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Cycling benefits in reducing air pollution.

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Cycling benefits in reducing air pollution.

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Benefits of cycling and walking 'outweigh air pollution risk' in cities

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Study finds only 1% of cities in world have such high levels of pollution that the activities could prove detrimental to health

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Dutch prosecutors on Wednesday opened a criminal investigation into Tata Steel for "intentional and unlawful" pollution from its huge steelworks near Amsterdam.

Prosecutors said in a statement that the "introduction of hazardous substances into the air, soil and surface water" by Tata's plant in the port town of Ijmuiden "could potentially place the public's health in danger."

The probe also targets Harsco Metals Holland, which operates on Tata Steel's premises.

In response to the announcement, Tata said in a statement that it would cooperate with the probe and was "looking forward to the results of the investigation with confidence.''

Why was the probe launched?

Prosecutors decided to open an investigation after a lawyer submitted complaints in 2021 from about 800 people who live near the steel factory.

"At the end of the investigation, an announcement will follow whether the Tata inquiry will lead to prosecutions," prosecutors said.

Residents have long voiced health concerns about the dust released by the plant.

A report released in January by the Dutch Public Health and Environment Institute found that Tata was the main source of PAH air pollutants, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and metal pollution in the Ijmuiden region.

According to the Centers for Disease Control, PAH pollutants are generated mainly by burning organic materials such as coal, oil and gas. Long-term exposure could lead to cancer and other illnesses.

A long history of steelmaking

Tata, one of Europe's biggest steel producers, acquired the Ijmuiden plant in 2007. It directly employs around 9,000 workers, many of whom live nearby.

Steelmaking in the town dates back to 1918, when the Royal Dutch Blast Furnaces established a plant there.

Today, the massive steelworks is one of the largest CO2 emitters in the Netherlands, according to Dutch emission authorities.

nm/sms (AP, AFP)

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Tata Steel hit by Dutch criminal probe | DW | 02.02.2022

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Dutch prosecutors on Wednesday opened a criminal investigation into Tata Steel for "intentional and unlawful" pollution from its huge steelworks near Amsterdam. Prosecutors said in a statement that the "introduction of hazardous substances into the air, soil and surface water" by Tata's plant in the port town of Ijmuiden "could potentially place the public's health in danger."

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Dashboard (Tableau)

A significant proportion of Europe's urban population lives in cities where EU air quality standards for the protection of human health are regularly exceeded. Air pollution continues to have significant impacts on the health of Europeans, particularly in urban areas. These health impacts have economic costs, cutting short lives, increasing medical costs and reducing productivity through lost working days. The pollutants with the most serious impacts on human health are particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ground-level ozone.

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Netherlands - Air pollution country fact sheet

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A significant proportion of Europe's urban population lives in cities where EU air quality standards for the protection of human health are regularly exceeded. Air pollution continues to have significant impacts on the health of Europeans, particularly in urban areas. These health impacts have economic costs, cutting short lives, increasing medical costs and reducing productivity through lost working days.

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https://rwsenvironment.eu/subjects/air/air-quality/

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The most important regulations on air quality can be found in Chapter 5 (Title 5.2) of the Environmental Management Act ( Wet milieubeheer (Wm) in Dutch). Specific elements of the law are set out in Decrees and Ministerial Regulations.

The essence of Title 5.2 of the Wm consists of air quality standards, based on European directives. It also describes the basic obligations imposed by European directives, namely: assessment of air quality, reporting and actions to take. In the Netherlands, most of the measures are set out in the National Air Quality Cooperation Programme (NSL in Dutch).

We will use the following building blocks to provide a brief description of the air quality regulations:

Air quality regulations and limit values

Particulate matter (PM ₁₀) and nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂) are the main substances in the air quality regulations.

The air quality regulations and limit values are recorded in the Environmental Management Act (Wm), Title 5.2: air quality requirements.

Article 5.16 (1) of the Wm indicates when an (air polluting) project is permissible. The competent administrative authority must then make a reasonable case that the project meets one or a combination of the following conditions:

Spatial projects are of course also subject to the principle of proper spatial planning. For the air quality this may mean: the most vulnerable group on the least polluted location.

Along motorways and provincial roads, the Decree on sensitive destinations (in Dutch: Besluit gevoelige bestemmingen) may be relevant. This is because special rules apply within 300 and 50 metres of these respective roads. These rules aim to protect sensitive groups against air pollution exceeding the limit values. The administrative authority does not need to assess all projects and decisions against the air quality regulations from the Environmental Management Act. This is only required for the responsibilities listed in Article 5:16 (2) of the Wm.

National Air Quality Cooperation Programme (NSL)

The National Air Quality Cooperation Programme (NSL) provides national, regional and local measures to meet the standards. It takes account of the desired and planned spatial developments. The government, provinces and municipalities work together within the NSL.

