# data[].attributes.body
Napoleon invaded Italy he created a Kingdom. When Napoleon was defeated Italy became an Independent state. Giuseppe Mazzini founded a young group of Italians who had been launching interactions. Victor Emmanuel 2 would lead the unification movement but needed a powerful ally. Italy would end up creating its own empire.

# data[].attributes.body
Bismarck wanted to make Prussia a powerful army. He wanted to have powerful allies by his side. They had a bad loss to Austria. They ended up joining other states to fight.

# data[].attributes.body
Peru and Colombia would fight over territory called the Amazon rainforest. This war was very short lived, it lasted only about two years. In the end they both decided to split the land between the two countries. The war was also caused by a dissatisfaction with the Salomón–Lozano Treaty and having very little sugar.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Gran Colombia-Peru War | 3 Minute History

# data[].attributes.body
The unification of Italy was a 19th century political and social movement. The unification of Italy was finished in 1871. The northern part of Italy was under control by the Holy Roman Empire. Guiseppe Garibaldi would emerge as the face of the Italian Unification.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Unification of Italy was a 19th century political and social movement that resulted in the unification of the different states of the Italian Peninsula, into a single state - the Kingdom of Italy.

Beginning in the 1840s, the unification was completed in 1871, the same year as the unification of Germany .

This article will give details about the Unification of Italy within the context of the .
Background of the Unification of Italy

The Italian Peninsula had fragmented into different city-states upon the demise of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. Although briefly united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom, it again fell to disunity following the invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) in the 500s.

The northern half of Italy was under the control of the Holy Roman Empire (a German-speaking Empire) beginning in the 8th century while the central and the southern half were intermittently governed between the Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Sicily and the Papal States.

The state of affairs continued well into the 17th century until the rise of the Italian city-states, such as Milan and Venice, changed the balance of power in the region. Wars would be fought between the states and the Holy Roman Empire culminating in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Although it would end the involvement of the Holy Roman Empire, most of Northern Italy would still be ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire at the time. The Spanish Wars of succession would end the Habsburg Rule in Italy by 1714

Italy under Napoleon

The empire established by Napoleon had served as a fuel for revolutionary ideas, as he even encouraged nationalism. Italy would be split again following the Napoleans' fall in 1815, its city-states divided among various European powers, with the Empire of Austria having the most power. But by this time the Italian people had enough of foreign involvement in their land and would begin a series of insurrections to drive the foreigners out and unite their country.

The Unification of Italy Begins
Unification of Italy: UPSC Notes - Download PDF Here
During the 1820s and 1830s, the movement for unification would grow finally culminating in revolutions break out in many Italian states in 1848. Although the revolutions would be suppressed, it did little to stem the tide of revolutionary activities. Guiseppe Garibaldi would emerge as the face of Italian unification during this period.

Guiseppe Garibaldi (1807-1848) was a revolutionary who had taken part in 1848 insurrection but had to go into exile when it failed. Lending his support to King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont, he would return to Italy in 1860 bringing with him an army consisting of volunteers from Sicily and Naples. In 1858, Victor Emanuel, along with other northern Italian states, had allied with France to permanently end Austrian involvement in the region.

The insurrection in 1860 would be a success as Garibaldi and his army of Redshirts would conquer the island of Sicily and Naples. Meanwhile, the northern states had joined up with Piedmont-Sardinia and accepted Victor Emmanuel II as their King. Garibaldi handed Naples and Sicily to him in November 1860 and by 1861 Italy was declared as a kingdom. Only Venice and Rome would remain under foreign control and they became a part of Italy in 1866 and 1871 respectively. Thus, the Unification of Italy was completed.

The aftermath of the Unification

Although the reunification was a reality, it leads to total domination of the Kingdom of Piedmont. Despite promises that regional authorities would participate equally in the government, it was the ruling class of Piedmont that dominated the government during the initial years.

The Italian people wanted a united Italy with a weak central government and strong states. What they got instead was a strong central government with little to no power exercised by the states.

