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Iambic pentameter is a type of poetic meter that consists of five "iambs" per line. An iamb is made up of two syllables, where the first is unstressed and the second is stressed (da-DUM). So, a full line of iambic pentameter sounds like this:

"Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?" (da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM)

A feminine ending happens when an extra unstressed syllable is added at the end of the line, Example:

"To be or not to be, that is the question."

(Here, "ques-tion" adds an unstressed syllable at the end.)

Feminine endings can add variety and emotion to the rhythm of a poem.

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CRITICAL APPROACHES

TO A TEXT

New Criticism/Formalism:

﻿﻿Focuses on close reading of the text itself, emphasizing its formal elements (structure, language, imagery).

﻿﻿New Critics like Cleanth Brooks and John Crowe Ransom stressed the importance of the "text-as-object" and the unity of form and content.

Marxist Criticism:

﻿﻿Analyzes literature in terms of class struggle, economic conditions, and power dynamics.

﻿﻿Influential figures include Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Later theorists like Raymond Williams and Terry Eagleton developed Marxist literary analysis further.

Feminist Criticism:

﻿﻿Examines how literature reflects and shapes gender roles, biases, and experiences.

﻿﻿Key theorists include Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Julia Kristeva, and more contemporary scholars like Judith Butler.

Psychoanalytic Criticism:

﻿﻿Draws on psychoanalysis to explore characters' motivations, desires, and unconscious conflicts.

﻿﻿Sigmund Freud's theories form the foundation, and Jacques Lacan's work extended psychoanalytic ideas to literature.

Structuralism and Post-Structuralism:

﻿﻿Structuralism examines how elements of a text relate to each other in a systematic way.

﻿﻿Post-structuralism (e.g., Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida) challenges the idea of fixed meanings and emphasizes the instability of language.

Reader-Response Theory:

﻿﻿Focuses on the reader's role in interpreting and creating meaning from the text.

﻿﻿Key figures include Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish.

Postcolonial Theory:

﻿﻿Analyzes literature from the perspective of formerly colonized regions, addressing issues of identity, representation, and cultural imperialism.

﻿﻿Theorists like Edward Said (Orientalism) and Gayatri Spivak (subaltern studies) are notable in this

Deconstruction:

﻿﻿A post-structuralist approach that seeks to expose contradictions and hierarchies within texts, destabilizing traditional interpretations.

﻿﻿Developed by Jacques Derrida.

Queer Theory:

﻿﻿Explores how literature constructs and challenges notions of gender and sexuality.

﻿﻿Key theorists include Judith Butler and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick.

Ecocriticism:

﻿﻿Analyzes literature in relation to environmental issues and human-nature relationships.

﻿﻿Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" and later scholars like Lawrence Buell are influential in this area.

Narrative Theory:

﻿﻿Focuses on the structure and function of narratives, exploring how stories are constructed and how they affect readers.

﻿﻿Scholars like Vladimir Propp, Roland Barthes, and Gerard Genette contributed to narrative theory.

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When anotating a poem the structure could have some significance to the theme:

when a poem is visually well organised in evenly long lines and stansas, this could be comparable to the content of the poem. And if the poems content give of a feeling of uncertainty and stress, then you could contrast the two.

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Poets:

•        William Shakespeare (1564–1616, England): Famous for his 154 sonnets and plays like Hamlet, Shakespeare combined classical allusions with vernacular genius to explore themes of love, power, and human frailty.

Fiction Authors:

•        Thomas More (1478–1535, England): Utopia (1516) critiques political and social norms, envisioning an ideal society guided by reason and ethics.

Nonfiction Authors:

•        Francis Bacon (1561–1626, England): The Advancement of Learning (1605) and his essays established the foundations of empirical thought and scientific inquiry.

Enlightenment (17th–18th Century)

Characterized by: A focus on reason, skepticism, and intellectual progress. Enlightenment literature often critiques traditional authority, advocates for human rights, and promotes rationalism and individual liberty.

Poets:

•        Alexander Pope (1688–1744, England): The Rape of the Lock (1712) showcases Pope’s mastery of the heroic couplet and his satirical critique of 18th-century aristocracy.

Fiction Authors:

•        Daniel Defoe (1660–1731, England): Robinson Crusoe (1719) is an early novel reflecting Enlightenment themes of individualism and human resilience.

Nonfiction Authors:

•        John Locke (1632–1704, England): Two Treatises of Government (1689) and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) influenced political philosophy and Enlightenment epistemology.

Romantic (Late 18th–Mid-19th Century)

Characterized by: A reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment, Romanticism emphasized emotion, imagination, nature, and the individual’s connection to the sublime. It often explored themes of beauty, mortality, and rebellion.

Poets:

•        John Keats (1795–1821, England): Known for odes like To Autumn (1819), Keats’s works explore transience and the interplay of beauty and mortality.

Fiction Authors:

•        Lord Byron (1788–1824, England): Byron’s Don Juan (1819–1824) exemplifies Romantic individualism and introduced the archetype of the Byronic hero.

Nonfiction Authors:

•        William Blake (1757–1827, England): Songs of Innocence and Experience (1794) critiques societal norms and celebrates human imagination, bridging Romantic and Gothic sensibilities.

Gothic (18th–19th Century)

Characterized by: A focus on the sublime, the supernatural, and human fears, Gothic literature explores psychological terror and the unknown, often set in dark, mysterious locales.

Poets:

•        Emily Dickinson (1830–1886, America): Dickinson’s introspective poetry often delves into themes of death, immortality, and existential mystery, resonating with Gothic sensibilities.