To keep the NSL up to date, an annual update is performed: the NSL monitoring. The update includes:

a review of the past year (including the measurement and calculation results)

an update of the forecasts for coming years

Not make a significant contribution (NIBM)

If a project does 'not make a significant contribution' (NIBM) to air pollution, then no assessment against the air quality limit values is required. Proper spatial planning is always a requirement.

The NIBM implementation rules are set out in the Order in Council 'Not Make a Significant Contribution' ( NIBM Decree) and the Ministerial Regulation 'Not Make a Significant Contribution' ( NIBM Regulation).

The NIBM Regulation establishes quantitative limits for specific projects. A new development with no more than 500 houses and 1 access road, for instance, is always defined as not making a significant contribution.

However, there are also other ways that governments and promoters can prove a project does not make a significant contribution to air pollution.

Assessing the air quality

Where and how should concentrations of air pollutants be calculated and measured? This is defined in the Air Quality Assessment Regulation 2007 (Rbl).

The Regulation describes standard calculation methods for the assessment of air quality along roads and at point sources (companies).

Assessment against the limit values is not necessary everywhere. The two criteria are:

Is the location accessible to people? (applicability principle)

How long for will how many people be exposed at that location? (exposure criterion)

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Dutch policy and regulations for air quality

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The Dutch policy to achieve good air quality has two objectives: limiting the emission of harmful substances and preventing long-term exposure of people to pollution The granting of environmental permits to companies that require a permit as well as the implementation of a source control policy play a major role in limiting emissions.To prevent the exposure of people, the zoning plan in connection with the assessment of the environmental quality standards is an important instrument (also in the context of proper spatial planning).

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This shows the current state of the air quality in the Netherlands

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This shows the current state of the air quality in the Netherlands

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What is the air quality index for the Netherlands?

The Netherlands or sometimes informally known as Holland is a country located inWestern Europe. The capital city is Amsterdam which is one of the four largestin the country and the most populous. In 2020 the estimated population wasalmost 17.5 million people.

In 2019, the air quality in Amsterdam was classified as being "Good" with a PM2.5concentration of 10.7 µg/m³, as published by the renownedSwiss company IQAir.com. For 4 months during that year, the air quality was within the target figurerecommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Their suggested target is10 µg/m³ or lower. A further 5 months saw the air quality as "Good" withfigures between 10 and 12 µg/m³. The remaining 3 months returned a "Moderate"level with figures between 12.1 and 35.4 µg/m³. Looking back over previousyears since data has been available in 2017 the figure stood at 12.2 µg/m³followed by 11.5 µg/m³ in 2018 so gradually showing a slight improvement yearafter year. Overall the 2019 ranking place the Netherlands at 75 out of a total of 98 countries.

How bad is air pollution in the Netherlands?

Air pollution is an invisible problem. Even with blue skies and bright sunshine,the air can still be polluted. The pollutants are so small that you cannot seethem. Air pollution depends on many factors. The weather has an influence: isthe sun shining, windy or foggy? But traffic also plays a role if there is atraffic jam, or there are many trucks or Electric Vehicles.

In 2014, twelve thousand people died prematurely from air pollution and it hasbeen suggested that the Dutch live an average of thirteen months shorter due to air pollution.

Air pollution is less harmful than smoking, comparable to the health damage causedby obesity and greater than the health damage caused by too much alcohol consumption.

What are the main causes of air pollution in the Netherlands?

There are many different substances suspended in the air, both small particles andgases. Most of it is bad for our health. Especially substances that arereleased during combustion in diesel engines. These include ultra-fineparticles and soot. Soot, or Black carbon (BC) as it is sometimes known, is oneof the most harmful components of (ultra) fine dust. Soot is produced duringthe incomplete combustion of fuels and consists mainly of carbon.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂) is released during combustion, especially at hightemperatures, such as in a car engine. Nitrogen dioxide is very unhealthy andtens of thousands of Dutch people become seriously ill from nitrogen dioxide.Thousands of people die earlier from all that nitrogen dioxide in the air.Because nitrogen dioxide is easier to measure than soot or particulate matter,the harmfulness of air pollution from traffic is often indicated by the amountof nitrogen dioxide in the air. Nitrogen dioxide is not only harmful to humansand animals, it also causes acidification in nature.

What are the PM10 and PM2.5 pollutants?

Particulate matter (PM) consists of many different solids that are suspended in the air.The abbreviation PM stands for particulate matter. The number after it (forexample PM10) is the maximum diameter of the particles in micrometres. Thesmaller the number, the smaller the particle. The most common particulatematter is PM10: these are all particles with a diameter smaller than 10 micrometres.We call particles smaller than 2.5 micrometres ultra-fine particles or PM2.5.Large particles are stopped by the body's natural defence system before theyreach the lungs. Smaller particles of ultrafine particles can get into yourlungs and even into your bloodstream, where they cause inflammation and respiratory problems.

What can be done to improve the air quality in the Netherlands?

