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                                  MABUHAY CEBU!

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                                  MABUHAY CEBU!

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In the Philippines, especially Cebu, there is a vast and diverse culture with its 7,107 islands broken down into three regions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. In these regions comes great wealth and culture, with Spanish, Malay and other influences. All Filipinos are referred to as 'Pinoy.'

However, in Cebu they are referred to as "Cebuano". Cebu comes from the Visayas region, where Pinoys who are born and raised in Cebu can speak Tagalog and Cebuano (dialect of Cebu).
The lifestyle of most Cebuanos include farming or fishing. A typical Cebuano village id made  of bamboo and wooden dwellings with two or three rooms. Their diet mainly includes rice and fish, with some vegetables and fruits. Not only is Cebu home to a number of majestic waterfalls such as the Kawasan Falls, but it boasts a rich floral heritage to its residents and tourists.

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Before we look into Cebu's endemic plant species, let us familiarize ourselves first with what a seed bank is!

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A look inside the Slavbard Global Seed Vault “Doomsday Vault”, largest seed bank in the world

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A look inside the Slavbard Global Seed Vault “Doomsday Vault”, largest seed bank in the world

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Seed banks, or “gene banks for seeds”,  are created in order to provide conditions capable of  sustaining the longevity of seeds, thus preparing them for natural disasters and climate changes. Seed banking and conservation is a technique that can avert such unforeseen emergencies (Bethany, 2017). Currently, there are more than 1,000 seed banks worldwide established, ranging from the Doomsday Vault that is capable of withstanding being bombed to the small craft container (Thelwell, 2019).  These seed banks intend to preserve plant biodiversity by means of storing seeds of different variations in low temperatures in order to secure seed dormancy, before they are needed for replanting. These seed collections ensure seed security, conserve agricultural biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge, and provide options for climate-change adaptation.

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How are seeds selected and collected for the seed banks?

Experts and volunteers all over the world carefully collect seeds for the banks during field work. Rigorous criteria is utilized to ensure that the best seeds are collected and stored (Gosling, 2020).

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The industrialization of agriculture has made our crops less genetically diverse, and therefore less able to adapt to their surroundings (Thelwell, 2019), thus seed banks are made as a preventive measure in the chance of natural disasters, nuclear fallouts and disease outbreaks. Additionally, seed banks play out important roles:

1. Preservation of crop diversity: Like human beings and animals, plants are adaptive to its changing environment, thus the storage of seeds ensures the preservation of such genetic diversity.

2. Protection from climate change: Seed banks eliminate the danger of crop extinction brought about by the effects of adverse climatic change and industrial pollution.

3. Protection from natural disasters: Seed banks are able to provide seeds, when the complete annihilation of crops occurs due to unforeseen natural disasters.

4. Disease resistance: In the occurrence of contagious disease outbreaks that potentially eliminate crops, seed banks intervene and provide the necessary seeds to farmers.

5. Seed material for research: Seed banks provide an easy and convenient access for scientists and researchers who intend to pursue studies related to a specific plant species and/ or crop production

6. Preservation from man-made disasters: Seeds retrieved from seed banks remain viable after how many years in storage, diminishing the chances of crop extinction due to man-made disasters.

7. Conservation of local crops: Seed banks are capable for reviving specific plants in areas that are affected by crop scarcity, thus providing agricultural stability

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Seed banks form seed exchange networks with government organizations, NGOs and community seed banks across the world, forming ex situ storage facilities. They facilitate in seed exchange, on farm conversation with experts and farmers, training and capacity building for farmers and continuous monitoring of cultivation (Jayaraman, 2014).

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The Slavbard Global Seed Vault “Doomsday Vault” is the largest seed bank and it stores seeds for almost every country in the world! (Bethany, 2017)

Located on the side of a mountain in Norway

Capable of surviving bombings, earthquakes and other disasters

Currently holds 825,000 seed varieties

Has the ability to store seeds for up to 25 years

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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In the Philippines, efforts have been made in the establishment of seed banks.

