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What is Collaborative Learning?  [Constructivism]

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What is Collaborative Learning?  [Constructivism]

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"Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product " (Laal and Ghodsi, 2011)

Attached is a link to a study conducted in 2011 about the benefits of collaborative learning.  The research thoroughly explains what collaborative learning is and how this sort of learning environment gives students a chance to take responsibility for their actions and their learning and prepares them for the future where they will be working with others in various situations.

Collaborative learning, says Laal and Ghodsi, teaches learners to work with their peers and figure out and highlight the strengths of their peers.  Through collaborative learning, students are given a chance to share authority and take responsibility (Laal and Ghodsi, 2011)

1. Laal, M., & Ghodsi, S. M. (2012). Benefits of collaborative learning. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 486-490. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.091

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Abstract

Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. This review article outlines benefits of learning in collaboration style, begins with the concept of the term and continues with the advantages created by collaborative methods. This paper sets out major benefits of collaborative learning into four categories of; social, psychological, academic, and assessment benefits. Each of them is further subdivided to more specific themes.

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Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. This review article outlines benefits of learning in collaboration style, begins with the concept of the term and continues with the advantages created by collaborative methods.

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Project Based Learning (PBL) is a collaborative learning technique in which the teacher gives the learners a task/problem/question that they need to work together to complete/fix/answer.

The learners are given autonomy in their groups or pairings to figure out the best way to come to their solution and are encouraged to think creatively.

In order for PBL to really be successful in the classroom, the teacher should have already modeled and scaffolding many different ways to solve the problem.

The students are given a specific time frame to complete their project and excepted to work together with their peers and take responsibility for their learning.

At the end of the process, learners are expected to share their findings in whatever way they feel best displays their work.

When using PBL in the classroom the teacher needs to first clearly explain the problem or question.  The teacher is responsible for making sure the students understand the task set ahead of them.

The teacher should then step back and give the learners class time to work together to brainstorm and design possible solutions.

After the brainstorming process, the learners will begin working towards their solution.   It is advisable that the teacher would have check-in time built into class, where students are able to share what they have come up with so far and get feedback from their peers/teacher and then rethink any possible weaknesses.

At the end of the time limit for the project, groups will share their outcome and thinking processes to the class.

1. [DavidLeeEdTech]. (2015, May 12). Introduction to Project Based Learning (PBL) Process [Video File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08D0dBGIzYQ

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Introduction to Project Based Learning (PBL) Process

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The jigsaw method is fairly new to me, but I really like the idea and plan to implement it into my classroom.

The idea is that the class is broken into smaller groups.  There is one overarching theme or problem for the whole class and then each group is given a small section of that problem to solve as a group.

The learners become 'masters' of their section of the problem and then present their section of learning to the whole group.

This method of learners gives students authority over their learning and allows them to feel success over the small chuck rather than being overwhelmed by the overarching problem.

This method also allows the students to learn from each other rather than looking to the teacher as the authority on their learning.

[Cult of Pedagogy]. (April 15, 2015). "The Jigsaw Method" [video file]. retrieved from:
https://youtu.be/euhtXUgBEts

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Tips and Strategies for Collaborative Learning [Constructivism]

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Tips and Strategies for Collaborative Learning [Constructivism]

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This website, just as the title suggests, lays out 20 tips for incorporating collaborative learning into your classroom.

TeachThought. (2018, June 28). 20 collaborative learning tips and strategies for teachers. Retrieved October 22, 2019, from https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/20-collaborative-learning-tips-and-strategies/

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contributed by Miriam Clifford

There is an age-old adage that says, "two heads are better than one."

Consider collaboration in recent history: Watson and Crick or Page and Brin (Founders of Google). But did you know it was a collaborative Computer Club about basic programming at a middle school that brought together two minds that would change the future of computing?

Yes, those two were, of course, Bill Gates and Paul Allen, the founders of Microsoft.

Collaborative learning teams are said to attain higher-level thinking and preserve information for longer times than students working individually. Why?

Groups tend to learn through "discussion, clarification of ideas, and evaluation of other's ideas." Perhaps information that is discussed is retained in long-term memory. Research by Webb suggests that students who worked collaboratively on math computational problems earned significantly higher scores than those who worked alone. Plus, students who demonstrated lower levels of achievement improved when working in diverse groups.

Collaborative learning teams are said to attain higher level thinking and preserve information for longer times than students working individually.

Many consider Vygotsky the father of 'social learning.' Vygotsky was an education rebel in many ways. He controversially argued for educators to assess students' ability to solve problems rather than merely acquire knowledge. The idea of collaborative learning has a lot to do with Vygotsky's idea of the "zone of proximal development." It considers what a student can do if aided by peers and adults. By considering this model for learning, we might consider collaboration to increase students' awareness of other concepts.

What are some ways to include best practices for collaborative learning in our classroom?
20 Collaborative Learning Tips And Strategies For Teachers 1. Establish clear group goals
Effective collaborative learning involves the establishment of group goals, as well as individual accountability. This keeps the group on task and establishes an unambiguous purpose. Before beginning an assignment, it is best to define goals and objectives to save time.
2. Keep groups midsized
Small groups of three or fewer usually lack enough diversity and may not allow divergent thinking to occur. Groups that are too large create 'freeloading' where not all members participate. A moderate size group of four or five is ideal.
3. Establish flexible group norms
Research suggests that collaborative learning is influenced by the quality of interactions. Interactivity and negotiation are important in group learning. In the 1960's studies by Jacobs and Campbell suggested that norms are pervasive, even deviant norms were handed down and not questioned.