The new Kingdom of Italy was structured by renaming the old Kingdom of Sardinia and annexing all the new provinces into its structures. The first king was Victor Emmanuel II, who kept his old title.

The new constitution was Piedmont's old constitution. The document was generally liberal and was welcomed by liberal elements. But this was resented by pro-clergy elements in Venice, Rome Naples and Sicily.

The first decade of the Kingdom of Italy saw civil wars raging in Sicily and Naples which was harshly suppressed. The inevitable long-run results were a severe weakness of national unity and a politicized system based on mutually hostile regional violence. Such factors remain in the 21st century
Related Links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unification of Italy [1848 -1871]: Background, Events and Aftermath

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Unification of Italy was a 19th century political and social movement that resulted in the unification of the different states of the Italian Peninsula, into a single state - the Kingdom of Italy. To know more about the events regarding the unification of the Italian Peninsula, read the full article here.

# data[].attributes.body
Prussia attempted a brief unification of the German confederation under its rule. Otto von Bismarck wanted to transform Prussia into a formidable power and avenge the humiliating loss at Austria's hands years before. When Bismarck marched the Prussian Army towards the French border in July 1870 they were joined by armies of the other German states.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Unification of Germany into the German Empire, dominated by Prussia with a federalist structure was announced on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in France. This event would have a major impact on European politics for decades.

The details from this article will be useful in the world history segment of the UPSC Mains Exam

Background of the Unification of Germany

Before unification, Germany was a collection of small kingdoms that came into existence following the Treaty of Verdun in 843. These kingdoms would form the basis of the Holy Roman Empire. Yet, there was no homogenous German identity until the 19th century. This was in part due to the autonomy of the princely states and most inhabitants not ruled directly by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire largely identified with their prince instead of the German emperor

This system of having small states within the empire was called "practice of kleinstaaterei " or "practice of small states". It was during the onset of the Industrial Revolution that brought about an improvement in transportation and communication, ultimately bringing far-flung regions in close contact with each other

The scenario changed upon the defeat and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire by France during the Napoleonic Wars in 1806. Even though a German Confederation was re-established following the French defeat in 1815, a huge wave of German nationalism swept through the region at the beginning of the 19th century. This wave of nationalism gave rise to the demands of a centralized authority by the mid 19th century.

The rise of Prussia

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 had established a confederation of German states under the leadership of the Austrian Empire. For their part, the Austrians, in a bid to maintain their own influence over the German states, suppressed any expression of German nationalism and pitted the German states against one another. It ensured that no one state would become powerful over that of the other.

To know what are the important events in world history from 3000 BC to 1950 AD , visit the linked article

Prussia, the easternmost state of the German Confederation was one such state. It had briefly attempted unification of the German confederation under its rule in 1848 until the combined power of other states, with support from the Austrian Empire, foiled it.

With the appointment of Otto von Bismarck as the Prime Minister of Prussia, the situation began to change.

Otto von Bismarck had a burning ambition to transform Prussia into a formidable power and avenge the humiliating loss at Austria's hands years before. To this end, he brought major reforms into the Prussian army that made it into the most disciplined and professional fighting force in that part of the world.

Visit the linked article to get tips on how to study world history for UPSC Mains

The war that followed in 1866 (known as the Seven Weeks War) saw Prussia dealing a heavy blow on Austria and its German allies. So profound was the victory that it ended Austrian interference in German matters and allowed Prussia to lay the foundations of its own empire.

However, this would not be enough. Bismarck knew that only a new war with an old enemy would unite other German states, who had been traditional rivals of Prussia, to throw in their lot with the new Prussian empire. That enemy would be France

Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871

France was ruled by Napoleon III, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Unlike his uncle, Napoleon III would lack both political acumen and military skill. He would become a perfect target for Otto von Bismarck's machinations.

Through a series of clever diplomatic manoeuvres and subtle provocations, Bismarck managed to provoke Napoleon III into declaring war against Prussia. The seemingly aggressive move by the French was enough to restrain other European powers from supporting Napoleon III. The result in the German states was a wave of anti-French sentiments.