On 1 August 2019, Southeast Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE)  presented documents on the best practices and measures with regards to the implementation of “Community Seed Banks (CSB): Enhancing Local Seed Conservation”. The establishment of CSBs has been undertaken by SEARICE in collaboration with research institutions, universities, government and non-government organizations through initiatives that aim to empower communities and small-scale farmers in Southeast Asia since 1996. Bhutan, Philippines, and Thailand are the countries in which this practice will be taking place. In the Philippines, CSBs model climate-resiliency and agrobiodiversity, as seen  2002 when farmers of the Malitbog village of Dagohoy Municipality experienced severe drought and through the CSBs, and farmers were able to mitigate the effects of drought via seed distribution to the affected farmers.

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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ENCA Ecotourism and Organic farm is an organic seed bank establishment in the Philippines. In response to the limited access of farmers in Northern Philippines to 100% organic seeds, this project was developed to create a local sustainable source of organic seeds for farmers in the Northern regions of the country, and to improve the health of local soils by means of chemical fertilizers in growing hybrid and synthetic non-organic seeds

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How long do seeds survive in a seed bank?

Seeds stored remain dormant for hundreds or even thousands of years, depending on the species. The best prediction suggests that at the very least, seeds will survive for 150 years in vaults – but hopefully much longer  (Gosling, 2020).

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                        Endemic Plants of Cebu City

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                        Endemic Plants of Cebu City

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Endemic plants of Cebu City: (a) Ixora littoralis; (b)  Hoya carnosa; (c) Ipomoea boholensis; (d) Dendrocalamus asper; (e) Asteraceae; (f) Cinnamomum cebuense; (g) Imperata cylindrica, (h) Strongylodon macrobotrys, (i) Cynometra cebuensis, (j) Saccharum spontaneum

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Endemic species refer to plant (or animal) species that are native and restricted to a certain place due to climate change, urban development, and other occurrences. The conservation and preservation of ecosystems and biodiversity include the appropriate conservation approaches of endemic species, as it sustains and preserves the original and geographical centers of these species. Due to its limited geographic presence, endemic plant species are most vulnerable to extinction due to human invasion and habitat destruction, thus the protection of these plant species only magnifies its importance in representing the foundations of natural ecosystems and biodiversity of the floral community.

We have featured a few of Cebu’s well-known endemic species, clearly exemplifying the beauty of Cebu that was preserved through collective efforts aimed at floral conservation: Ipomoea boholensis; Strongylodon macrobotrys; Dendrocalamus asper; Cinnamomum cebuense; Hoya carnosa; Imperata cylindrical; Ixora littoralis; Cynometra cebuensis; Saccharum spontaneum; and family Asteraceae “Compositae”.

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A seed is a flowering plant's unit of reproduction, capable of developing into another plant.

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A seed coat stands a protective covering around the seed. Inside the seed, there is an endosperm, plumule, cotyledon, hypocotyl and radicle. Endosperm is the food source for the plant embryo until it is ready to sprout and is capable of producing its own food. The plumule is the plant’s prospective shoot. Cotyledons are the first small leaves that emerge as a plant begins to sprout. Hypocotyl is the stem of the plant’s embryo. Lastly, the radicle is the prospective root portion of the embryo.

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Now that we know what a seed is, let us further discuss on the processes involved in the growth and development of a seed into a plant!

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In monocot:

1. The zygote elongates and divides transversely to produce basal and terminal cells.

2. The basal cell towards the micropylar end forms a large swollen, vesicular suspensor cell that may function as the haustorium.

3. The terminal cell divides vertically and transversely to form two cells.

4. The top cell undergoes a series of divisions to form a plumule and a single cotyledon called the scutellum.

5. The cotyledon grows rapidly and pushes the terminal plumule to one side and lies in a depression

6. The middle cell after repeated divisions forms hypocotyl and radicle.

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In dicot:

1.  The zygote divides into two unequal cells, a larger suspensor cell towards the micropyle and a smaller embryonal cell towards the antipodal region

2. The suspensor cell undergoes transverse division to form a 6-10 celled suspensor.

3. The suspensor cell towards the micropylar end is large and is called a hautorium or vesicular cell.

4. The suspensor cell towards the embryonal cell is called a hypophysis, which will form the radicle tip.

5. The embryonal cell divides twice vertically and once transversely to produce a two-tiered eight-celled embryo

6. The epibasal tier forms two cotyledons and a plumule, while the hypobasal tier produces only hypocotyl and most of the radicle.

7. The octan embryo undergoes periclinal divisions to produce a protoderm, procambium, and ground meristem.

8. The protoderm will form the epidermis, the procambium will form the stele, and the ground meristem will form the cortex and pith

9. Initially, the embryo is globular and undifferentiated, it will then transform into the embryo with developed radicle, plumule, and cotyledons.