If you notice a deviant norm, you can do two things: rotate group members or assist in using outside information to develop a new norm. You may want to establish rules for group interactions for younger students. Older students might create their own norms. But remember, given their durable nature, it is best to have flexible norms. Norms should change with situations so that groups do not become rigid and intolerant or develop sub-groups.
4. Build trust and promote open communication
Successful interpersonal communication must exist in teams. Building trust is essential. Deal with emotional issues that arise immediately and any interpersonal problems before moving on. Assignments should encourage team members to explain concepts thoroughly to each other.Studies found that students who provide and receive intricate explanations gain most from collaborative learning. Open communication is key.
5. For larger tasks, create group roles
Decomposing a difficult task into parts to saves time. You can then assign different roles. A great example in my own classroom was in the science lab, fifth grade students assumed different roles of group leader, recorder, reporter, and fact-checker. The students might have turns to choose their own role and alternate roles by sections of the assignment or classes.
6. Create a pre-test and post-test
A good way to ensure the group learns together would be to engage in a pre and post-test. In fact, many researchers use this method to see if groups are learning. An assessment gives the team a goal to work towards and ensures learning is a priority. It also allows instructors to gauge the effectiveness of the group. Changes can be made if differences are seen in the assessments over time. Plus, you can use Bloom's taxonomy to further hone in on specific skills.

Individuals should also complete surveys evaluating how well the group functioned. 'Debriefing' is an important component of the learning process and allows individuals to reflect on the process of group learning.
7. Consider the learning process itself as part of assessment
Many studies such as those by Robert Slavin at Johns Hopkins have considered how cooperative learning helps children develop social and interpersonal skills. Experts have argued that the social and psychological effects on self-esteem and personal development are just as important as the learning itself.

In terms of assessment, it may be beneficial to grade students on the quality of discussion, student engagement, and adherence to group norms. Praise younger groups for the following (for digital collaborative learning, for example) standards. This type of learning is a process and needs explicit instruction in beginning stages. Assessing the process itself provides motivation for students to learn how to behave in groups. It shows students that you value meaningful group interactions and adhering to norms.
8. Consider using different strategies, like the Jigsaw technique.
The jigsaw strategy is said to improve social interactions in learning and support diversity. The workplace is often like a jigsaw. It involves separating an assignment into subtasks, where individuals research their assigned area. Students with the same topic from different groups might meet together to discuss ideas between groups.

This type of collaboration allows students to become 'experts' in their assigned topic. Students then return to their primary group to educate others. Strategies here include using clusters, buzz groups, round-robin, leaning cells, or fishbowl discussions.
9. Allow groups to reduce anxiety
When tackling difficult concepts, group learning may provide a source of support. Groups often use humor and create a more relaxed learning atmosphere that allows for positive learning experiences. Allow groups to use some stress-reducing strategies as long as they stay on task.
10. Establish group interactions
The quality of discussions is a predictor of the achievement of the group. Instructors should provide a model of how a successful group functions. Shared leadership is often useful here. Students should work together on the task and maintenance functions of a group. Roles are important in group development. Task functions include:

Initiating Discussions

Clarifying points

Summarizing

Challenging assumptions/devil's advocate

Providing or researching information

Reaching a consensus

Maintenance involves the harmony and emotional well-being of a group. Maintenance includes roles such as sensing group feelings, harmonizing, compromising and encouraging, time-keeping, relieving tension, bringing people into the discussion, and more.
11. Use real-world problems
Experts suggest that project-based learning using open-ended questions can be very engaging. Rather than spending a lot of time designing an artificial scenario, use inspiration from everyday problems. Real world problems can be used to facilitate project-based learning and often have the right scope for collaborative learning.
12. Focus on enhancing problem-solving and critical thinking skills
Design assignments that allow room for varied interpretations. Different types of problems might focus on categorizing, planning, taking multiple perspectives, or forming solutions. Try to use a step-by step procedure for problem-solving. Mark Alexander explains one generally accepted problem-solving procedure:

1. Identify the objective

2. Set criteria or goals

3. Gather data

4. Generate options or courses of action

5. Evaluate the options using data and objectives

6. Reach a decision

7. Implement the decision

13. Keep in mind the diversity of groups
Mixed groups that include a range of talents, backgrounds, learning styles, ideas, and experiences are best. Studies have found that mixed aptitude groups tend to learn more from each other and increase achievement of low performers. Rotate groups so students have a chance to learn from others.
14. Consider demographics
Equally, balanced gender groups were found to be most effective.

Some research suggests that boys were more likely to receive and give elaborate explanations and their stances were more easily accepted by the group. In majority male groups girls were ignored. In majority girl groups, girls tended to direct questions to the boy who often ignored them. You may also want to specifically discuss or establish gender equality as a norm. This may seem obvious, but it is often missed. It may be an issue you may want to discuss with older students.