Fiction Authors:

•        Bram Stoker (1847–1912, Ireland): Dracula (1897) captures Gothic themes of fear, sexuality, and immortality.

Nonfiction Authors:

•        Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849, America): In essays like The Philosophy of Composition (1846), Poe articulated his Gothic aesthetic and its focus on the macabre and the psychological.

Victorian (1837–1901)

Characterized by: A preoccupation with industrialization, social reform, and moral values. Victorian literature often addresses class disparity, gender roles, and the challenges of modernity.

Poets:

•        Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–1861, England): Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850) delves into love and the evolving role of women in society.

Fiction Authors:

•        Charles Dickens (1812–1870, England): Great Expectations (1861) critiques social inequality, capturing the complexities of Victorian society.

Nonfiction Authors:

•        Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881, Scotland): Works like On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History (1841) reflect Victorian concerns with leadership and societal values.

Modernism (Late 19th–Mid-20th Century)

Characterized by: Experimental forms, fragmentation, and a focus on individual consciousness. Modernist literature reflects the disorientation of a rapidly changing world, often challenging traditional structures and values.

Poets:

•        Sylvia Plath (1932–1963, America): Ariel (1965) exemplifies confessional poetry, exploring themes of identity, mental illness, and mortality.

Fiction Authors:

•        Virginia Woolf (1882–1941, England): Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927) focus on subjectivity and temporal fluidity.

Nonfiction Authors:

•        Marcel Proust (1871–1922, France): In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) blends fiction and deep philosophical reflection on memory and experience.

Postmodernism (Mid-20th Century–Present)

Characterized by: A rejection of grand narratives, playful experimentation with form and genre, and an emphasis on subjectivity and fragmented realities. Postmodern literature often blurs the boundaries between fiction and reality.

Poets:

•        Ted Hughes (1930–1998, England): Crow (1970) blends myth and postmodern concerns about humanity and nature.

Fiction Authors:

•        Jeanette Winterson (b. 1959, England): Works like Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit (1985) and Written on the Body (1992) challenge traditional narrative structures, addressing gender, identity, and fluidity.

Contemporary (21st Century)

Characterized by: A focus on global perspectives, diverse identities, and issues like multiculturalism, climate change, and technology. Contemporary literature often reflects the complexities of a rapidly interconnected world.

Poets:

•        Simon Armitage (b. 1963, England): The Unaccompanied (2017) explores themes of identity, modernity, and social change.

Fiction Authors:

•        Zadie Smith (b. 1975, England): White Teeth (2000) examines multiculturalism and generational conflict in modern Britain.

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Ancient Period

(C.800 - 1BC)

MORALITY

FATE

MYTHOLOGY

Medieval Period

(AD 500 - 1500)

CHIVALRY

RELIGION

LOVE

The Renaissance

(AD 1500 - 1670)

DRAMA

KINGSHIP

CONFLICT

The Enlightenment

(AD 1670 - 1837)

SCIENCE

REASON

CRITICISM

Romantic Period

(AD 1790 - 1870)

NATURE

BEAUTY

FREEDOM

Victorian Period

(AD 1837 - 1901)

SOCIETY

POWER

URBANISATION

Modernism

(AD 1901 - 1949)

CHANGE

UTOPIA

PERFECTION

Postmodernism

(AD 1949 - ?)

IRONY

DYSTOPIA

SUBVERSION

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Connotation Chains

Red circle: keyword from the quote

Yellow circle: connotation of the keyword in red

Pink circle: connotation of the word in yellow, and so on, and so on...

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(Theme) is a universal constant, a force that shapes lives and destinies across time and literature.  In Hardy’s Victorian novel "Tess of the D'Urbervilles" and Shakespeare’s Renaissance play "The Tempest," both Tess and Prospero undergo profound transformations through their suffering. Although written in different literary and historical eras, both characters illustrate that change, though often painful, is a necessary pathway to redemption and self-awareness. With reference to Feminist and Post-Colonial theory, this essay will explore the extent to which Hardy and Shakespeare’s characters navigate the intricate relationship between suffering and personal growth.

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Conclusion:-

In conclusion, whilst Tess….., Prospero……. Hardy and Shakespeare’s works ultimately reveal that true transformation often emerges from the depths of hardship.

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« A child of the open air »

« Tess’s misfortune liee in the accuantance of Alec D’Urberville. »

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« The rarer action lies in virtue than in vengance »

« I’ll break my staff/ burry it certain fathoms into the ground/(…) I’ll drown my book/«

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Each character responds differently to their experiences of hardship. Prospero chose virtue over vengeance and didn't want to bring upon pain to others, Rich persued a career of standing against female oppression and

Tess folded and resorted to violence, to end the pain she was in, that ledd her to an early death.

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Pay attention to the first and last couple lines of a poem. See if they have any connection to one another. Mrs FJ mentioned that most poems have some significance.

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« The pact we made was the ordinary pact /of men and women ni those days »

« 20 years »

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Emotive language – Words that evoke strong feelings.

Rhetorical questions – Questions that don't require an answer.

Repetition – Repeating words or phrases for emphasis.

Inclusive language – Using "we," "us," and "our" to include the audience.

Exaggeration (Hyperbole) – Overstating something to make a point.

Facts and statistics – Using evidence to support arguments.

Direct address – Speaking directly to the reader or audience.

Anecdotes – Short personal stories to connect emotionally.

Triples (Rule of Three) – Grouping ideas or adjectives in threes for impact.

Modality – Using strong words like “must,” “need to,” or “definitely” to show certainty.

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love

Regret

Revenge

Forgiveness

Redemption

Reflection

Power

Control