When Bismark marched the Prussian Army towards the French border in July 1870, they were joined by armies of the other German states. The resulting war would prove devastating for France with the most notable defeat being at Sedan in September 1870. It was enough for Napoleon III to tender his resignation as emperor to the French parliament and live out the rest of his life in England. But the war with the Prussians still continued regardless.

Solve previous years history questions for UPSC Mains , visit the linked article.

The war would continue until the fall of Paris to the Prussian Army in January 1871. In the meantime, Bismarck had gathered the German general's princes and Kings at Versailles and declared King William I of Prussia as the Emperor of the German Empire on January 18. On the same day, the new Constitution of the German Confederation came into force, thereby significantly extending the federal German lands to the newly created German Empire with Prussia at its helm.

As for the French, furious and smarting under the humiliation of their own monuments being used to further the cause of their enemies, they would avenge their defeat decades later

To know more about other Government Exams , visit the linked article

Result of the German Unification

The Unification of Germany was a watershed moment in European history that would forever change its political landscape. With the arrival of a new unified German nation onto European politics, the other powers took note with mixed feelings of appreciation, awe and fear. An appreciation that a new state would change the balance of power within continental Europe, awe at the fact that motley collection of bickering German state could band together to defeat a common foe in such a short span of time and fear at the prospect of facing a new powerful enemy whose military prowess was unmatched by any European army at the time.
Unification of Germany: UPSC Notes - Download PDF Here
The new German state would for the first time write its own chapter on colonialism when it undertook expeditions to Africa and Asia. This naturally brought the German Empire into conflict with its European neighbours in the continent and elsewhere. The aggressive approach would further antagonise other nations such as Britain, France and Russia. The animosity between them would spark the fires of the first world war in 1914, which would end the German Empire through the Treaty of Versailles (whose terms were dictated by France) in 1919, ironically in the very same halls where the German Empire was first proclaimed.

How did the process of German Unification take place?

In the 1860s, Otto von Bismarck, then Minister President of Prussia, provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in its defeat of France. In 1871 he unified Germany into a nation-state, forming the German Empire.

What was the impact of unification of Germany?

The unification of Germany fundamentally altered the delicate "balance of powers" established by the Congress of Vienna with the creation of a large, wealthy, and powerful nation-state in central Europe. Moreover, it is a useful case study for the broader concept of "nationalism" as a historical agent.

Related Links
Frequently Asked Questions about Unification of Germany

For more preparation materials they can refer to the links given in the table below:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unification of Germany [1871]: Franco-Prussian War | Otto von Bismarck

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Why is the Unification of Germany an important moment in European history? Who was the driving force behind it? How did it impact European politics for decades? Read the article to find out. Download Unification of Germany PDF notes for free. For Civil Services Examination preparation 2023, follow BYJU'S

# data[].attributes.body
Peru fought multiple wars to get their independence. Since independence from Spain, Perú has been plagued by reactionary military rule, austerity and capitalism, to this very day. Racism was very bad in Peru. While Perú has a long and revolutionary history fighting for independence from foreign empires, Perú has remained a victim of capitalism and imperialism.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is now Perú was the home, not only of one of the largest empires in the world at one point, but of the largest Indigenous empire. The Incas had evolved and built from earlier Andean groups such as the Chimu, the largest ancient Peruvian civilization directly succeeded by the Incas.

The Incas were a large umbrella encompassing different tribes. The empire extended from the north of Chile to the middle of Ecuador to the east of Bolivia and all of present-day Perú. Over 10 million people from different tribes and cultural backgrounds belonged to this empire, with over 40,000 languages spoken, the elite language being Quechua.