The European Union (EU) monitors air quality. Since 2005 there have been EUstandards for particulate matter (PM) and in 2010, guidelines for nitrogendioxide (NO ₂) were also added. The Netherlands still exceeds thestandards for particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide in many places because standardsare not always properly enforced. Nor are these standards strict enough toprotect our health. They are guidelines. Because even if the air qualityremains below the official standard, the air is often not healthy. That is whywe strive for the guidelines of the World Health Organisation (WHO). Researchhas shown that much stricter regulations are needed to get healthy air. Onlywhen there are no pollutants suspended in the air is when it can be called clean.

There are standards suggested by the European Union with regards to levels of PM10and nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂) and other gases but for the worstpollutant which is the microscopic PM2.5, there are no recommended levels orlimits. However, the World Health Organisation suggests a level of less than 10µg/m³ as its target figure. The WHO recommends much lower concentrations of particulate matter for a healthy livingenvironment. They recommend 20 µg/m³ for PM10 and 10 µg/m³ for PM2.5. That ishalf the figures used as an EU standard. So even if the EU standards are met,the air in the Netherlands is not yet healthy in many locations.

The standards for air pollution set by the European Union are partly based oneconomic feasibility, so they are not as strict and do not protect thepopulation against disease. The WHO, therefore, recommends that theconcentration of air pollution be lowered much further for health reasons. Afigure of up to 2.5 times lower than EU standards has been suggested but thisis still in the planning stage and not yet been put into practice.

Which city in the Netherlands has the highest levels of air pollution?

The air is unhealthy almost everywhere in the Netherlands. Only in Vlieland andSchiermonnikoog can you still breathe healthy air. The biggest cause istraffic. If you breathe in too much nitrogen dioxide or particulate matter inthose polluted places you can become short of breath, or provoke an asthmaattack. Tests have shown that the quality of air does not meet the EUstandards, especially in the large cities and in the vicinity of motorways and large road junctions.

Towards the end of 2020, the most polluted city in the Netherlands was Culemborg inGelderland with a US AQI reading of 63. Conversely, the city of Hedel, also inGelderland showed the highest air quality with a US AQI figure of 25. Thesefigures reflect the annual average readings.

Amsterdam was seen to have the largest number of polluted streets than any of the otherfour large cities (Rotterdam, The Hague and Maastricht) in the comparison. Itwas discovered that as many as 4 out of 10 streets that were subject of the studyhad very high levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂). Utrecht was the onlylarge Dutch city whose air quality met the required EU standards.

What is the level of air pollution in the Netherlands away from the large cities?

In the Netherlands, there is a kind of air pollution blanket over the country. Forexample, you are better off in the north of the country than in denselypopulated Amsterdam where the relative freedom from traffic will be the maincontributor to clean air. The closer to nature you are often means less airpollution and less risk of health damage as suggested by the experts. But notalways: If you live in the countryside near intensive livestock farming, youactually inhale more particulate matter and ammonia than if you were living in a city.

What does the future hold with regards to air quality in the Netherlands?

In the Netherlands, air quality is measured at approximately 100 locations. Thishappens 24 hours a day. The measurements are carried out by, among others, theNational Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), the GGDAmsterdam and DCMR Rotterdam (the environmental service). In addition to the24/7 measurements, there are also non-continuous mobile measuring points. Thedata from these measuring points are included in the online Atlas Living Environment.

Air quality in the Netherlands has improved significantly over the past threedecades. However, there is no lower limit at which there is no risk to health.Even at low concentrations of air pollution, effects have still been calculated.

As of 1 st January 2020, national rules were applied to municipalitieswith environmental zones. In these zones, municipalities were allowed to banolder diesel cars, trucks and buses that cause a lot of air pollution. Prior tothis, municipalities had their own rules for environmental zones but from thisdate until 29 th October they will have to adapt to the new nationallegislation. The emission class of your diesel car, truck or bus determineswhether you are allowed to drive into an environmental zone. Diesel cars withemission class 3 are only allowed to enter a yellow environmental zone. Thesecars are a maximum of 20 years old in 2020. Diesel vehicles with emission class4 and higher are allowed to enter a green zone. These cars, trucks or buses will be a maximum of 15 years old by 2020.

From 2025, all new public transport buses will operate without producing any emissions.The buses will then run electrically or on hydrogen and produce considerablyless air pollution. The energy must be fully sustainably generated from solarpanels or wind turbines. The government, all provinces and transporters signedan agreement for this on 15 th April 2016.

Parking charges are to be reviewed and it is hoped that owners of cars that produceless pollution should pay smaller parking fees.

What are the effects on human health from the Netherlands' polluted air?