15. Use scaffolding or diminished responsibility as students begin to understand concepts.

At the beginning of a project, you may want to give more direction than the end. Serve as a facilitator, such as by gauging group interactions or at first, providing a list of questions to consider. Allow groups to grow in responsibility as times goes on. In your classroom, this may mean allowing teams to develop their own topics or products as time goes on.

After all, increased responsibility over learning is a goal in collaborative learning.
16. Include different types of learning scenarios
Studies suggests that collaborative learning that focuses on rich contexts and challenging questions produces higher-order reasoning. Assignments can include laboratory work, study teams, debates, writing projects, problem-solving, and collaborative writing.
17. Technology makes collaborative learning easier
Collaboration had the same results via technology as in person, increased learning opportunities. Try incorporating free savvy tools for online collaboration such as Stixy, an online shared whiteboard space, Google groups, or Mikogo for online meetings. Be aware that some research suggests that more exchanges related to planning rather than challenging viewpoints occurred more frequently through online interactions.

This may be because the research used students that did not know one another. If this is your scenario, you may want to start by having students get to know each other's backgrounds and ideas beforehand on a blog or chat-board.
18. Avoid 'bad group work'
As with any learning strategy, it's important to have a balanced approach. Cynics usually have a valid point. A New York Times article, cites some criticism of collaboration for not allowing enough time for individual, creative thinking. You may allow some individual time to write notes before the groups begin. This may be a great way to assess an individual grade.

19. Be wary of 'group think '

While collaborative learning is a great tool, it is always important to consider a balanced approach. At times, group harmony can override the necessity for more critical perspectives. Some research suggests that groups favored the more confident members. Changing up groups can help counter this problem.
20. Value diversity
Collaborative learning relies on some buy-in. Students need to respect and appreciate each other's viewpoints for it to work. For instance, class discussions can emphasize the need for different perspectives. Create a classroom environment that encourages independent thinking. Teach students the value of multiplicity in thought. You may want to give historical or social examples where people working together were able to reach complex solutions.

By definition, learning is social in nature. Using different mediums, whether it be books, discussions, technology or projects we study and develop new ideas. We impart ideas and share perspectives with others. Collaboration is a learned process. If managed correctly, it is a powerful tool that can allow educators to tap into new ideas and information.
This is a cross-post from opencolleges.edu.au; image attribution flickr user flickeringbrad

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20 Collaborative Learning Tips And Strategies For Teachers

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There is an age-old adage that says, "two heads are better than one." Here are 20 collaborative learning tips and strategies for teachers.

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[MaineDOEComm].(August 16, 2013). "Learner Centered Literacy: Owning Their Own Reading" [video file]. retrieved from: https://youtu.be/xxx0P_euuSw

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Learner Centered Literacy:  Owning Their Own Reading

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This video is very interesting as it explains how we are constantly assessing ourselves and our peers every day.

According to Spencer (2020), "assessment helps us figure out what we know, what we don't know, and what steps we need to take in the future to master a skill or understand a concept at a deeper level."

We assess ourselves in tasks such as physical training, wanting to get better and fitter, or even in music, if you are creating a song you will modify it to make it sound better. Also, our peers assess us in tasks like cooking, asking someone to taste your food and give feedback, or artists may ask for another pair of eyes on an art piece.

In the classroom students can assess each other in a variety of different ways. Spencer (2020) gives us these examples:

Self assessment (Cognitive Constructivism):

Goal setting

Reflection of strengths and weaknesses

Student surveys

Self assessment rubrics

Checklists

Making a portfolio to reflect on what they have learned

Peer Assessment (Social Constructivism):

10-minute peer feedback system - students share their work with their peers, then peers ask questions and give feedback, then the student can plan the next steps.

Especially for English Language Learners (ELL):

Structured feedback with sentence stems

3-2-1 structure: 3 strengths, 2 weaknesses, 1 question

Peer Feedback Carousel - anonymous sticky notes students place at each group.

Peer Coaching - process, guide reflection, give feedback

A teacher won't always be around to give feedback. In the real world, we will get feedback from the people around us and our colleagues. We should try to integrate peer and self assessment into every lesson to prepare students for a creative and growing life.

References:

Berkeley University of California. (n.d.). Overview of learning theories. GSI Teaching Resource Center. Retrieved February 27, 2022, from https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/learning-overview/

John Spencer. (2020). Empowering Students to Own the Assessment Process. YouTube. Retrieved February 20, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8WxvVgXC_NY&list=PLzDOGMsmDvevXjgWTfOZpdMfN0a7JI_9X&index=5.

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Empowering Students to Own the Assessment Process

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Seesaw is an educational too that is used in many IB schools. It allows students to upload and reflect on their work, parents to keep try of what the children are learning, and for teachers to keep track of each learner and their developments.

In regards to Student centered assessment, this tool would be used in the form of self or peer assessment. Students can reflect on their own work as well as collaborate with others in group assessments and group reflection.

In my opinion, this tool sounds fantastic as the teacher would be able to see the thought process of each of their students and be able to create more personalized lessons. I have some teaching friends who use this in their schools and they can't think about what they would do without it.

References:
Seesaw. (2020). What is Seesaw. YouTube. Retrieved February 20, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6G1N-7GNCq8.