Known as Rumaisimi, "people's language," Quechua is still the official language of Perú, along with Spanish. In 1975, Perú was the first country in the world to officially recognize an Indigenous language. Twenty-five percent of the Peruvian population speak Quechua while others learn it in school as a second language.
Indigenous resistance to colonization
The Incan Empire is believed to have risen around 1200 Common Era, continuing until 1532 CE, when Francisco Pizarro and Spanish military forces began a campaign to conquer the vast and highly developed empire. As Incan forces battled the invaders, resistance against the colonizers was aided by the last Incan state of Vilcabamba, where the leader Manqu Inka Yupanki set up a refuge for the remaining Incas. Manco Inca's three sons, Sayra Túpac, Titu Cusi Yupanqui and Túpac Amaru I, continued to fight for decades until they were defeated or killed.

As Spanish invaders attacked, they also began bringing kidnapped people from the West African coast to Perú as enslaved workers. The Spanish forced some enslaved Africans to fight against the Indigenous people, who at the same time were also being forced into slavery. As European diseases began killing Indigenous people, the colonizers needed more enslaved African people as workers, in a parallel to other colonized "New World" lands.

The Spanish, with their system of enslavement, created a racist caste and class system in the land that was now Perú, effectively separating and dividing workers into lower classes. The European Spanish were the most elite; then Criollos of Spanish descent born in the colonies; Mestizos who were Spanish and Indigenous; Mulattos who were African and Spanish; Indios who were Indigenous; Negros who were African; and Zambos, the lowest on the conquerors' list, who were of Native and African descent. (Described in "Colonial Perú, the Caste System, and the 'Purity' of Blood," by David Gaughran.)

A noted figure in resistance against the Spanish was a Mestizo man claiming to a descendant of Túpac Amaru I. Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui in 1738, known as Túpac Amaru II, he organized a rebellion of over 60,000 Indigenous people at the peak of Spanish colonization. The rebellion kidnapped colonial leaders, held them for ransom and executed them in ways similar to Spanish tactics against the Incas.

Indigenous populations supported the rebellion, which was nearly successful until Túpac Amaru II was captured in 1781. Because of his heroism and success, his name adorns many streets and a long highway in Perú, and he remains a beloved figure.
War for independence from Spain
The Peruvian War of Independence (1811-1826) came as European empires were beginning to lose other colonies. The thirteen "American" colonies had kicked out England; the successful Haitian Revolution had defeated France; and Spain had lost the Dominican Republic and its power in Argentina.

Leading the first struggles for Peruvian independence was José de San Martín, the son of Spaniards, born in Argentina, and a soldier in the Spanish military from the age of 11. He left that army when Argentinians began rising for independence, and became the highest ranked Spanish officer to join a revolutionary movement in the Spanish colonies. His proclamation in Lima on July 28, 1821, was the first formal declaration of Perú's independence from Spain. After de San Martín's death, Simón Bolívar completed Perú's liberation, as well as being integral to that of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Panama.

The unknown history for many is that these liberation struggles were aided by Haiti after the successful Haitian Revolution. In 1815, Simón Bolívar made his way to Haiti to seek aid from the first Haitian president, Alexandre Pétion. Haitians helped rebuild Bolívar's army, gave food and shelter, and sent over military supplies.

Pétion gave all this with only one request in return: that all slaves be liberated. In response, Bolívar said: "Should I not let it be known to later generations that Alexander Pétion is the true liberator of my country?" (tinyurl.com/y9ta5enp)
Colonialization and capitalism
Since independence from Spain, Perú has been plagued by reactionary military rule, austerity and capitalism, to this very day. According to Peru Reports, the top 20 percent of the population owns half the wealth of the country. That wealth is concentrated in Lima, the capital city, whereas the poverty rate in the rest of Perú approaches 30 percent.

Misogyny is rampant in Perú. The Ministry for Women noted that in 2017 there was a 26 percent increase in gender-based violence. Seventy-five percent of Peruvian women asserted being victims of psychological and/or physical assault.

Racism has been poorly combated in Perú. When, in 1940, the Peruvian government took away race as a government census category to create an "all-Peruvian" identity, this amounted to the state saying inaccurately: "We don't see color." Though in 2009, the Peruvian government released an apology for "abuse, exclusion and discrimination" against Afro-Peruvians, the lack of official recognition of Afro-Peruvians has given a way to deny racism against them and made it difficult to report racism in public institutions.