Living in polluted air is bad for your health. Air pollution is the third cause ofdeath in the Netherlands, after smoking and obesity. Living, working or goingto school in polluted air has a similar effect to smoking cigarettes. It is thecause of lung disease, cardiovascular disease and cancer. Vulnerable groupssuch as children and the elderly are extra sensitive to the effects of pollutedair. For example, air pollution has adverse effects on pregnant women and thebirth weight of their babies. Children who live or go to school near busy roadsare more likely to have respiratory problems and are 5 times more likely tohave weak lungs. Common complaints are asthma and shortness of breath.

The risk is a combination of being exposed to something and the degree to which a substance is toxic. If there is no orvery low exposure, the chance that you will suffer from it is also very low.

While air pollution mainly refers to respiratory problems, just recently air pollution has also been associated withvarious brain problems. The idea is that ultra-fine particles such as PM2.5 canreach the brain via the olfactory nerve and that they can have a negativeimpact. So far these are indications, not a cause-effect relationship butresearch is still ongoing. Some studies have been conducted into the effects ofparticulate matter PM2.5 on our psyche. Research shows that the brains ofunborn children are sensitive to particulate matter and they later have anincreased risk of psychological disorders such as ADHD and addiction sensitivity.

Some health complaints and diseases have already been conclusively proven that air pollution plays a role in this. It isnot only about respiratory problems and lung cancer, but also aboutcardiovascular diseases. The microscopic particles of PM2.5 in particular endup very deep in the bronchial tubes in the alveoli and from there enter thebloodstream and can therefore lead to cardiovascular disease.

Adverse health consequences due to air pollution can occur as a result of short- or long-term exposure. It can also be dependent on the type andconcentration of the specific pollutant. The pollutants with the strongestevidence of health effects are particulate matter (PM), ozone (O ₃),nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂) and sulphur dioxide (SO ₂).

Although most airborne pollutants are "produced" locally, it is not always the case. Depending on atmosphericconditions and the direction of prevailing winds, pollutants can be carried1000's of kilometres across many countries. For example, windblown dust from the deserts of Africa, Mongolia,Central Asia and China can carry large concentrations of dust, particulatematter, fungal spores and bacteria that impact health and air quality in other areas.

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Netherlands Air Quality Index (AQI) and Air Pollution information | IQAir

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The Netherlands or sometimes informally known as Holland is a country located inWestern Europe. The capital city is Amsterdam which is one of the four largestin the country and the most populous. In 2020 the estimated population wasalmost 17.5 million people.

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Polluted Yamuna, not industrial emission, main reason behind Taj Mahal decay: study

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New study says hydrogen sulphide from Yamuna pollution is more corrosive to Taj Mahal compared to sulphur dioxide from industrial pollution.

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Polluted Yamuna, not industrial emission, main reason behind Taj Mahal decay: study

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The Impact of Trash Burning on Air Quality- Bangalore

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The Impact of Trash Burning on Air Quality- Bangalore

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With many cities in India getting to the point where air pollution outweighs the benefits of exercising outdoors, every source of exposure needs all the attention it can get. In some cities, such as Western India's Ahmedabad with its more than 5.5 million residents, entire mountains have been built out of piles of trash.

In early May, 2017, the Ahmedabad Fire and Emergency Services found itself busy at their local trash mountain, dousing out flames. The (in)famously gigantic pile of garbage has long posed a substantial health risk to several thousand families who live in its close proximity, prompting plans to install and operate an air quality monitoring network.

The city of Ahmedabad is no stranger to air pollution, clocking in at the fifth position nationwide. In the recently released issue brief on air pollution in the city, the burning of trash gets a passing mention as a contributor to air pollution. However, it turns out that the smoke from burning roadside trash piles can be at least as dangerous as the more obvious culprits, including vehicular pollution and pollution from factories.

For instance, in tests conducted on samples of emissions from several garbage fires in Bengaluru, Prof. Michael Bergin (Duke University) pointed out that somebody standing near one of these fires is getting a dose of toxins 1,000 times greater than they would from the ambient air. In his research, Prof. Bergin studies natural and manmade microscopic particles floating all around the Earth's atmosphere. His work has brought him to India on more than one occasion, previously showing that emissions of particulate matter from sources that included dung and garbage burning in nearby localities were among the culprits that were turning the Taj Mahal yellow.

In January 2016, a local university, the India Institute of Technology - Gandhinagar (IITGN), partnered with Duke University with support from the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India and United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to tackle some of the air pollution issues in the area.

This partnership brought Prof. Bergin back to India, this time to the twin cities of Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad. His initial visit to IITGN early last year sparked a research collaboration with Prof. Chinmay Ghoroi. After some exchanges, students from Duke University found themselves spending their Winter break on the IITGN campus.

The project focused on quantifying the contribution of emissions from trash burning in the city to the overall air pollution. The team featured four students each from IIT Gandhinagar and Duke University, and two students from IIT Kanpur. For more than three weeks, the team coordinated and planned several site visits and lab experiments focusing on air quality and trash composition.