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David Lawson: How can you implement assessment so that it enhances student-centered learning? ( Behaviorism)

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David Lawson: How can you implement assessment so that it enhances student-centered learning? ( Behaviorism)

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There's more to assessment than the end result and test scores. Assessing students’, enthusiasm, learning preferences, skills, and levels of energy, teachers can create an enhanced student-centered classroom while implementing assessment.

Interests.

Most if not all students come with explicit experiences that have driven their interests. Such experiences stem from family, favorite movies, extra-curricular activities, and travel. We can use a variety of assessment tools like one-on-one talks, student journals, and organized work to learn more what drives students to learn. “Tools like learning profile cards can allow us to differentiate appropriately, leverage our students' strengths, and push them to learn in different ways.” Assessing interests can also push teachers to understand our students more carefully and create a classroom designed for them.

Take Home exams
In-class exams can lead to stress and pressures that are given short time period while take-home exams are generally less stressful and boost student confidence. You're given an exam to take home for a given time where you can work on it gradually, taking as much time as you think is appropriate to prepare, write, and revise your test answers. This will lead to less anxiety and more mental flow for students in class helping boost collaborative class discussions .

Active engagement of students in setting goals for their learning and growth, monitoring their progress toward those goals is vital for student centered learning.  Student exhibitions are a great tool that builds excitement and students’ awareness that others value of their work and the confidence to speak to an audience beyond their own parents and teacher. A positive teacher-student relationship is developed as students want to do a good job, will work harder because they are excited and this helps build a strong connection with teachers’ students.

References

Bob Lenz (2014) A Case for Student-Centered Learning
February 13, 2014
https://www.edutopia.org/blog/a-case-for-student-centered-learning-bob-lenz

S. Maloney (2014) THE USE AND BENEFITS OF A 'TAKE HOME EXAM' IN ACCOUNTING EDUCATION
November,17, 2014

https://library.iated.org/view/MALONEY2014USE

Rania Al Hussaini (2007)
Why exhibitions are important to a student
June, 9, 2007
https://gulfnews.com/general/why-exhibitions-are-important-to-a-student-1.183660

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David Lawson: Different ways to approach to Student center differentiation ( Behaviorism)

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David Lawson: Different ways to approach to Student center differentiation ( Behaviorism)

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Station Rotation: Differentiating Instruction to Reach All Students

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Student-centred Approaches to Collaborative Learning 

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Student-centred Approaches to Collaborative Learning 

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1. Fishbowl strategy (cogntivism)

A strategy for organising medium to large group discussions. The students sitting in the middle or the "fishbowl" can take part in a discussion by asking the questions and sharing their opinions with each other. Students on the outside can listen to this discussion and take notes.

Reference:
Fishbowl Strategy Explained. (2020, November 16). YouTube. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1q7WbWc8dE

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2. Think, Pair, Share (cognitivism)

In this three-staged strategy, students are given time to think of answers following this they will work in pairs to find solutions/answers. Finally, they'll share the answers they decided upon with the rest of the class.  This strategy is helpful for giving students opportunities to work individually and brainstorm (Staff, 2022).

Reference:
Staff, T. (2022, January 19). 20 Collaborative Learning Tips And Strategies For Teachers. TeachThought. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/collaborative-learning-tips/

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Kinesthetic Classroom by Michael Kuczala (Behaviorism) 

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Kinesthetic Classroom by Michael Kuczala (Behaviorism) 

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He discusses how the brain is one of the primary beneficiaries of aerobic activity. He says learning happens from the feet up and having a brain-body connection will improve learning. We must try to use movement in a purposeful and thoughtful way. Movement can help you prepare to learn, provide brain breaks,  and support exercise. It can help students stay engaged and retain the information being presented to them.
One example of how I incorporate behaviorism learning tactics in the classroom is that I have is that a lot of my bookwork is multiple choice. So rather than sitting and circling answers for a 40 minute class period.  I have them stand up for A, sit down for B, spin around for C, and make a starfish shape with their body for D. They stay engaged just overall enjoy the lesson more. This provides stimulation for the students in their learning environment as the behaviorism learning style suggests.

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The Kinesthetic Classroom: Teaching and Learning through Movement | Michael Kuczala | TEDxAshburn

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A Few Ideas to Implement in the Physical Space

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A Few Ideas to Implement in the Physical Space

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1.) Student Work Display (Constructivism/behaviorism) -  Students should observe and critique their own performance. It is important that the teacher is not the only source for modeling behavior and expectations. Students can inspire each other and also give new ideas for how to complete tasks. This aligns with the Constructivist theory of education, which views education as a process of learning by stacking new information on top of already existing information. When students see others' work, they can learn a new way to complete a task and broaden their understanding of whatever the topic at hand was. I also feel that there is an element of Behaviorism at play here, since many students are motivated by seeing their work displayed, and may become more motivated to change their class behaviors to receive that rewarding feeling again.

2.) Learning Pods (Connectivism) - Shelley Wright mentions learning pods in her classroom. I think she is referring to learning pods as small-group structures in the classroom, like large work tables or groups of desks. However, pods can also be a digital tool for distance learning, allowing for groups of students with similar interests or goals to connect in small groups outside the class (What are). Parents can organize pods at their houses, which expands the community of learning. Wright mentioned that “learning is constructed in a community,” which is an idea prevalent in many approaches to learning, such as the Connectivism Theory and also some post-modern theories of education (Tedx, 2013, June 10).