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DIFFERENCE IN DICOT EMBRYOGENESIS AND MONOCOT EMBRYOGENESIS   

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DIFFERENCE IN DICOT EMBRYOGENESIS AND MONOCOT EMBRYOGENESIS   

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To establish a polarized embryonic axis, plants evolved a unique mechanism that involves directional, cell-to-cell transport of the growth regulator auxin (Wabnik et al., 2013). The asymmetric division of the zygote produces a basal cell that transports and an apical cell that responds to the signaling molecule auxin. This apical–basal auxin activity gradient triggers the specification of apical embryo structures and is actively maintained by a novel component of auxin efflux, PIN7, which is located apically in the basal cell. Later, the developmentally regulated reversal of PIN7 and onset of PIN1 polar localization reorganize the auxin gradient for specification of the basal root pole (Friml et al., 2003). WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) genes also play a role in mediating apical-basal axis. e homeobox genes WOX2 and WOX8, which are initially coexpressed in the zygote, act as complementary cell fate regulators in the apical and basal lineage, respectively (Breuninger et al., 2008).

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RADIAL PATTERNING IN EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

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RADIAL PATTERNING IN EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

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In the 16-cell stage (Dermatogen stage), a tangential division of each of the eight ‘octant’ cells produces inner cells and epidermis (protoderm) cells. In Early globular stage; the divisions of the inner cells immediately after the dermatogen stage are oriented in the apical-basal dimension, endowing the embryo with a morphologically recognizable axis. In the globular stage, differences in the orientation of cell divisions in the center and periphery of the lower tier cells have generated narrow procambial cells. At this stage, upper tier cells remain isodiametric. In the late globular stage, now a polarized pattern of major elements is recognizable; upper tier cells have generated two symmetrically positioned cotyledon primordia and lower tier cells a radially patterned cylinder (comprising epidermis, ground tissue and vascular tissue). Additional divisions distinguish the ‘hypophyseal cell’ from other suspensor cells. Its descendants will ultimately form the quiescent center of the primary root meristem and the columella initials. In the Heart stage, cotyledon outgrowth is observed. Subsequently, cells not contributing to cotyledon formation initiate the primary shoot meristem. Divisions of the hypophyseal cell have generated three tiers. The quiescent center of the primary root meristem being derived from the uppermost tier (Berleth & Chatfield, 2002).

Several genes control the radial patterning of plant embryos, this include shr, scr, pic, glm,  wol, and fs. To investigate the effect of these genes in the radial patterning of developing plant embryos, Scheres et al. (2002) observed the effect of the mutant genes on developing Arabidopsis plant. Mutant shortroot (shr) displayed slow root growth as a consequence of lacking endodermal tissues. Mutant pinocchio (pic) and scarecrow (src) lacked a ground tissue layer and cortex layer. Mutation in gollum (glm), displayed an abnormal organisation of the vascular tissue and pericycle moreover, the arrangement of xylem and phloem elements is atypical. Mutation in the wooden leg (wol) roots with a vascular system in which fewer cells are present compared to wild type, and all the vascular cells differentiated into xylem elements. With these the researchers have concluded that wooden leg and gollum mutations interfere with the proper organisation of the vascular tissue, shortroot, scarecrow and pinocchio affect the endodermis and cortex.

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To optimize seed germination over time, a seed enters a state of dormancy. Seed dormancy allows seeds to overcome periods that are unfavourable for seedling established and is therefore important for plant ecology and agriculture (Bentsink & Koornneef, 2008). In dormancy, there is a lack of germination in seeds or tubers even though the required conditions (temperature, humidity, oxygen, and light) are provided (Yildiz et al., 2017). Dormancy is based on hard seed coat impermeability (physical dormancy) or the lack of supply and activity of enzymes (internal dormancy) that are necessary for germination (Yildiz et al., 2017). Seed dormancy allows the plant species to adapt to its changing environmental conditions due to varying geographical regions, precipitation, and temperature, thus emphasizing its role in the successful growth, development, and dispersal of existing species. There is difficulty in detecting genetic and physiological differences since dormancy is regulated at different phases of development that interact with a spectrum of environmental conditions. This difficulty arises because all dormancy assays are based on seed germination, which is the result of the balance between the degree of dormancy and the capacity of the embryo to overcome dormancy (Bentsink & Koornneef, 2008).