"Duke and IITGN have expertise that are very complementary to each other," said Prof. Bergin. "While IITGN has experts in water resources, Duke has knowledge and experience in air quality and related issues. This gives us a good opportunity to work together and learn from one another."

The team wasted no time settling in and got straight to work. During one of the early days, the team was headed for Vatva and Bhaipura in Ahmedabad to collect primary data to study the air quality around the area. Before heading out, they carefully identified locations where trash burning was a routine affair.

The first drive to the chosen spot at Vatva started at 9:30 AM and was more than an hour long. But when they arrived, there was no burning trash on site. Undeterred, the team made their own trash pile to set on fire, but not before spending a good hour explaining what was going to a bunch of very bewildered locals.

In due course, the team also visited Pirana and Kankaria lake, setting up their equipment to measure the air quality while trash was burning. After the measurements were recorded, the students collated the data and quickly analyzed the information, thanks to some very convenient gadgets developed at Duke. Sure enough, the graph showed carbon monoxide levels rising significantly after the trash caught fire.

The project was an intense experience from the cultural standpoint for the entire team. During their public site visits, the nerds with funky gadgets taking on burning piles of trash in the heart of the city did not go entirely unnoticed. Onlookers were mostly bemused, and the more curious ones wanted to know what exactly was going on and what might be eventually achieved.

For many of the people that the team encountered, the smoke from these burning trash piles is a part of their daily grind. In some of the more intensely affected areas, the residents are effectively choking and are desperate for solutions-someone paying attention brings them hope.

The long-term goals of this project are ambitious, involving putting the burning trash to good use by generating energy that can be captured and converted for tangible use. In the shorter term, the team hopes that their analysis and reports will draw some much-needed attention to the extent to which trash burning contributes to air pollution and exposure to toxins.

For future updates on this project and others from IITGN - Duke collaboration, stay tuned to their website.

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The Impact of Trash Burning on Air Quality

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With many cities in India getting to the point where air pollution outweighs the benefits of exercising outdoors, every source of exposure needs all the attention it can get. In some cities, such as Western India's Ahmedabad with its more than 5.5 million residents, entire mountains have been built out of piles of trash.

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CURRENT STATUS OF AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA

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CURRENT STATUS OF AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA

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It is ironic that we humans pollute the very air that we breathe in but our activities for progress and development that we desire and work for everyday has made air pollution an inevitable hazard. In a country like India, where both population and economic development increased rapidly in past seven decades, air pollution has reached a stage where many cities in India are among the most polluted cities in the world. In a recent World Air Quality 2018 report released by IQAir Group and Greenpeace (AirVisual, 2019), it was reported that fifteen of the top 20 most polluted cities in the world are located in India.

Figure 1: Top 20 polluted cities in the world
Source: The Hindu, March 05, 2019 (Koshy, 2019)

By definition, air pollution is contamination of ambient air by chemical species in such concentrations and for such duration that is harmful to general health. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for some of the most common air pollutants which are mainly particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), ground-level ozone, nitrogen dioxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO ₂) and lead. These are known as "criteria" air pollutants (EPA, 2015). Further, the air pollutants can be primary or secondary depending upon their formation mechanism (CPCB, 2006). Primary pollutants such as CO, NOx and SO ₂ are directly emitted from the source while secondary pollutants such as ozone and some aerosols are formed in the atmosphere.
Sources of Air pollution Emissions in India
A diverse range of pollution sources co-exists in urban environments. Conventional sources of air pollution include vehicular emissions, coal-based power plants, fossil fuel consumption in industries and some agricultural activities such as fertilizer application and farm fires. Air pollutants can be natural or may be the result of various anthropogenic activities. Examples include production of brick kilns that use raw wood, agricultural waste or poor quality coal used as a fuel, the roadside burning of organic and plastic waste, cooking that involves the burning of solid biomass or cow dung and the unintentional burning of municipal solid waste at landfills, and construction activities (Kumar et al, 2015) (Figure 3). The local emission inventories point to about 5300 and 7550 tons yr−1 of PM ₁₀ and PM 2.5 release from waste burning in Delhi, respectively, while the corresponding emissions from construction are 3250 and 10,750 tons yr−1 (Guttikunda and Goel, 2013). Other such sources include diesel generators for temporary power generation in cities, traffic congestion, and unregulated small industries.

Figure 2: Average percent contributions of major sources to PM ₁₀ pollution as per CPCB inventory (Source: Guttikunda et al, 2014)

Figure3: There are many unregulated and unaccounted sources of pollution such as landfill, brick kilns, loose soil and waste dumping, biomass burning for cooking using chulhas, dry uncovered surface along the roadside, and traffic congestion (Source: Kumar et al, 2015)

Particulate Matter: A National Threat

According to CPCB annual report 2015-16, out of the 46 million-plus population cities in India, 8 cities (18%) and 38 cities (86%) exceed the NAAQS with respect to NO ₂and PM ₁₀ respectively in the residential/industrial/rural/commercial areas. Hence, in India, fine particulate matter (PM ₁₀, PM 2.5) have emerged as pollutants of major concern.