3.) Windows and Views of Nature (Cognitivism) - According to Cognitive Theory, students need to actively engage with material and interpret new information. For this, they need a strong memory and stress-free mind. Windows with distant views can be important in stopping mental fatigue, especially goal-driven mental fatigue. Windows with views of distant objects may be a bit distracting, but they actually help to relax eye muscles and relieve stress. The book The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective written by Kaplan S. helped educators shift from windowless classrooms to more well-lit and pleasant environments.

4.) Air Quality - A study in Chile in 2013 found that higher PM10 and ozone levels had a detrimental affect on students’ cognition based on standardized test scores. The study involved almost 4,000 schools (Miller S.J and Vela M.S. 2013). In addition to long-term health  consequences for students, researchers are now looking at how different air pollutants and allergens affect student’s performance, memory, attention, and emotions in the classroom . This has been a big issue in my department at my current school, since Qingdao routinely has days in which the micro-particles are above 150 PPM. We’ve pressed the school to purchase air purifiers and keep the windows and doors closed, but unfortunately it is their policy to routinely open doors and windows for “fresh air.” This was policy even before Covid-19 prevention measures were put into place.

5.) Book Share (Social Constructivism) - This is an idea that I had. Most rooms at my school have a mini library of books in them. Students choose these books to read in their Chinese class and also to read during their free time. I think allowing students to bring some books from home  and have a book selection each month might encourage independent reading habits. I feel that when it comes to my students, anything assigned by the teacher is viewed as “work” but if students see others reading a book, they might be more motivated to read it too. Having students share sources of knowledge with each other fits perfectly into the Social Constructivist theory, because it means that the students are broadening their base of knowledge and choosing new experiences that they think are valuable based on collaboration with their peers.

References

Kaplan S, and Kaplan, R. (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.

Miller, S.J., and Vela M.A. (2013) The Effects of Air Pollution on Educational Outcomes: Evidence from Chile. Inter-America Development Bank. https://publications.iadb.org/en/publication/11349/effects-air-pollution-educational-outcomes-evidence-chile

Tedx Talks (2013, June 10). The power of student-driven learning: Shelley Wright at TEDxWestVancouverED [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fMC-z7K0r4

Author Unknown (2021) What are Learning Pods? Learneverywhere.org. https://learneverywhere.org/what-are-learning-pods/

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In this article, Jacobs and Renandya first explain what student centered learning (SCL) is and the educational shift that has occurred from teacher controlled learning to SCL. Then, extensive reading is discussed in relation to SCL, and finally, how to make extensive reading even more student centered.

Jacobs and Renandya break up SCL into 7 different features. I will summarize how each feature can be made more student centered through extensive reading and give an example:

1. Student Control (Cognitive Constructivism) - students can choose what books they read and what books are in their school libraries. This can be done through involving students in book selection with catalogs, through books donated by parents and through student online research. Students also have control in how there would be assessed on their readings. Jacobs and Renandya give many examples. One interesting activity is, "take a well-known song, nursery rhyme, etc. and make new words for it based on the book. Perform your song, etc. for others."  (Jacobs & Renandya, 2015)

2. Learning to learn (Cognitive Constructivism) - extensive reading can strengthen students' thinking skills. This can be done when students keep a reading diary, and then reflect on the reactions they had to what they read.

3. Learning with peers (Social Constructivism)- students can collaborate with their peers by reading the book together and discussion all elements of the story. Students helping, motivating and enhancing the enjoyment of reading are some of the benefits.

4. Diversity (Social Constructivism) - when students share what they have read with their peers, students are subjected to different perspectives.

5. Connections to students' worlds - students and teachers create their own extensive reading materials, and share these with the school. These materials can change students' worlds as they read texts that their peers and teachers have written.

6. Teachers as fellow learners - teachers can contribute to their schools' materials by writing short texts that may be adaptions from other authors. Teachers will improve their writing and publishing skills as they produce more texts.

7. Motivation and the self (Behaviorism) - students should be encouraged to build positive images of themselves, continuously check the gap between the level of reading they have now and where they want to be, and "continually keep their ideal selves alive throughout the tenure of their studies." Using a reading proficiency scale, students can stay motivated to learn by knowing where they are now and where they want to be when they finish studying.

With regards to technology, students now have access to many different kinds of reading materials like e-books and audio books. This can help a teacher to better find books that will suit the students, and this will also help create a wider variety of books to choose from.

Reference:

Berkeley University of California. (n.d.). Overview of learning theories. GSI Teaching Resource Center. Retrieved February 27, 2022, from https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/learning-overview/

Jacobs, G., & Renandya, W. (2015). Making extensive reading even more student centered. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 102–112. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v4i2.691

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Making extensive reading even more student centered

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Andrew Miller uses Project Based Learning (PBL) to read differentiated instruction. His six strategies include:

1.) Differentiate Through Teams

2.) Reflection and Goal Setting

3.) Mini Lessons, Centers, and Resources

4.) Voice and Choice in Products

5.) Differentiate Through Formative Assessments

6.) Balance Teamwork and Individual Work

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Differentiated programming | NSW Education Standards

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Students' individual differences may influence how students respond to instruction and how they demonstrate what they know, understand and can do.