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There are various ways to classify seed dormancy. The two major classifications of seed dormancy are: physical (seed coat) dormancy and internal dormancy  (Yildiz et al., 2017).

1. Seed coat (physical) dormancy:

This type of dormancy occurs when the seed coat is impermeable to oxygen and water. Commonly inhibited by chemicals from within the seed. A seed undergoing physical dormancy will remain dormant in the soil until the seed coat allows the entry of water and oxygen or when inhibiting chemicals are eliminated.

Seed coat dormancy is commonly exhibited in California lilac (Ceanothus), manzanita (Arctostaphylos), sumac (Rhus), and members of the legume family  (Yildiz et al., 2017)

2. Internal dormancy

This type of dormancy commonly arises due to physiological conditions such as the presence of seed germination inhibitors or the lack of enzymes that are required for physiological maturation. The adverse implications by these inhibitors must be eliminated to allow the germination process to begin. Germination-promoting substances such as abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellic acid (GA3), and potassium nitrate (KNO3).

Examples of plant species that have ABA as an internal inhibitor in response to internal dormancy are Sugar maple, Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.), planetree maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), European hazel (Corylus avellana L.), white ash (Fraxinus americana L.), apple (Malus pumila Mill.), northern red (Quercus rubra L.), and English oaks (Yildiz et al., 2017)

Depending on  when the induction of dormancy occurs, dormancy may be classified into two: Primary and Secondary dormancy.

1. Primary dormancy: Primary dormancy occurs during seed development due to environmental conditions. Classified into five categories:

physiological dormancy:most common type of dormancy present in many plant species (weeds and crop species), divided into deep, non-deep and intermediate dormancy, depending on its depth.

> DEEP: seed either cannot grow at all or will produce abnormal seedlings

> NON-DEEP: seed will easily germinate and produce normal seedlings

> INTERMEDIATE: seed can eventually germinate and grow

morphological dormancy:due to underdeveloped or immature embryo, germination is still possible  after further embryo development

physical dormancy: seed coat is impermeable to water or gas

morphophysiological dormancy:underdeveloped embryo that also exhibits physiological dormancy

combinational dormancy: induced by the physical and physiological components of a seed

2. Secondary dormancy: Secondary dormancy occurs when faced with conditions unfavorable to seed germination

Other types of seed dormancy include:

1. Innate dormancy:

Occurs when the seed is incapable of undergoing germination even if suitable conditions for growth are present. This may be due to an immature embryo during the time of dispersal.

1. Enforced dormancy:

Environmental restraints may prevent a seed from germination

1. Induced dormancy:

Extremely unfavorable conditions for germination are present, thus the seeds fail to germinate even in favorable conditions.

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Various methods have been performed by seed scientists and technologists to determine how to break the dormancy of seed. Several physical and chemical pretreatments are applied to the organic material (seeds/tubers) to overcome dormancy (Yildiz et al., 2017). Scarification, hot water, dry heat, fire, acid and other chemicals, mulch, and light are the methods used for breaking seed coat dormancy (Emery, 1987; Yildiz et al., 2017).  Methods of breaking through seed dormancy may be divided into two: natural and artificial.

1. Natural methods: These methods result in the seed coat’s permeability due to its rupture via the smoothing effects of natural agents of a microorganism, temperature change, and abrasion by digestive chemicals.

Over-ripening period

Leaching of inhibitors present in the seed coat and/ or of highly concentrated solutes

Supply of cold, heat, and light to inactivate inhibitors

Production of growth hormones which neutralize the effects of inhibitors

1. Artificial methods:These methods are performed by humans with the intent to overcome a seed in dormancy.

Scarification (Physical or Chemical): Applied on seeds whose dormancy is imposed by its seed coat impermeability, thus allowing it to soften and become permeable to water and gas. Rupture of seed coats by filing, chipping, or threshing through machines (physical) and treatment of concentrated sulphuric acid (or vinegar) to eliminate traces of mineral acid (chemical)

Temperature treatments: Exposure to heat or cold to terminate waxes and surface inhibitors

Light treatments: Continuous or periodic exposure of light (red light or white light)

Chemical (growth regulator) treatments: Application of low level of growth regulators (i.e. Gibberellins, Cytokinins and Ethylene etc) to promote growth

Application of hydraulic pressure weakens the tough seed coats

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Seed germination is an important stage in plant growth that can be used to predict plant productivity. Seedling survival rate and vegetative growth are strongly tied to physiological and biochemical changes followed by morphological changes during germination, which affect yield and quality.