In a recent survey study (Bernanrd & Kazmin, 2018), The Financial Times collated NASA satellite data of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) and mapped it against population density data from the European Commission to develop a global overview of the number of people affected by this type of dangerous pollution. It was revealed in their study that although historically China has grabbed most headlines for poor air quality, between 1998 and 2016, India has acquired far worse state of pollution than its larger neighbour ever was. At least 140 million people in India are breathing air 10 times or more over the WHO safe limit. WHO prescribes a standard of 10 μgm⁻³however, more than 60% of India's districts have annual concentrations of more than 40 μgm⁻³(Figure 4).

Figure 4: PM 2.5 levels have increased in major parts of the country
Source: Urbanemissions.info (Guttikunda, 2018)
Health Effects of Air Pollution
Strong links have long been established between exposure to air pollution and cardiovascular diseases, such as strokes and heart disease; cancers; chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases; respiratory diseases, including acute respiratory infections (especially in vulnerable groups like children and elderly); poor birth outcomes, etc. These entail adverse health, economic and developmental consequences (WHO, 2018).

In a study that appeared in The Lancet (Cohen et al, 2017), India had a contribution of 50 % in global estimates of mortality and disability-adjusted life-years attributable to ambient particulate matter pollution for the year 2015. 1 in 8 deaths in India is attributable to air pollution. A study by researchers of the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago (EPIC) concluded that people in India would live 4.3 years longer if the country met the WHO guidelines (EPIC, 2018).
Impacts of development on meteorology and air pollution
Urbanisation: Massive growth in urbanisation has been found to coincide with the growth in air pollution in many studies. Other than increase in pollution-emitting sources such as vehicles and industries, urbanisation also influences meteorology which in turn affects air quality as urban areas are often associated with altered meteorologies such as higher temperatures and lower wind speeds.

For instance, there is a considerable growth of urban and built-up area during the recent decades over National Capital Region (NCR) of India (17-fold increase in the urban extent). Results indicate a warming of 1.5-2 °C in the surface temperature and 4-5 °C in land surface temperature (LST) during the evening and nighttime due to the changes of land use land cover (LULC) to urban areas during the past five decades

Figure 5 : (Top Panel) Urban expansion as indicated by red colour for Delhi and its satellite. The colour yellow and green are for mixed croplands and irrigated croplands, respectively. (Bottom Panel) Ambient temp increase with the increase in urbanisation over Delhi-NCR every decade Source: Sati and Mohan, 2018

In a city, areas with high urban density are often marked with higher temperatures in comparison to the surrounding areas, a phenomenon known as urban heat island. Urban heat island effect has now been studied in many Indian cities including Delhi where temperatures at highly dense areas were observed to be higher by about 8-10°C in comparison to green areas within the city (Mohan et al 2012, 2013).
Technologies for Air Pollution Monitoring

The central nodal monitoring agency, CPCB, has two types of monitoring network. Under manual monitoring network, the air is sampled and then sent to lab for analysis. Under continuous ambient air quality monitoring (CAAQM) real-time data is generated by the instruments which are also displayed online for the public in general. As of 2018, there are 134 locations in the country with manual stations (CPCB, 2018) while 157 locations with CAAQ monitoring (CPCB, 2019). Some of the conventional instruments for air pollution monitoring are Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) instruments, gas chromatographs, and mass spectrometers (Prasad et al, 2011).

Nowadays, there are several categories of low cost sensors available for air pollution mitigation (European Commission, 2016). Electrochemical sensors are based on a chemical reaction between gases in the air and the electrode in a liquid inside a sensor. They are used to measure NO₂, SO₂, O₃, NO and CO.

Pollutants like NO₂, O₃, CO are also measured by metal oxide sensor (resistive sensor, semiconductor) in which gases in the air react on the sensor surface and modify its resistance.

VOCs are measured by photo ionization detectors which ionise volatile organic compounds and measures the resulting electrical current.

Optical particle counters detect particulate pollution by measuring the light scattered by particles. Optical sensors detect gases like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide by measuring the absorption of infrared light.

Numerical Modeling for Air Quality Management
Air quality modeling is not only useful for forecasting but also for air quality management. However, for that, prior evaluation is necessary to have confidence in the application of the model. Model performance should be analysed for different simulation design combinations (Mohan and Sati, 2016), sensitivity to different physical parametrisation (Mohan and Bhati, 2011; Gunwani and Mohan, 2017) and different chemical mechanisms for simulation of air pollutants like particulate matter and ozone (Mohan and Gupta 2018, Gupta and Mohan, 2015).

Having an established modeling framework helps in the assessing source contribution of different air pollutants. It also helps in investigating contribution of long-range transport of pollution.