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Emma Dinkgreve is a teacher in Australia. She says there are five guiding principles to student differentiation:

1.) Positive and supportive learning environment

2.) Quality Curriculum

3.) Assessment is used to inform teaching and learning

4.) Responsive and flexible teaching

5.) Knowing each learner

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Differentiated Instruction - a truly student centered approach

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Specific Strategies to Promote Differentiation

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Specific Strategies to Promote Differentiation

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1.) Barometer: Taking a Stand on Controversial Issues (Social Constructivism)

This is one I’ve used in my class. It is especially useful for middle and high school students. Basically, you read a series of questions, and students find a place in the room based on a continuum of agreement or disagreement. This is great because it appeals to learners who struggle to stay seated. Also, there aren’t necessarily right or wrong answers, and students are each occupying their own space. This is an example of Social Constructivism, since there are not "right or wrong" answers, but new knowledge and opinions are transferred through the classroom.

See more at: https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-strategies

2.) Give One, Get One

In this technique, students split a paper into two columns. They provide a piece or pieces of information about the topic, then they go around sharing and receiving from the other students. This is naturally differentiated because it forces the students to communicate with each other, and the students provide all of the information.

See more at: https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-strategies

3.) Differentiate Through Teams (Cognitivism)

I think Andrew Miller’s idea for using team structure to differentiate learning appeals to me, and it is something I have thought about in the past as well. Whenever teachers design groups, they should not only be thinking about pairing students based on “general ability” but on what skill they want to improve in the students, or some area of focus. It can’t be enough to pair weak students with strong students. At times, however, grouping students by ability may be appropriate. Miller’s example is when students are put into reading groups.

See more at: https://www.edutopia.org/blog/differentiated-instruction-strategies-pbl-andrew-miller

4.) Learning Stations (Cognitivism)

Learning Stations are basically small groups who get assigned work, and then rotate to a new task. This allows the groups to discuss at their own speed with their own ideas. It is particularly useful for reviewing content, according to Nicole Darbois, an AP History teacher. She explains it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZfB6SSfCmWc. A micro study carried out in a literature class in Turkey found that the concept of a learning station “increases the interests of children towards the lesson, help them develop friendship relationships, and augments mutual aid behaviors” (Süleyman AVCI, Arzu YÜKSEL, Makbule SOYER, Suzan BALIKÇIOĞLU). What strikes me as Cognitivist about this strategy is that it is focused on how students learn material based through chunking broader units or concepts into more digestible parts, which is how both Avci and Darbois describe using the strategy.

References

Emma Dinkgreve (2021, Oct 30), Differentiated Instruction - a truly student centered approach [Video], Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLECd-6d3p8

Miller, Andrew (2016, Jan 8), 6 Strategies for Differentiated Instruction in Project-Based Learning, Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/differentiated-instruction-strategies-pbl-andrew-miller

PCS Teaching (2018, May 16), Learning Stations [Video], Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZfB6SSfCmWc

Süleyman AVCI, Arzu YÜKSEL, Makbule SOYER, Suzan BALIKÇIOĞLU (2009), The Cognitive and Affective Changes Caused by the Differentiated Classroom Environment Designed for the Subject of Poetry, Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri / Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ858920.pdf

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David Lawson: Examples that can be used (Behaviorism)

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David Lawson: Examples that can be used (Behaviorism)

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Creating Learning Stations help provide different types of content by setting up learning stations divided sections of your classroom through which groups of students rotate. This can be You can facilitate this with a flexible seating plan. This helps identify the strengths and weakness of the different students.

Students can rotate between stations that involve:
Watching a video

Creating artwork

Reading an article

Completing puzzles

Listening to you teach

To help students understand the content after they've been through the different stations, holding a class discussion or assign questions to answer is useful.

Lesson content should cover students in your class who may be completely unfamiliar with the content in a lesson, some students may have basic understanding and some students who are already familiar with the content before the lesson begins.

To differentiate the content design activities for groups of students that cover various levels for example students who are unfamiliar with the lesson could be required to complete tasks on the lower levels like matching vocabulary with native vocabulary. Students with some understanding could be asked to make sentences based on the vocabulary, and students who have high levels of understand could be asked to complete tasks like explaining the word and sentences to classmates. This type a content takes in account the entire class while using differentiation.

The End product is what the student creates at the end of the lesson to showcased what they have learnt. They are different ways to implement this: can be in the form of exams, quizzes, projects and reports etc. You could assign students to complete activities the student prefers, based on learning style their capabilities shown. Differentiating the end product Read and write learners write a book report. Visual learners create a graphic organizer of the story. Auditory learners give an oral report. You will manage the process so that it allows you to meet an explain students where they are and how to move them forward.

References

Cathy Weselby What is Differentiated Instruction? Examples of How to Differentiate Instruction in the Classroom
APRIL 29, 2021
https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/examples-of-differentiated-instruction/#:~:text=Differentiating%20instruction%20may%20mean%20teaching,the%20ability%20of%20each%20student.&text=Group%20students%20by%20shared%20interest%2C%20topic%2C%20or%20ability%20for%20assignments.