In 2013, the Ministry of Education released a survey that showed 81 percent of Peruvians believed there was rampant discrimination in the country. Only 17 percent of Quechua and Aymara people reported belief in the Peruvian state's performative "appreciation" for their culture.

Since the 2017 return of Afro identity on the state census, it is now estimated there are between 1.4 to 2.5 million Afro-Peruvians.

Because of these conditions, ongoing since the age of colonialism, movements have taken place in Perú to fight for socialism. In 1983, the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) was formed, born out of groups such as the Peruvian Communist Party-Marxist Leninist, the Marxist-Leninist Revolutionary Socialist Party and Revolutionary Left Movement. The MRTA operated in two wings, legally and illegally, calling for a Marxist revolution in Perú.
Struggles for socialism
The biggest focus of the MRTA's work was to combat imperialism within Perú as well as oppose tactics maneuvered by the United States. The MRTA declared war on the U.S. within Perú and attacked every aspect of U.S. presence in the country. The MRTA kidnapped business executives and robbed banks. The director of Kentucky Fried Chicken in Perú claimed that the company "received 'almost daily' demands from the MRTA during January and February 1991 for 'war taxes,' and one director has left the country to avoid being kidnapped." (tinyurl.com/yc5xytkg)

While MRTA probably numbered only about 1,000 people, in 1991 the CIA claimed the MRTA was "one of the greatest terrorist threats to U.S. interests in South America." The CIA also compared MRTA to the Cuban guerrilla fighters and the National Liberation Army in Colombia and Bolivia. According to the CIA, the MRTA had received training and aid from Cuba and Libya in the late 1980s and early 1990s. (tinyurl.com/yc5xytkg)

The last attack organized by MRTA was in 1996 on the Japanese Embassy in Lima, when ambassadors from Japan came to celebrate their emperor's birthday in Perú. The MRTA kidnapped and held hostages at the embassy, declaring an overthrow of the dictatorship of the current U.S.-backed president, Alberto Fujimori, who was of Japanese descent.

Removed from office in 2001, Fujimori was put on trial in 2007, the charges eventually including crimes against humanity for the mass murders of students and farmers and the organization of a death squad, Colina Group. (Alberto Fujimori).

Sentenced to 25 years in prison, Fujimori was given a "humanitarian" pardon by then-President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski in 2017. Kuczynski had won the Peruvian presidency against Fujimori's daughter, Keiko Fujimori, on the platform of making sure justice was served against Alberto Fujimori. Upon this betrayal, Peruvians protested by the tens of thousands in cities all over Perú and internationally.

While Perú has a long and revolutionary history fighting for independence from foreign empires, Perú has remained a victim of capitalism and imperialism. The U.S. is still its colonizer, with Perú functioning as its proxy in South America. The hand of the U.S. in Perú's internal affairs promotes groups and government officials that put self-interested profit over the needs of the people. The Peruvian government cracks down on labor organizers and monitors socialists through "anti-terrorism" units.

But the people continue to rise against conditions that oppress them - continue to rise in opposition to corruption, wealth inequality, gender-based violence and racism, against foreign companies' exploitation of Peruvian land and resources.

The first goal is the expulsion of foreign interference in Perú, especially that of the U.S. Then, a return to the land and communal living as practiced by our Indigenous ancestors; a serious process of decolonization to address systemic and cultural flaws left by colonization; and the building of socialism.

Happy July 28th! Happy Perú Independence Day! ¡Viva el Perú, carajo! Long live Perú, dammit!
Kayla Popuchet, a Peruvian citizen, is the daughter of Haitian and Peruvian immigrants, of Indigenous Quechuan descent.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Perú: A long and revolutionary history fighting for independence

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is now Perú was the home, not only of one of the largest empires in the world at one point, but of the largest Indigenous empire. The Incas had evolved and built from earlier Andean groups such as the Chimu, the largest ancient Peruvian civilization directly succeeded by the Incas.