Recent studies based on model simulations show the influence of geographical domain on PM ₁₀concentrations in Delhi and revealed that the contributions from long range transport towards National Capital Territory of Delhi can be as high as 26% to 97% during summer and 13% to 68% during winter conditions especially during high pollution episodes. It was inferred that the high levels of PM ₁₀ concentration is not only due to local pollution but is also highly influenced by remote sources (Gupta and Mohan, 2013). Air pollution forecast models also provide a framework for the evaluation of different mitigation options for pollution abatement.
Initiatives by the Government of India
In India, the government is looking at innovative solutions for tackling air pollution (WHO, 2016)

The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan encourages citizens to adopt cleanliness in all spheres of life and is particularly relevant and timely.

The 'Smart Cities' initiative assures urban planning, building energy efficient housing and a good network of public transport, all of which are environment-friendly. Citizens' participation is in-built, thus ensuring sustainability.

Promoting more equitable access to clean fuels by removing blanket subsidy on cooking gas to high-income group and including more households from a low-income group in the LPG distribution list are appreciable steps to address household air pollution.

The government has also constituted a multisectoral Steering Committee to address air pollution, both household and ambient; WHO India is a member of this forum.

Smoke-free legislation to reduce exposure to second-hand smoke is already in place in India viz. Cigarette and other Tobacco Products Act, 2003. India is also a signatory to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 2004.

Technologies and strategies in Practice (Gurjar et al, 2016)

Industrial emissions are regulated under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 which involves installation of pollution control equipment to meet the emission guidelines. CPCB has identified 24 critically polluted areas and action plans have been formulated to improve the air quality of these areas. For coal power plants located more than 1000 km from the pit head, ash content of the coal used has to be below 34%.

Environmental clearance from Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) has been made mandatory for establishment of development projects (29 categories) which involves conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study, public hearing and submitting the environmental statement.

Moreover, other mitigation measures such as reduction in the sulfur contents of the coal, relocation of industries (i.e. displacement of industries from inner parts of city to outer areas), use of clean fuel [e.g. use of less ash and sulfur content coal, liquid petroleum gas (LPG)] and application of air pollution control devices have been taken into account.

For reducing dust emissions from stone crushers, use of enclosed structures and water spraying system have been adopted. The industrial segment mostly employs electrostatic precipitator filter type air purifiers, which removes fine particles such as dust and smoke,

from a flowing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic charge, thereby minimally impeding the flow of gases through the unit.

Other technologies in practice are flue gas desulphurisation, bag filters, wet collectors, multi-cyclones, carbon sequestration, industrial fans, gas conditioning systems, catalytic reduction, and fabric filters.

Various measures have been taken by government to reduce vehicular emissions such as introduction of cleaner fuels (e.g. unleaded gasoline, ultra-low sulfur diesel, CNG, LPG), improved engine technologies, introduction of Bharat Norms (equivalent to Euro norms), alternate public transport (Delhi metro rail) to trim down the growing energy demand and emissions. A series of stricter norms for vehicular emission reduction (Bharat Stage I-IV) has been adopted by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways since 2000.Leaded gasoline was phased out from the entire country from the early 1990s till 2000, and Benzene concentration in gasoline was regulated to 3% in all India. Moreover, moving towards hybrid and electric transport vehicles in a planned manner is a major step.
Challenges towards air pollution management
Poor information exchange on best practice in urban air quality management and the lack of harmonized air pollution policies in the region has contributed to the absence of regional co-operation in addressing urban air quality. The country has areas of high population densities and in turn, higher emissions and an approach of developing strategies for control of air pollution with identification of 'regional airshed approach'(e.g., Indo-Gangetic Plane) in the country shall be adopted.

There is a clear need for a well coordinated, sponsored initiative to address the fundamental problem of urban air pollution and provide the basis for future regional co-operation leveraging on existing technical expertise, finances and seeking requisite International cooperation.

Cost-effective solutions need also to be developed through advanced research and analysis and integrated into the policy framework in various sectors like transport, health and even the industrial policy.

As pollution and urban meteorology are interlinked, a framework for mitigation of urbanization-altered temperatures will go hand in hand with mitigation of pollution as well.

Figure 6: Heat Island mitigation measures reduce energy demand which in turn helps in mitigating air pollution (Source: HISAT Policy Report, 2018)
Research needed to address key issues

A comprehensive understanding of both conventional and unaccounted sources and their emission characteristics is currently lacking. Representative emission inventories detailing the contribution from city- or industry-specific sources are needed. A holistic overview of emissions would also allow the efficient targeting of key individual sources, which if controlled, would lead to maximised benefits (Kumar et al, 2015).

An extensive understanding of local versus peripheral, and peripheral versus regional, sources of emissions and their contribution towards local pollutant concentrations is essential. Development of a modelling framework to assess these aspects is required for air quality forecasting as well as analysis. Numerical modelling can aid in understanding the interplay of possible sources and could assist in evaluating the effect of any policy, infrastructure or technological interventions on cluster-wise emissions and ambient air pollution concentrations.