Marcus Guido (2021) 20 Differentiated Instruction Strategies and Examples
September 20, 2021
https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/differentiated-instruction-strategies-examples-download/

Terry Heick  Ways To Use Strategies For Differentiated Instruction In Your Classroom
https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/strategies-differentiated/

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Al Hussaini, R.  (2007). Why exhibitions are important to a student. June, 9, 2007 https://gulfnews.com/general/why-exhibitions-are-important-to-a-student-1.183660

Author Unknown (2021) What are Learning Pods? Learneverywhere.org. https://learneverywhere.org/what-are-learning-pods/

Berkeley University of California. (n.d.). Overview of learning theories. GSI Teaching Resource Center. Retrieved February 27, 2022, from https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/learning-overview/

[Cult of Pedagogy]. (April 15, 2015). "The Jigsaw Method" [video file]. retrieved from: https://youtu.be/euhtXUgBEts

DavidLeeEdTech]. (2015, May 12). Introduction to Project Based Learning (PBL) Process [Video File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08D0dBGIzYQ

Fishbowl Strategy Explained. (2020, November 16). YouTube. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1q7WbWc8dE

Guido, M. (2021). 20 Differentiated Instruction Strategies and Examples. September 20, 2021  https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/differentiated-instruction-strategies-examples-download/

Heick, T. (2022).  Ways To Use Strategies For Differentiated Instruction In Your Classroom. https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/strategies-differentiated/

Kaplan S, and Kaplan, R. (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.

Laal, M., & Ghodsi, S. M. (2012). Benefits of collaborative learning. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 486-490. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.091

Lenz, B. (2014) A Case for Student-Centered Learning.   February 13, 2014  https://www.edutopia.org/blog/a-case-for-student-centered-learning-bob-lenz

Loveless, B. (2022). Developing a Student-centered Classroom. Education Corner. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.educationcorner.com/developing-a-student-centered-classroom.html

[MaineDOEComm].(August 16, 2013). "Learner Centered Literacy: Owning Their Own Reading" [video file]. retrieved from: https://youtu.be/xxx0P_euuSw

Maloney, S.  (2014) THE USE AND BENEFITS OF A 'TAKE HOME EXAM' IN ACCOUNTING EDUCATION. November,17, 2014 https://library.iated.org/view/MALONEY2014USE

Miller, S.J., and Vela M.A. (2013) The Effects of Air Pollution on Educational Outcomes: Evidence from Chile. Inter-America Development Bank. https://publications.iadb.org/en/publication/11349/effects-air-pollution-educational-outcomes-evidence-chile

Pantuosco-Hensch, L. (2019) Making Movement a Part of Your Classroom Culture. National Education Association. https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/making-movement-part-your-classroom-culture

Shalaway, L. (2005). Learning to Teach . . . not just for beginners (3rd Ed.): The Essential Guide for All Teachers (Revised, Expanded ed.). Teaching Resources.

Spencer, J. (2020). Empowering Students to Own the Assessment Process. YouTube. Retrieved February 20, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8WxvVgXC_NY&list=PLzDOGMsmDvevXjgWTfOZpdMfN0a7JI_9X&index=5.

Staff, T. (2022, January 19). 20 Collaborative Learning Tips And Strategies For Teachers. TeachThought. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/collaborative-learning-tips/

Teachings in Education (2016). Formative Assessments: Why, When & Top 5 Examples.   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-RXYTpgvB5I

TeachThought. (2018, June 28). 20 collaborative learning tips and strategies for teachers. Retrieved October 22, 2019, from https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/20-collaborative-learning-tips-and-strategies/

Weselby, C. (2021).  What is Differentiated Instruction? Examples of How to Differentiate Instruction in the Classroom. APRIL 29, 2021 https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/examples-of-differentiated-instruction/#:~:text=Differentiating%20instruction%20may%20mean%20teaching,the%20ability%20of%20each%20student.&text=Group%20students%20by%20shared%20interest%2C%20topic%2C%20or%20ability%20for%20assignments.

Wright, S. (2013). Tedx Talks (2013, June 10). The power of student-driven learning: Shelley Wright at TEDxWestVancouverED [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fMC-z7K0r4

Wright, S. (2022). The power of student-driven learning: Shelley Wright at TEDxWestVancouverED. (2013, June 9). YouTube. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fMC-z7K0r4.

Yale Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning. Formative and Summative Assessments.  https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/Formative-Summative-Assessments

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As a teacher, difference should be made between formative assessments and summative assessments.
Formative assessments are going beyond traditional learning strategies and are part of constructivism.

“Summative assessments evaluate student learning, knowledge, proficiency, or success at the conclusion of an instructional period, like a unit, course, or program.” They are what we call exams or end-of-term projects and are almost always graded. Their purpose is to compare the student’s acquired knowledge to national or class standards, as well as to other students in the class. They are often high stakes to go through the levels of the education system.

“The purpose of formative assessment is to monitor student learning and provide ongoing feedback to staff and students.” Instead of giving a final judgment on the student’s acquired knowledge, it helps the student to identify their strengths and problems as the course continues. On the top of allowing them to adjust their learning pace and strategy as the same time they are learning, it gives them a sense of empowerment which is highly beneficial to their learning process. For the teacher, it helps to adjust the course content and have a more student-centered way of teaching.

