy and blamed for the state's troubles, and thereby public opinion was aroused against them and their fate at the hands of the military and police was condoned.

Police operations within a totalitarian state often appear similar to those within a police state, but one important difference distinguishes them. In a police state, the police operate according to known and consistent procedures. In a totalitarian state, the police operate outside the constraints of laws and regulations, and their actions are purposefully unpredictable. Under Hitler and Stalin, uncertainty was interwoven into the affairs of the state. The German constitution of the Weimar Republic was never abrogated under Hitler, but an enabling act passed by the Reichstag in 1933 permitted him to amend the constitution at will, in effect nullifying it. The role of lawmaker became vested in one person. Similarly, Stalin provided a constitution for the Soviet Union in 1936 but never permitted it to become the framework of Soviet law. Instead, he was the final arbiter in the interpretation of Marxism- Leninism- Stalinism and changed his interpretations at will. Neither Hitler nor Stalin permitted change to become predictable, thus increasing the sense of terror among the people and repressing any dissent.

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Totalitarianism | Definition, Characteristics, Examples, & Facts

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Totalitarianism, form of government that permits no individual freedom and seeks to subordinate all aspects of individual life to the authority of the state. Coined by the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in the early 1920s, the term has become synonymous with absolute and oppressive single-party government.

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1945 - End of World War II (video) | Khan Academy

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1945 marks the end of World War II. V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day) is May 8th 1945. War doesn't end in the Pacific until August of 1945 with the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.