Mostly we are dependent on health studies of western countries for assessing health impacts of pollutants. However, there are a lot of uncertainties with these kinds of dose-response relationships which depend on the population sample. Hence work needs to be done in our country to strengthen cohort studies to find the impacts on the local population.

Research also needs to be focussed on the incorporation of satellite data to enhance in-situ monitoring network as well as supplement data inputs for modelling.

Development of a single platform to share research and policy recommendations from different agencies involved in developing air pollution technologies and tackling strategies. Government agencies such as CPCB, CSIR, NEERI, SPCBs, MoES institutions and academic institutions such as IITs, IISER Mohali, involved either at policy or research level for air pollution management.

The Centre for Atmospheric Sciences at Indian Institute of Technology Delhi establishment in 1979, is a centre of excellence promoting interdisciplinary research in air pollution, climate variability, urban climate, air-sea interaction, numerical modelling of atmosphere and ocean and monsoon studies to understand various physical and social consequences. In addition, IIT Delhi now has a Centre of Excellance for Research in Clean Air.

Private organisations and NGOs such as CSE, Greenpeace also undertake various initiatives for research, survey and information dissemination. A common platform to share the work of all these agencies will facilitate coordination required for formulating air pollution management programs. India Science Technology and Innovation portal (ISTI) is a step in this direction.

Recommendations

Chemical transport models (CTMs) shall be used as an appropriate tool for policy guidance.

A data portal shall be made available in open access format with past and current data of all the sources across the country with strict implementation of Quality audit and quality control (QA/QC).

The data available with the monitoring stations of industries and other academic organisations shall be made a part of this national data portal after facilitating similar QA/QC in order to enhance this national network.

A standard QA/QC program needs to be evolved for PM10 and PM2.5 for newer sensor-based techniques.

Exposure assessment shall be integral to policy making for recommending control strategies. Studies based on the local Indian population are required.

City and industrial planning shall involve urban and environmental planners. Smart cities have been planned in India and sustainable development strategies shall require including mitigation strategies.

In conclusion, it is important to look beyond monitoring, emission inventories, or source apportionment. Even the best science and technology will not succeed in reducing emissions and improving air quality if it is not considered in a broader framework of economic development of the country, raising awareness of public health risks, and technological progress which is compatible with the nation's cultural, geographical and social context.

"Polluter Pays" has long been a policy of air pollution control worldwide. Thus, the major responsibility of the implementation of newer technologies for pollution reduction often comes up as high investment packages for concerned industrial units. The sole responsibility of implementing switching over from older technologies to newer ones for pollution reduction by the concerned industrial units are found to be less viable and delay implementation of easily practicable pollution reduction strategies under the regulatory framework. Technical and financial support with a viable model of sharing the burden of costs including public and private funding shall be worked out with strict timelines for ease of implementing the latest technologies in the wider interest of the general public.

Unregulated emission sources such as waste and biomass burning, landfill sites, construction dust, dust from unpaved areas form a major contribution to deteriorating air quality and hence shall be given very high priority for abatement where the technologies are available involving wider participation both from industries and public.

References

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Bernard, S. &Kazmin, A. Dirty air: how India became the most polluted country on earth. (n.d.). Financial Times, December 11, 2018. Retrieved May 26, 2019, from https://ig.ft.com/india-pollution

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Prof. Manju Mohan
Professor and Head,
Centre for Atmospheric Sciences,
India Institute of Technology,
Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016

Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by the author. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the author only and do not necessarily reflect the views of organization.

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portal in india technology and innovation

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repository of science technology and innovation

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one stop source window on science in india

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developments in science technology and innovation

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central repository of content generated in and by the indian sti ecosystem

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Air pollution in India: Status and Challenges | India Science, Technology & Innovation

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ISTI Portal is a central repository of content generated in and by the Indian STI ecosystem with a major thrust to reach out to students, researchers, scholars, scientists from India and abroad, as to help them choose fellowships, scholarships, funding, and startup opportunities in India.

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- create awareness about public transport.

India: take the bike

Netherlands: take public transport

- more cycling in India, to prevent air pollution.

Create emmisions taxes

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DIWALI: A widely celebrated festival contributing to air pollution

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DIWALI: A widely celebrated festival contributing to air pollution

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Vehicle emissions, fuel oils and natural gas to heat homes, by-products of manufacturing and power generation, particularly coal-fueled power plants, and fumes from chemical production are the primary sources of human-made air pollution.

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In The Netherlands:
Tata steel, a big steel producer

In India:
Overpopulation leading to increased carbon footprint in air pollution. Cultural context like diwali festival where bursting fireworks contribute to it.

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Especially in the air, at big cities

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What types of pollution are there?

The three major types of pollution are air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.

We will focus on air pollution

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- Transport
- Producing

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We have noticed that there is a lot of air pollution in India. We want to look at the differences in India and the Netherlands