Rather than using one or the other, it is often best to make use of both formative and formative assessments in the classroom.

In the Youtube video above are some simple examples of formative assessments that can be used in the classroom.

References:
“Formative and Summative Assessments”.  Yale Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning. https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/Formative-Summative-Assessments

“Formative Assessments: Why, When & Top 5 Examples.” Teachings in Education, 2016.   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-RXYTpgvB5I

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Formative Assessments: Why, When & Top 5 Examples

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Making movement as part of the classroom culture (behaviorism)

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Making movement as part of the classroom culture (behaviorism)

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As Pantuosco-Hensch pointed out (2019), physical activity should not be limited to physical education classes. Including it as part of every course of the curriculum does not only have beneficial health effects, but it also helps with the learning process. As Hannah mentioned it in the post above, research has proved that brain-body connection helps with the learning process. It also has been associated with social emotional well-being, in term of having positive impact on mood, behavior and stress level.

In order to establish a classroom culture that involves physical movements, many strategies can be chosen and adapted by the teachers to their own teaching content and preferences. Here are some examples of simple strategies:

. Seats are limiting movements in the classroom but can still allow for students to turn around, move their legs and arms. When not disrupting the classroom, teachers can choose to allow movements and part away from the old traditional “stay still on your chair and do not move around” strategy.

. Standing up can be allowed so that students can feel more awake with their brain and body.

. Walking and talking activities should be encouraged to promote student-centered learning where the students feel in control of their learning process.

. If possible, moving out of the classroom, to other rooms (laboratory, music room, etc.) or even going outdoor can be an excellent way for the students to make connections between the acquired knowledge and the world outside the classroom. This way it can help them to get more involved in their studies, not focusing on the knowledge only when facing the teacher or the homework notebook.

References:

Lynn Pantuosco-Hensch (2019) Making Movement a Part of Your Classroom Culture. National Education Association. https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/making-movement-part-your-classroom-culture

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Bob Lenz (2014) A Case for Student-Centered Learning
February 13, 2014
https://www.edutopia.org/blog/a-case-for-student-centered-learning-bob-lenz

S. Maloney (2014) THE USE AND BENEFITS OF A 'TAKE HOME EXAM' IN ACCOUNTING EDUCATION
November,17, 2014

https://library.iated.org/view/MALONEY2014USE
References Part 2

Cathy Weselby What is Differentiated Instruction? Examples of How to Differentiate Instruction in the Classroom
APRIL 29, 2021
https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/examples-of-differentiated-instruction/#:~:text=Differentiating%20instruction%20may%20mean%20teaching,the%20ability%20of%20each%20student.&text=Group%20students%20by%20shared%20interest%2C%20topic%2C%20or%20ability%20for%20assignments.

Marcus Guido (2021) 20 Differentiated Instruction Strategies and Examples
September 20, 2021
https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/differentiated-instruction-strategies-examples-download/

Terry Heick  Ways To Use Strategies For Differentiated Instruction In Your Classroom
https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/strategies-differentiated/

Rania Al Hussaini (2007)
Why exhibitions are important to a student
June, 9, 2007
https://gulfnews.com/general/why-exhibitions-are-important-to-a-student-1.183660

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Ways to develop a student-centred physical environment. (Constructivism)

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Ways to develop a student-centred physical environment. (Constructivism)

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What is it?
A learning environment where instruction and focus is shifted from the teacher to the student.
1. Teachers can arrange the space to encourage learning. According to Reggio Emilia educators, the classroom space acts as another teacher so it is important to focus on making it a positive aid to learning.  Teachers can do this by showcasing the students work around the classroom and by filling the class with items that are contributed by the students.

2. Creating different centres/corners.
Teachers can divide the classroom into different areas like, a quiet corner where students can sit and read, an artistic corner where students can work on their creative projects, a music area, a collaborative space etc.

3. Desk Placement
Teachers can be flexible with the arrangement of desks in the classroom. Some can be arranged in a collaborative manner and others allow for individual work. It is important that the teacher can make eye contact with all students, however they are seated.

4. Environmental features
Teachers can create a variation of areas in the classroom where some are well lit and others have dim lighting. They can do this by arranging the furniture in the classroom.

5. Integrating technology
Teachers can allow students to use free web tools to present and share information. This will allow students to collaborate using technology and students generally enjoy using tech at school so this will get them interested and excited to learn.

A student centred classroom environment falls under a constructivist behavioural theory. It allows for students to engage in collaboration, project based learning and allows them to construct their own knowledge.

There are many more ways teachers can design a student centred classroom environment. This TEDx talk (linked) by Shelley Wright presents more ideas.

References:
Loveless, B. (2022). Developing a Student-centered Classroom. Education Corner. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.educationcorner.com/developing-a-student-centered-classroom.html

Shalaway, L. (2005). Learning to Teach . . . not just for beginners (3rd Ed.): The Essential Guide for All Teachers (Revised, Expanded ed.). Teaching Resources.

The power of student-driven learning: Shelley Wright at TEDxWestVancouverED. (2013, June 9). YouTube. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fMC-z7K0r4.

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The power of student-driven learning: Shelley Wright at TEDxWestVancouverED