The process has 3 phases: (1) water uptake by imbibition; (2) reactivation of metabolism; and (3) mobilization of food reserves. These phases include the following process  for a successful seed germination  (Jhade, 2020):

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The imbibition of water by the seed initiates early seed germination. The dry seeds absorb water through imbibition and osmosis, softening the seed coat and other coverings and hydrating the protoplasm. The seed then swells and the seed coverings tear after being ingested with water, allowing protoplasm to resume metabolic activity by activating enzymes. The seed coat serves as a limiting factor during the hydration phase, and its rupture promotes water intake. Through the micropyler pore and hilum, water penetrates the seed. Water absorption is often quick at first, but then gradually slows.

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Enzyme activity occurs immediately after hydration. The reactivation of stored enzymes and the production of enzymes during the germination initiation process are both responsible for enzyme activation. The hydrolytic enzymes break down complicated food into smaller forms that the embryo can easily translocate and absorb. Respiration and the release of energy for cell division and growth are both carried out by oxidative enzymes.

The elongation of cells is aided by hydration, as well as the creation and activation of enzymes, which culminates in the development of the radicle. The first observable symptom of germination is the appearance of a radicle, which is caused by cell elongation rather than cell division.

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In the translocation stage, endosperm and cotyledons store food resources such as lipids, carbs, and proteins. These molecules are broken down into simpler forms and sent to the embryo's growth sites. The sort of food material retained in the seed affects the conversion process of different species. Enzymatically, fats and oils, for example, are transformed first to fatty acids, then to sugars. Storage proteins are transformed to amino acids, which are then transformed to nitrogen, which is required for seedling growth. Many seeds include starch as an energy source, which is transformed to simple sugars. All of these transformations are controlled by the metabolic activity of certain enzymes in a certain order.

Finally, the development of the seedling plant occurs as a result of continuing cell division in various growth areas of the embryo, which is followed by the expansion of seedling structures.

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Plants, like animals and other species, are forced to adapt to their ever-changing surroundings. Plants must find various strategies to cope with harsh environmental conditions because they are sessile. Plant tropisms are systems that allow plants to adapt to changes in their environment. A tropism is a response to certain stimuli that grows toward or away from it. Light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), and touch (thigmotropism)  are all common factors that influence plant growth (Bailey, 2018). Plant hormones such as auxins are hypothesized to aid in the regulation of differential growth in plant organs, causing the plant to curve or bend in response to a stimulus. Positive tropism refers to growth in the direction of a stimulus, whereas negative tropism refers to growth away from it.

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Phototropism is the bending or orienting of the growth and development of plants toward the light source. It occurs in all elongating green plants, and in seedlings that may curve towards or away from the light source, the reaction is sensitive (Thiman, 1967). Plant hormones, such as auxins, are directed to the side of the stem that is farthest from the light that is detected by photoreceptors in plant cells. The cells on the shaded side of the stem extend at a faster rate than those on the opposite side of the stem due to the accumulation of auxins.

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Gravitropism, or gravity-directed growth, dictates upward shoot growth to enable accurate leaf positioning for effective photosynthetic activity and gas exchange. It also induces roots to grow downward in the soil, allowing them to reach out and absorb the mineral ions needed for growth and development of plants. It has a major influence on agricultural production. It helps plants to compete for the scarce resources in their surrounding environment and guarantees that crop shoots continue to grow upward after being prostrated by wind and rain (Chen, Rosen, & Masson, 1999).

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Thigmotropism, also known as haptotropism, is the movement or shift in orientation of a plant's growth as a response to contact.A hard surface that can shift the direction of the plant's growth or the growth of one of its organs is the orienting element. Thigmotropism may take the form of the plant's petals or leaves opening or closing, or the plant coiling around the surface, among other things. Thigmotropism can be used to boost a plant's chances of capturing light for photosynthesis. Climbing plants or vines with specialized structures known as tendrils exhibit positive thigmotropism. Though tendrils show positive thigmotropism, roots will also show negative thigmotropism. As roots grow deeper into the earth, they sometimes grow away from an entity (Bailey, 2018).

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